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D&'s generally are considered to be terminating e$uipment for a specific networ+ and typically are located on the premises of a customer. ,n fact, they may be owned by the customer. '-amples of D&' devices are terminals, personal computers, routers, and bridges. D*'s are carrier)owned internetwor+ing devices. &he purpose of D*' e$uipment is to provide cloc+ing and switching services in a networ+, which are the devices that actually transmit data through the W !. ,n most cases, these are pac+et switches. Figure ./). shows the relationship between the two categories of devices.
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# 9ac+ward)e-plicit congestion notification %9'*!( F'*! and 9'*! each is controlled by a single bit contained in the Frame Relay frame header. &he Frame Relay frame header also contains a Discard 'ligibility %D'( bit, which is used to identify less important traffic that can be dropped during periods of congestion.
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Structure of an ATM cell n &; cell consists of a 5 byte header and a 1? byte payload. &he payload si4e of 1? bytes was a compromise between the needs of voice telephony and pac+et networ+s, obtained by a simple averaging of the 30 proposal of =1 bytes and 'uropean proposal of 52, said by some to be motivated by a 'uropean desire not to need echo)cancellers on national trun+s. &; defines two different cell formats" !!, %!etwor+)networ+ interface( and 3!, %3ser)networ+ interface(. ;ost &; lin+s use 3!, cell format.
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>F* 6 >eneric Flow *ontrol %1 bits( %default" 1)4ero bits( A2, 6 Airtual 2ath ,dentifier %? bits 3!,( or %.2 bits !!,( A*, 6 Airtual channel identifier %.= bits( 2& 6 2ayload &ype %5 bits( *72 6 *ell 7oss 2riority %.)bit( <'* 6 <eader 'rror *orrection %?)bit *R*, polynomial 6 X? C X2 C X C .( &he 2& field is used to designate various special +inds of cells for 8peration and ;anagement %8 ;( purposes, and to delineate pac+et boundaries in some 7s. 0everal of &;Ds lin+ protocols use the <'* field to drive a *R*)9ased Framing algorithm, which allows the position of the &; cells to be found with no overhead re$uired beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. &he ?)bit *R* is used to correct single)bit header errors and detect multi)bit header errors. When multi)bit header errors are detected, the current and subse$uent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found. ,n a 3!, cell the >F* field is reserved for a local flow control:submultiple-ing system between users. &his was intended to allow several terminals to share a single networ+ connection, in the same way that two ,0D! phones can share a single basic rate ,0D! connection. ll four >F* bits must be 4ero by default.&he !!, cell format is almost identical to the 3!, format, e-cept that the 1)bit >F* field is re)allocated to the A2, field, e-tending the A2, to .2 bits. &hus, a single !!, &; interconnection is capable of
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#irtual "hannel (#") denotes the transport of &; cells which have the same uni$ue identifier, called the Airtual *hannel ,dentifier %A*,(. &his identifier is encoded in the cell header. virtual channel represents the basic means of communication between two end)points, and is analogous to an X.25 virtual circuit. #irtual Path (#P) denotes the transport of &; cells belonging to virtual channels which share a common identifier, called the Airtual 2ath ,dentifier %A2,(, which is also encoded in the cell header. virtual path, in other words, is a grouping of virtual channels which connect the same end)points. &his two layer approach results in improved networ+ performance. 8nce a virtual path is set up, the addition:removal of virtual channels is straightforward
$er%ice "lass
&his class is used for emulating circuit switching. &he cell rate is constant bit rate constant with time. *9R applications are $uite sensitive to cell)delay %*9R( variation. '-amples of applications that can use *9R are telephone traffic %i.e., n-=1 +bps(, videoconferencing, and television. &his class allows users to send traffic at a rate that varies with time variable bit rateE depending on the availability of user information. 0tatistical non)real time multiple-ing is provided to ma+e optimum use of networ+ resources. %A9RE!R&( ;ultimedia e)mail is an e-ample of A9RE!R&.
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Technical Parameter
e!inition
*7R is the percentage of cells not delivered at their destination cell loss ratio because they were lost in the networ+ due to congestion and %*7R( buffer overflow. &he delay e-perienced by a cell between networ+ entry and e-it cell transfer points is called the *&D. ,t includes propagation delays, delay %*&D( $ueuing delays at various intermediate switches, and service times at $ueuing points. cell delay *DA is a measure of the variance of the cell transfer delay. variation <igh variation implies larger buffering for delay)sensitive %*DA( traffic such as voice and video. pea+ cell rate &he ma-imum cell rate at which the user will transmit. 2*R is %2*R( the inverse of the minimum cell inter)arrival time. sustained cell &his is the average rate, as measured over a long interval, in the rate %0*R( order of the connection lifetime. &his parameter determines the ma-imum burst that can be sent burst tolerance at the pea+ rate. &his is the buc+et)si4e parameter for the %9&( enforcement algorithm that is used to control the traffic entering the networ+.
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high performance via hardware switching dynamic bandwidth for bursty traffic class)of)service support for multimedia scalability in speed and networ+ si4e common 7 !:W ! architecture opportunities for simplification via A* architecture international standards compliance
0egmentation and reassembly <andling of transmission errors <andling of lost and misinserted cell conditions &iming and flow control
&he following &; daptation 7ayer protocols % 7s( have been defined by the ,&3) &. ,t is meant that these 7s will meet a variety of needs. &he classification is based on whether a timing relationship must be maintained between source and destination, whether the application re$uires a constant bit rate, and whether the transfer is connection oriented or connectionless.
