Harmonics

Standing Waves on a Vibrating String

Sounds from a string instrument consist of multiple f from many standing waves Take the diagram at the bottom. The distance from one node to the next is always
So = 2L Substituting into v = f -> f = v/2L This is called the fundamental frequency This is the lowest possible frequency of a standing wave on a string (highest wavelength)

What are Harmonics?

Integral multiples of the fundamental frequency For the second harmonic, the frequency is twice the fundamental f (because its wavelength is half the previous wavelength) These frequencies are called a harmonic series

Formulas
fn = nf1 (where f1 is the fundamental frequency) fn = n (v/2L) where n = 1,2,3 Frequency = harmonic number * (speed of waves on the string)/ (2* length of vibrating string) V is not the speed of the resultant sound waves in air! If the string vibrates at one of the f, the sound waves will have the same f but the speed will be the speed of sound waves in air What would be the wavelength and frequency for the fifth harmonic?

Standing Waves in an Air Column

Standing waves can be set up in tubes of air (especially with brass and woodwind instruments like trumpets or organs) some waves travel downwards and others are reflected

If Both Ends of Pipe are Open

All harmonics are present Each end will be an antinode b/c the distance between nodes = distance between 2 antinodes, this pattern is the same as a vibrating strings Fundamental f can be varied by changing the length of the vibrating air column

Open-Ended Pipe

If One End of the Pipe is Closed

Only odd harmonics are present The closed end will be a node, while the open is an antinode First harmonic: L= -> = 4L
So, f1 = v/4L

Second harmonic: L= -> = 4/3 L

So, f3= v/(4/3L) = 3v/4L = 3f1

Pipe Closed at One End

Practice
What are the first 3 harmonics in a 2.45m long pipe that is open at both ends? What are the first 3 harmonics of this pipe when one end of the pipe is closed? Assume that the speed of sound in air is 345 m/s One string on a toy guitar is 34.5 cm long.
What is the wavelength of its first harmonic? The string is plucked, and the speed of waves is 410 m/s. What are the frequencies of the first 3 harmonics?

Instruments
Similar to a pipe closed at one end: trumpets, saxophones, clarinets
One end is closed either by the players mouth or by a reed

These are not exactly cylindrically shaped, and this affects the harmonic series, as do the holes
Clarinet has some even harmonics A saxophone has a harmonic series similar to those open at both ends This helps create sound variety between different instruments

Harmonics of Different Instruments

Harmonics Account for Sound Quality, or Timbre

As shown, each instrument has its own unique mixture of harmonics at different intensities These combine by superposition to create a resultant waveform

The mixture of harmonics to produce a the instruments sound is the spectrum of the sound To the listener, this spectrum creates sound quality, or timbre

http://zonalandeducation.com/mstm/physics/waves/standing Waves/standingWaves1/StandingWaves1.html Ex: tuning fork- sine wave due to only 1 harmonic

This accounts for the difference of sound for a clarinet and a viola, even if they sound the same note at the same volume

Timbre Contd.
Timbre: the musical quality of a tone resulting from the combination of harmonics present at different intensities How does the intensity of each harmonic vary for an instrument?
Based on f, amplitude of vibration, and other factors For a violin, depends on where the string is bowed, the speed of the bow on the string, and the force exerted by the bow

Waveform patterns are periodic b/c each f is an integral multiple of the fundamental f
This distinguishes music from noise

Fundamental F Determines Pitch

Other harmonics are called overtones In the half-step music scale, there are 12 notes
Each has own f F of 13th note is twice that of the first note The 13 notes are an octave For stringed and open-ended instruments, the f of the 2nd harmonic of a note corresponds to the f of the octave above that note

What happens when sound waves interfere?

Huge consideration in architecture Sounds bounce back and forth off of surfaces, creating a repetitive echo called reverberation When more reverberation is desired, ceilings are flat and hard

Beats
The periodic variation in the amplitude of a wave that is the superposition of 2 waves of slightly different frequencies The listener hears an alternation between loudness and softness The waves made by 2 tuning forks of different f start exactly opposite e/o
Travel in same direction Combine according to superposition Out of phase, complete destructive interference No sound heard at these points In phase when crests match up, constructive interference Sound is louder at this point Different f, no sound heard

Number of Beats
The number of beats corresponds to the difference between frequencies In the diagram, one beat occurs at t2 One beat -> blue wave gains one whole cycle on red wave
F greater by 1 Hz The f difference between 2 sounds can be found by the # of beats heard /s

If there are no beats, the sounds are in tune and two waves are exactly in phase http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ZC4Rc3sYEw Simulation: http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/beats.htm