AAL Type ( supports constant bit rate %*9R(, synchronous, connection oriented traffic. '-amples include &. %D0.(, '., and -=1 +bit:s emulation. AAL Type ) supports time)dependent Aariable 9it Rate %A9R)R&( of connection)oriented, synchronous traffic. '-amples include Aoice over &;. 72 is also widely used in wireless applications due to the capability of multiple-ing voice pac+ets from different users on a single &; connection. AAL Type *+, supports A9R, data traffic, connection)oriented, asynchronous traffic %e.g. X.25 data( or connectionless pac+et data %e.g. 0;D0 traffic( with an
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reduce protocol processing overhead. reduce transmission overhead. ensure adaptability to e-isting transport protocols.
& AAL1 PDU &he structure of the 7. 2D3 is given in the following illustration"
S# CS$ SC C*C
5 bits 5 bits
. bit
0e$uence number. !umbers the stream of 0 R 2D3s of a *2*0 2D3 %modulo .=(. &he se$uence number is comprised of the *0, and the 0!.
CS$
*onvergence sublayer indicator. 3sed for residual time stamp for cloc+ing.
SC
0e$uence count. &he se$uence number for the entire *0 2D3, which is generated by the *onvergence 0ublayer.
S#)
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AAL
72 provides bandwidth)efficient transmission of low)rate, short and variable pac+ets in delay sensitive applications. ,t supports A9R and *9R. 72 also provides for variable payload within cells and across cells. 7 type 2 is subdivided into the *ommon 2art 0ublayer %*20 ( and the 0ervice 0pecific *onvergence 0ublayer %00*0 (.
AAL CPS Pac!et
&he *20 pac+et consists of a 5 octet header followed by a payload. &he structure of the 72 *20 pac+et is shown in the following illustration. *,D ? bits 7, = bits 33, <'* ,nformation payload
AAL! "P# pac$et *,D *hannelidentification. 7, 7ength indicator. &his is the length of the pac+et payload associated with each individual user. Aalue is one less than the pac+et payload and has a default value of 15 bytes %may be set to =1 bytes(. 33, 3ser)to)user indication. 2rovides a lin+ between the *20 and an appropriate 00*0 that satisfies the higher layer application <'* <eader error control. 72 &he structure of the 0tart 80F 0! 2 . bit 72 0 R 2D3 is given in the following illustration. *20)2D3 payload 72 2D3 payload 2 D /)1B bytes
field
= bits . bit
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2D3
payload
Dialled digits *hannel associated signalling bits Facsimile demodulated control data larms 3ser state control operations.
&he following illustration gives the general sturcture of 72 00*0 &ype 5 2D3s. &he format varies and each message has its own format according to the actual message type.
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./ bits
AAL! ##"# Type % PD Redundancy 2ac+ets are sent 5 times to ensure error correction. &he value in this field signifies the transmission number. &ime stamp *ounters pac+et delay variation and allows a receiver to accurately reproduce the relative timing of successive events separated by a short interval. ;essage dependant 2ac+et content that varies, depending on the message type. ;essage &he message type code. *R*)./ &he ./)bit *R*. AAL*+, 75:1 consists of message and streaming modes. ,t provides for point)to)point and point)to)multipoint % &; layer( connections. &he *onvergence 0ublayer %*0( of the &; daptation 7ayer % 7( is divided into two parts" service specific %00*0 ( and common part %*2*0 (. &his is illustrated in the following diagram" 75:1 pac+ets are used to carry computer data, mainly 0;D0 traffic. AAL*+, "P"$ P U &he functions of the 75:1 *2*0 include connectionless networ+ layer %*lass D(, meaning no need for an 00*0F and frame relaying telecommunication service in *lass *. &he *2*0 2D3 is composed of the following fields" <eader *2, ,nfo 9tag 9asi4e *2*0 0D3 2ad / &railer 'tag 7ength information type
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AAL%&' "P"# PD
*2, ;essage type. 0et to 4ero when the 9 si4e and 7ength fields are encoded in bytes. 9tag 9eginning tag. &his is an identifier for the pac+et. ,t is repeated as the 'tag. 9 si4e 9uffer allocation si4e. 0i4e %in bytes( that the receiver has to allocate to capture all the data. *2*0 Aariable information field up to =5555 bytes. 2 D 2adding field which is used to achieve 52)bit alignment of the length of the pac+et. / ll)4ero. 'tag 'nd tag. ;ust be the same as 9tag. 7ength ;ust be the same as 9 0i4e. AAL*+, $A/ P U &he structure of the 0& 2 0! 1 ;,D ./ 75:1 0 R 2D3 is illustrated below" ,nformation 552 11 bytes 7, = *R* ./ bits 0D3
2)byte trailer
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,nformation &his field has a fi-ed length of 11 bytes and contains parts of *2*0 2D3. 7, 7ength indication. *ontains the length of the 0 R 0D3 in bytes, as follows" *R* *yclic redundancy chec+. Functions of 75:1 0 R include identification of 0 R 0D3sF error indication and handlingF 0 R 0D3 se$uence continuityF multiple-ing and demultiple-ing. AAL- &he type 5 adaptation layer is a simplified version of 75:1. ,t also consists of message and streaming modes, with the *0 divided into the service specific and common part. 75 provides point)to)point and point)to)multipoint % &; layer( connections. 75 is used to carry computer data such as &*2:,2. ,t is the most popular sometimes referred to as 0' 7 %simple and easy adaptation layer(. AAL- "P"$ P U &he 75 *2*0 2D3 is composed of the following fields" ,nfo *2*0 payload /)=5555 AAL) "P"# PD *2*0 &he actual information that is sent by the user. !ote that the information comes before any length indication %as opposed to 75:1 where the amount of memory re$uired is +nown in advance(. 2ad /)1B &railer 33 *2, 7ength *R* . . 2 1 bytes 7 and is
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0igh1$peed LANs
2mergence o! 0igh1$peed LANs 2 0ignificant trends E *omputing power of 2*s continues to grow rapidly E !etwor+ computing '-amples of re$uirements E *entrali4ed server farms E 2ower wor+groups E <igh)speed local bac+bone "lassical 2thernet 9us topology 7 ! ./ ;bps *0; :*D medium access control protocol 2 problems" E transmission from any station can be received by all stations E <ow to regulate transmission 0olution to First 2roblem
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E E
Data transmitted in bloc+s called frames" 3ser data Frame header containing uni$ue address of destination station
*0; :*D *arrier 0ense ;ultiple ccess: *arrier Detection ,f the medium is idle, transmit. ,f the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle, then transmit immediately. ,f a collision is detected during transmission, immediately cease transmitting. fter a collision, wait a random amount of time, then attempt to transmit again %repeat from step .(.
;edium 8ptions at ./;bps Gdata rateH Gsignaling methodH Gma- lengthH ./9ase5 E ./ ;bps E 5/)ohm coa-ial cable bus E ;a-imum segment length 5// meters ./9ase)& E &wisted pair, ma-imum length .// meters
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<ubs and 0witches <ub &ransmission from a station received by central hub and retransmitted on all outgoing lines 8nly one transmission at a time 7ayer 2 0witch ,ncoming frame switched to one outgoing line ;any transmissions at same time
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9ridge Frame handling done in software naly4e and forward one frame at a time 0tore)and)forward 7ayer 2 0witch Frame handling done in hardware ;ultiple data paths and can handle multiple frames at a time *an do cut)through 7ayer 2 0witches Flat address space 9roadcast storm 8nly one path between any 2 devices 0olution ." subnetwor+s connected by routers Page 19
9enefits of ./ >bps 'thernet over &; !o e-pensive, bandwidth consuming conversion between 'thernet pac+ets and &; cells !etwor+ is 'thernet, end to end ,2 plus 'thernet offers Io0 and traffic policing capabilities approach that of &; Wide variety of standard optical interfaces for ./ >bps 'thernet Fibre *hannel 2 methods of communication with processor" E ,:8 channel E !etwor+ communications Fibre channel combines both E 0implicity and speed of channel communications E Fle-ibility and interconnectivity of networ+ communications
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the average number in the $ueue, or the system, the average time spent in the $ueue, or the system, the statistical distribution of those numbers or times, the probability the $ueue is full, or empty, and the probability of finding the system in a particular state.
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where" is the interarrival time distribution 9 is the service time distribution 0 is the number of servers J is the system capacity ! is the calling population Disc is the service discipline assumed 0ome standard notation for distributions % or 9( are"
; for a ;ar+ovian %e-ponential( distribution 'K for an 'rlang distribution with K phases D for Deterministic %constant( > for >eneral distribution 2< for a 2hase)type distribution
Models Constr"ction and analysis
Iueueing models are generally constructed to represent the steady state of a $ueueing system, that is, the typical, long run or average state of the system. s a conse$uence, these are stochastic models that represent the probability that a $ueueing system will be found in a particular configuration or state. general procedure for constructing and analysing such $ueueing models is" .. ,dentify the parameters of the system, such as the arrival rate, service time, Iueue capacity, and perhaps draw a diagram of the system. 2. ,dentify the system states. % state will generally represent the integer number of customers, people, Lobs, calls, messages, etc. in the system and may or may not be limited.(
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Single-server #"e"e
0ingle)server $ueues are, perhaps, the most commonly encountered $ueueing situation in real life. 8ne encounters a $ueue with a single server in many situations, including business %e.g. sales cler+(, industry %e.g. a production line(, transport %e.g. a bus, a ta-i ran+, an intersection(, telecommunications %e.g. &elephone line(, computing %e.g. processor sharing(. 'ven where there are multiple servers handling the situation it is possible to consider each server individually as part of the larger system, in many cases. %e.g supermar+et chec+out has several single server $ueues that the customer can select from.( *onse$uently, being able to model and analyse a single server $ueueDs behaviour is a particularly useful thing to do.
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M"lti$le-servers #"e"e
;ultiple %identical()servers $ueue situations are fre$uently encountered in telecommunications or a customer service environment. When modelling these situations care is needed to ensure that it is a multiple servers $ueue, not a networ+ of single server $ueues, because results may differ depending on how the $ueuing model behaves. 8ne observational insight provided by comparing $ueuing models is that a single $ueue with multiple servers performs better than each server having their own $ueue and that a single large pool of servers performs better than two or more smaller pools, even though there are the same total number of servers in the system. 8ne simple e-ample to prove the above fact is as follows" *onsider a system having ? input lines, single $ueue and ? servers.&he output line has a capacity of =1 +bit:s. *onsidering the arrival rate at each input as 2 pac+ets:s. 0o, the total arrival rate is .= pac+ets:s. With an average of 2/// bits per pac+et, the service rate is =1 +bit:s:2///b 6 52 pac+ets:s. <ence, the average response time of the system is .:%M)N( 6 .:%52).=( 6 /./==B sec. !ow, consider a second system with ? $ueues, one for each server. 'ach of the ? output lines has a capacity of ? +bit:s. &he calculation yields the response time as .:%M)N( 6 .:%1) 2( 6 /.5 sec. nd the average waiting time in the $ueue in the first case is O:%.) O(M 6 /.25, while in the second case is /./5.25.
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With 7ittleDs &heorem, we have developed some basic understanding of a $ueueing system. &o further our understanding we will have to dig deeper into characteristics of a $ueueing system that impact its performance. For e-ample, $ueueing re$uirements of a restaurant will depend upon factors li+e"
<ow do customers arrive in the restaurantP re customer arrivals more during lunch and dinner time %a regular restaurant(P 8r is the customer traffic more uniformly distributed %a cafe(P <ow much time do customers spend in the restaurantP Do customers typically leave the restaurant in a fi-ed amount of timeP Does the customer service time vary with the type of customerP <ow many tables does the restaurant have for servicing customersP &he above three points correspond to the most important characteristics of a $ueueing system. &hey are e-plained below" Arri%al Process
&he probability density distribution that determines the customer arrivals in the system. ,n a messaging system, this refers to the message arrival probability distribution. &he probability density distribution that determines the customer service times in the system. ,n a messaging system, this refers to the message transmission time distribution. 0ince message transmission is directly proportional to the length of the message, this parameter indirectly refers to the message length distribution. !umber of servers available to service the customers. ,n a messaging system, this refers to the number of lin+s between the source and destination nodes.
$er%ice Process
Num7er $er%ers
o!
9ased on the above characteristics, $ueueing systems can be classified by the following convention" A+$+n Where is the arrival process, 0 is the service process and n is the number of servers. and 0 are can be any of the following"
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'-amples of $ueueing systems that can be defined with this convention are"
M+M+(. &his is the simplest $ueueing system to analy4e. <ere the arrival and service time are negative e-ponentially distributed %poisson process(. &he system consists of only one server. &his $ueueing system can be applied to a wide variety of problems as any system with a very large number of independent customers can be appro-imated as a 2oisson process. 3sing a 2oisson process for service time however is not applicable in many applications and is only a crude appro-imation. Refer to ;:;:. Iueueing 0ystem for details. M+ +n. <ere the arrival process is poisson and the service time distribution is deterministic. &he system has n servers. %e.g. a tic+et boo+ing counter with n cashiers.( <ere the service time can be assumed to be same for all customers( 6+6+n. &his is the most general $ueueing system where the arrival and service time processes are both arbitrary. &he system has n servers. !o analytical solution is +nown for this $ueueing system. ;ar+ovian arrival processes ,n $ueuing theory, Marko%ian arri%al processes are used to model the arrival customers to $ueue. 0ome of the most common include the Poisson process, Mar$ovian arrival process and the *atch Mar$ovian arrival process. ;ar+ovian arrival processes has two processes. continuous)time ;ar+ov process +%t(, a ;ar+ov process which is generated by a generator or rate matrix, ,. &he other process is a counting process -%t(, which has state space %where is the set of all natural numbers(. -%t( increases every time there is a transition in +%t( which mar+ed.
Poisson #rocess
&he 2oisson arrival process or 2oisson process counts the number of arrivals, each of which has a e-ponentially distributed time between arrival. ,n the most general case this can be represented by the rate matri-,
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lthough it loo+s intuitively reasonable, itDs a $uite remar+able result, as it implies that this behavior is entirely independent of any of the detailed probability distributions involved, and hence re$uires no assumptions about the schedule according to which customers arrive or are serviced, or whether they are served in the order in which they arrive. ,t is also a comparatively recent result ) it was first proved by Qohn 7ittle, an ,nstitute 2rofessor and the *hair of ;anagement 0cience at the ;,& 0loan 0chool of ;anagement, in .R=.. <andily his result applies to any system, and particularly, it applies to systems within systems. 0o in a ban+, the $ueue might be one subsystem, and each of the tellers another subsystem, and 7ittleDs result could be applied to each one, as well as the whole thing. &he only re$uirement is that the system is stable )) it canDt be in some transition state such as Lust starting up or Lust shutting down.
Mathematical formali%ation of &ittle's theorem
7et S%t( be to some system in the interval T/, tU. 7et V%t( be the number of departures from the same system in the interval T/, tU. 9oth S%t( and V%t( are integer valued increasing functions by their definition. 7et Tt be the mean time spent in the system %during the interval T/, tU( for all the customers who were in the system during the interval T/, tU. 7et -t be the mean number of customers in the system over the duration of the interval T/, tU. ,f the following limits e-ist,
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Ideal Per!ormance
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(ffects of "on!estion )
"on!estion*"ontrol Mechanisms Backpressure Request from destination to source to reduce rate Useful only on a logical connection basis Requires hop-by-hop flow control mechanism Measuring and restricting packets as they enter the network hoke packet !pecific message back to source "#g#$ % MP !ource &uench !ource detects congestion from transmission delays and lost packets and reduces flow
Policing
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Frame Relay reduces networ+ overhead by implementing simple congestion) notification mechanisms rather than e-plicit, per)virtual)circuit flow control. Frame Relay typically is implemented on reliable networ+ media, so data integrity is not sacrificed because flow control can be left to higher)layer protocols. Frame Relay implements two congestion)notification mechanisms" # # Forward)e-plicit congestion notification %F'*!( 9ac+ward)e-plicit congestion notification %9'*!(
F'*! and 9'*! each is controlled by a single bit contained in the Frame Relay frame header. &he Frame Relay frame header also contains a Discard 'ligibility %D'( bit, which is used to identify less important traffic that can be dropped during periods of congestion. &he ./"- *it is part of the ddress field in the Frame Relay frame header. &he F'*! mechanism is initiated when a D&' device sends Frame Relay frames into the networ+. ,f the networ+ is congested, D*' devices %switches( set the value of the framesD F'*! bit to .. When the frames reach the destination D&' device, the ddress field %with the F'*! bit set( indicates that the frame e-perienced congestion in the path from source to destination. &he D&' device can relay this information to a higher)layer protocol for processing. Depending on the implementation, flow control may be initiated, or the indication may be ignored. &he 0/"- *it is part of the ddress field in the Frame Relay frame header. D*' devices set the value of the 9'*! bit to . in frames traveling in the opposite direction of frames with their F'*! bit set. &his informs the receiving D&' device that a particular path through the networ+ is congested. &he D&' device then can relay this
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in
"ongested
Network
$ome
Fairness Aarious flows should XsufferY e$ually 7ast)in)first)discarded may not be fair Iuality of 0ervice %Io0( Flows treated differently, based on need Aoice, video" delay sensitive, loss insensitive File transfer, mail" delay insensitive, loss sensitive ,nteractive computing" delay and loss sensitive Reservations 2olicing" e-cess traffic discarded or handled on best)effort basis Frame /elay "ongestion "ontrol ;inimi4e frame discard
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"ongestion A%oidance with 2:plicit $ignaling &wo general strategies considered" <ypothesis ." *ongestion always occurs slowly, almost always at egress nodes forward e-plicit congestion avoidance <ypothesis 2" *ongestion grows very $uic+ly in internal nodes and re$uires $uic+ action bac+ward e-plicit congestion avoidance 2:plicit $ignaling /esponse Network /esponse each frame handler monitors its $ueuing behavior and ta+es action use F'*!:9'*! bits some:all connections notified of congestion User (end1system) /esponse receipt of 9'*!:F'*! bits in frame 9'*! at sender" reduce transmission rate
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Unit III
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"redit Allocation is Fle:i7le 0uppose last message 9 issued was ! 6 i, W 6 L Em &o increase credit to + %+ H L( when no new data, 9 issues ! 6 i, W 6 + &o ac+nowledge segment containing m octets %m G L(, 9 issues ! 6 i C m, W 6 L
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"redit Policy Receiver needs a policy for how much credit to give sender *onservative approach" grant credit up to limit of available buffer space ;ay limit throughput in long)delay situations 8ptimistic approach" grant credit based on e-pectation of freeing space before data arrives 2!!ect o! 3indow $i;e W 6 &*2 window si4e %octets( R 6 Data rate %bps( at &*2 source D 6 2ropagation delay %seconds(
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"omplicating Factors ;ultiple &*2 connections are multiple-ed over same networ+ interface, reducing R and efficiency For multi)hop connections, D is the sum of delays across each networ+ plus delays at each router ,f source data rate R e-ceeds data rate on one of the hops, that hop will be a bottlenec+ 7ost segments are retransmitted, reducing throughput. ,mpact depends on retransmission policy /etransmission $trategy &*2 relies e-clusively on positive ac+nowledgements and retransmission on ac+nowledgement timeout &here is no e-plicit negative ac+nowledgement Retransmission re$uired when"
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Timers timer is associated with each segment as it is sent ,f timer e-pires before segment ac+nowledged, sender must retransmit Jey Design ,ssue" value of retransmission timer &oo small" many unnecessary retransmissions, wasting networ+ bandwidth &oo large" delay in handling lost segment
Two $trategies &imer should be longer than round)trip delay %send segment, receive ac+( Delay is variable $trategies. Fi-ed timer daptive Pro7lems with Adapti%e $cheme 2eer &*2 entity may accumulate ac+nowledgements and not ac+nowledge immediately For retransmitted segments, canZt tell whether ac+nowledgement is response to original transmission or retransmission !etwor+ conditions may change suddenly Adapti%e /etransmission Timer verage Round)&rip &ime % R&&( JC. R&&%J C .( 6 . [ R&&%i( JC. i6. 6 JC. J R&%J( C JC. . R&&%J C .(
/F" <=* 2:ponential A%eraging 0moothed Round)&rip &ime %0R&&( 0R&&%J C .( 6 S \ 0R&&%J( C %. E S( \ 0R&&%J C .(
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,mplementation 2olicy 8ptions 0end Deliver ccept ,n)order ,n)window Retransmit First)only 9atch individual c+nowledge immediate cumulative T"P "ongestion "ontrol Dynamic routing can alleviate congestion by spreading load more evenly 9ut only effective for unbalanced loads and brief surges in traffic *ongestion can only be controlled by limiting total amount of data entering networ+ ,*;2 source Iuench message is crude and not effective R0A2 may help but not widely implemented T"P "ongestion "ontrol is i!!icult ,2 is connectionless and stateless, with no provision for detecting or controlling congestion &*2 only provides end)to)end flow control !o cooperative, distributed algorithm to bind together various &*2 entities T"P Flow and "ongestion "ontrol &he rate at which a &*2 entity can transmit is determined by rate of incoming *Js to previous segments with new credit
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Rate of c+ arrival determined by round)trip path between source and destination 9ottlenec+ may be destination or internet 0ender cannot tell which 8nly the internet bottlenec+ can be due to congestion
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/etransmission Timer Management &hree &echni$ues to calculate retransmission timer %R&8(" R&& Aariance 'stimation '-ponential R&8 9ac+off JarnZs lgorithm /TT #ariance 2stimation (>aco7son?s Algorithm) 5 sources of high variance in R&& ,f data rate relative low, then transmission delay will be relatively large, with larger variance due to variance in pac+et si4e 7oad may change abruptly due to other sources 2eer may not ac+nowledge segments immediately >aco7son?s Algorithm 0R&&%J C .( 6 %. E g( \ 0R&&%J( C g \ R&&%J C .( 0'RR%J C .( 6 R&&%J C .( E 0R&&%J( 0D'A%J C .( 6 %. E h( \ 0D'A%J( C h \]0'RR%J C .(] R&8%J C .( 6 0R&&%J C .( C f \ 0D'A%J C .( g 6 /..25
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Barn?s Algorithm Do not use measured R&& to update 0R&& and 0D'A *alculate bac+off R&8 when a retransmission occurs 3se bac+off R&8 for segments until an ac+ arrives for a segment that has not been retransmitted &hen use QacobsonZs algorithm to calculate R&8 3indow Management 0low start Dynamic window si4ing on congestion Fast retransmit Fast recovery 7imited transmit $low $tart awnd 6 ;,!T credit, cwndU
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ynamic 3indow $i;ing on "ongestion lost segment indicates congestion 2rudent to reset cwsd 6 . and begin slow start process ;ay not be conservative enough" X easy to drive a networ+ into saturation but hard for the net to recoverY %Qacobson( ,nstead, use slow start with linear growth in cwnd Illustration o! $low $tart and "ongestion A%oidance
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Fast /etransmit R&8 is generally noticeably longer than actual R&& ,f a segment is lost, &*2 may be slow to retransmit &*2 rule" if a segment is received out of order, an ac+ must be issued immediately for the last in)order segment Fast Retransmit rule" if 1 ac+s received for same segment, highly li+ely it was lost, so retransmit immediately, rather than waiting for timeout Fast /eco%ery When &*2 retransmits a segment using Fast Retransmit, a segment was assumed lost *ongestion avoidance measures are appropriate at this point '.g., slow)start:congestion avoidance procedure &his may be unnecessarily conservative since multiple ac+s indicate segments are getting through Fast Recovery" retransmit lost segment, cut cwnd in half, proceed with linear increase of cwnd &his avoids initial e-ponential slow)start Limited Transmit ,f congestion window at sender is small, fast retransmit may not get triggered, e.g., cwnd 6 5 3nder what circumstances does sender have small congestion windowP ,s the problem commonP ,f the problem is common, why not reduce number of duplicate ac+s needed to trigger retransmitP Limited Transmit Algorithm
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Per!ormance o! T"P o%er U'/ 9uffer capacity at &; switches is a critical parameter in assessing &*2 throughput performance ,nsufficient buffer capacity results in lost &*2 segments and retransmissions 2!!ect o! $witch 'u!!er $i;e Data rate of .1. ;bps 'nd)to)end propagation delay of = Ms ,2 pac+et si4es of 5.2 octets to R.?/ &*2 window si4es from ? Jbytes to =1 Jbytes &; switch buffer si4e per port from 25= cells to ?/// 8ne)to)one mapping of &*2 connections to &; virtual circuits &*2 sources have infinite supply of data ready @7ser%ations
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Fair 'u!!er Allocation ;ore aggressive dropping of pac+ets as congestion increases Drop new pac+et when" ! H R and W%i( H _ \ 9 E R
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Network "ontri7ution to "ell elay #ariation ,n pac+et switched networ+ E Iueuing effects at each intermediate switch
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"ongestion "ontrol Attri7utes 8nly feedbac+ is defined 9R and >FR ctions ta+en by networ+ and end systems to regulate traffic submitted 9R flow control daptively share available bandwidth @ther Attri7utes 9ehaviour class selector %9*0( E 0upport for ,2 differentiated services %chapter .=( E 2rovides different service levels among 39R connections E ssociate each connection with a behaviour class E ;ay include $ueuing and scheduling ;inimum desired cell rate Tra!!ic Management Framework 8bLectives of &; layer traffic and congestion control E 0upport Io0 for all foreseeable services
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Tra!!ic "ontrol $trategy Determine whether new &; connection can be accommodated gree performance parameters with subscriber &raffic contract between subscriber and networ+ &his is congestion avoidance ,f it fails congestion may occur E ,nvo+e congestion control Tra!!ic "ontrol Resource management using virtual paths *onnection admission control 3sage parameter control
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Allocation o! "apacity to #P" ggregate pea+ demand E ;ay set A2* capacity %data rate( to total of A** pea+ rates 'ach A** can give Io0 to accommodate pea+ demand A2* capacity may not be fully used 0tatistical multiple-ing E A2* capacity H6 average data rate of A**s but G aggregate pea+ demand E >reater *DA and *&D E ;ay have greater *7R E ;ore efficient use of capacity E For A**s re$uiring lower Io0 E >roup A**s of similar traffic together "onnection Admission "ontrol 3ser must specify service re$uired in both directions E *ategory E *onnection traffic descriptor 0ource traffic descriptor *DA& Re$uested conformance definition E Io0 parameter re$uested and acceptable value !etwor+ accepts connection only if it can commit resources to support re$uests Procedures to $et Tra!!ic "ontrol Parameters
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"ell Loss Priority &wo levels re$uested by user E 2riority for individual cell indicated by *72 bit in header E ,f two levels are used, traffic parameters for both flows specified <igh priority *72 6 / ll traffic *72 6 / C . E ;ay improve networ+ resource allocation Usage Parameter "ontrol 32* ;onitors connection for conformity to traffic contract 2rotect networ+ resources from overload on one connection Done at A2* or A** level A2* level more important E !etwor+ resources allocated at this level
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Peak "ell /ate Algorithm <ow 32* determines whether user is complying with contract *ontrol of pea+ cell rate and *DA& E *omplies if pea+ does not e-ceed agreed pea+ E 0ubLect to *DA within agreed bounds E >eneric cell rate algorithm E 7ea+y buc+et algorithm E 6eneric "ell /ate Algorithm
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$ustaina7le "ell /ate Algorithm 8perational definition of relationship between sustainable cell rate and burst tolerance 3sed by 32* to monitor compliance 0ame algorithm as pea+ cell rate
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UP" Actions *ompliant cell pass, non)compliant cells discarded ,f no additional resources allocated to *726. traffic, *726/ cells * ,f two level cell loss priority cell with" E *726/ and conforms passes E *726/ non)compliant for *726/ traffic but compliant for *726/C. is tagged and passes E *726/ non)compliant for *726/ and *726/C. traffic discarded E *726. compliant for *726/C. passes E *726. non)compliant for *726/C. discarded Possi7le Actions o! UP"
2:plicit Forward "ongestion Indication 'ssentially same as frame relay ,f node e-periencing congestion, set forward congestion indication is cell headers E &ells users that congestion avoidance should be initiated in this direction E 3ser may ta+e action at higher level A'/ Tra!!ic Management Io0 for *9R, A9R based on traffic contract and 32* described previously !o congestion feedbac+ to source 8pen)loop control !ot suited to non)real)time applications E File transfer, web access, R2*, distributed file systems E !o well defined traffic characteristics e-cept 2*R E 2*R not enough to allocate resources 3se best efforts or closed)loop control
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A/' Feed7ack % T"P A"B 9R feedbac+ controls rate of transmission E Rate control &*2 feedbac+ controls window si4e E *redit control R9 feedbac+ from switches or destination &*2 feedbac+ from destination only /M "ell Format
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/M "ell Format Notes &; header has 2&6../ to indicate R; cell 8n virtual channel A2, and A*, same as data cells on connection 8n virtual path A2, same, A*,6= 2rotocol id identifies service using R; % R96.( ;essage type E Direction FR;6/, 9R;6. E 9'*! cell. 0ource %9!6/( or switch:destination %9!6.( E *, %6. for congestion( E !, %6. for no increase( E Re$uest: c+nowledge %not used in &; forum spec(
A/' Parameters
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A/' "apacity Allocation &; switch must perform" *ongestion control ;onitor $ueue length Fair capacity allocation &hrottle bac+ connections using more than fair share &; rate control signals are e-plicit &*2 are implicit ,ncreasing delay and cell loss "ongestion "ontrol Algorithms1'inary Feed7ack 3se only 'F*,, *, and !, bits 0witch monitors buffer utili4ation When congestion approaches, binary notification E 0et 'F*, on forward data cells or *, or !, on FR; or 9R; &hree approaches to which to notify E 0ingle F,F8 $ueue
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$ingle FIF@ &ueue When buffer use e-ceeds threshold %e.g. ?/b( E 0witch starts issuing binary notifications E *ontinues until buffer use falls below threshold E *an have two thresholds 8ne for start and one for stop 0tops continuous on:off switching E 9iased against connections passing through more switches Multiple &ueues 0eparate $ueue for each A* or group of A*s 0eparate threshold on each $ueue 8nly connections with long $ueues get binary notifications E Fair E 9adly behaved source does not affect other A*s E Delay and loss behaviour of individual A*s separated *an have different Io0 on different A*s Fair $hare 0elective feedbac+ or intelligent mar+ing &ry to allocate capacity dynamically '.g. fairshare 6%target rate(:%number of connections( ;ar+ any cells where **RHfairshare 2:plicit /ate Feed7ack $chemes *ompute fair share of capacity for each A* Determine current load or congestion *ompute e-plicit rate %'R( for each connection and send to source &hree algorithms E 'nhanced proportional rate control algorithm '2R* E '-plicit rate indication for congestion avoidance 'R,* E *ongestion avoidance using proportional control * 2* 2nhanced Proportional /ate "ontrol Algorithm(2P/"A 0witch trac+s average value of current load on each connection E ;ean allowed cell rate %; R*( E ; *R%1(6%.)S(c%; *R%1).( C Sc**R%1( E **R%1( is **R field in 1th FR; E &ypically S6.:.= E 9ias to past values of **R over current Page 68
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6F/ "on!ormance e!inition 32* function E 32* monitors A* for traffic conformance E &ag or discard non)conforming cells Frame conforms if all cells in frame conform E Rate of cells within contract >eneric cell rate algorithm 2*R and *DA& specified for connection E ll cells have same *72 E Within ma-imum frame si4e %;F0( &o$ 2ligi7ility Test &est for contract conformance E Discard or tag non)conforming cells 7oo+ing at upper bound on traffic E Determine frames eligible for Io0 guarantee 3nder >FR contract for A* 7oo+ing at lower bound for traffic Frames are one of" E !onconforming" cells tagged or discarded E *onforming ineligible" best efforts E *onforming eligible" guaranteed delivery
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,2v1 header fields for precedence and type of service usually ignored &; only networ+ designed to support &*2, 3D2 and real)time traffic ;ay need new installation !eed to support Iuality of 0ervice %Io0( within &*2:,2 dd functionality to routers ;eans of re$uesting Io0
*an adLust to changes in delay and throughput '.g. common &*2 and 3D2 application E ');ail E insensitive to delay changes E F&2 E 3ser e-pect delay proportional to file si4e 0ensitive to changes in throughput E 0!;2 E delay not a problem, e-cept when caused by congestion E Web %<&&2(, &'7!'& E sensitive to delay !ot per pac+et delay E total elapsed time E '.g. web page loading time E For small items, delay across internet dominates E For large items it is throughput over connection !eed some Io0 control to match to demand Internet Tra!!ic 9 Inelastic Does not easily adapt to changes in delay and throughput E Real time traffic &hroughput E ;inimum may be re$uired Delay E '.g. stoc+ trading Qitter ) Delay variation E ;ore Litter re$uires a bigger buffer E '.g. teleconferencing re$uires reasonable upper bound 2ac+et loss Inelastic Tra!!ic Pro7lems Difficult to meet re$uirements on networ+ with variable $ueuing delays and congestion !eed preferential treatment pplications need to state re$uirements E head of time %preferably( or on the fly E 3sing fields in ,2 header E Resource reservation protocol ;ust still support elastic traffic E Deny service re$uests that leave too few resources to handle elastic traffic demands I$A Approach
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Flow
,2 pac+et can be associated with a flow Distinguishable stream of related ,2 pac+ets From single user activity Re$uiring same Io0 '.g. one transport connection or one video stream 3nidirectional *an be more than one recipient ;ulticast E ;embership of flow identified by source and destination ,2 address, port numbers, protocol type E ,2v= header flow identifier can be used but isnot necessarily e$uivalent to ,0 flow I$A Functions dmission control E For Io0, reservation re$uired for new flow E R0A2 used Routing algorithm E 9ase decision on Io0 parameters Iueuing discipline E &a+e account of different flow re$uirements Discard policy E ;anage congestion E ;eet Io0
E E E E E E
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Forwarding functions I$A "omponents 9 'ackground Functions Reservation 2rotocol E R0A2 dmission control ;anagement agent E *an use agent to modify traffic control database and direct admission control Routing protocol I$A "omponents 9 Forwarding *lassifier and route selection E ,ncoming pac+ets mapped to classes 0ingle flow or set of flows with same Io0 E '.g. all video flows 9ased on ,2 header fields E Determines ne-t hop 2ac+et scheduler E ;anages one or more $ueues for each output E 8rder $ueued pac+ets sent 9ased on class, traffic control database, current and past activity on outgoing port E 2olicing
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I$A $er%ices 9 6uaranteed $er%ice ssured capacity level or data rate 0pecific upper bound on $ueuing delay through networ+ E ;ust be added to propagation delay or latency to get total delay E 0et high to accommodate rare long $ueue delays !o $ueuing losses E ,.e. no buffer overflow '.g. Real time play bac+ of incoming signal can use delay buffer for incoming signal but will not tolerate pac+et loss I$A $er%ices 9 "ontrolled Load &ightly appro-imates to best efforts under unloaded conditions !o upper bound on $ueuing delay E <igh percentage of pac+ets do not e-perience delay over minimum transit delay 2ropagation plus router processing with no $ueuing delay
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Processor $haring ;ultiple $ueues as in FI 0end one bit from each $ueue per round E 7onger pac+ets no longer get an advantage *an wor+ out virtual %number of cycles( start and finish time for a given pac+et <owever, we wish to send pac+ets, not bits 'it1/ound Fair &ueuing ('/F&) *ompute virtual start and finish time as before
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6enerali;ed Processor $haring (6P$) 9RFI can not provide different capacities to different flows 'nhancement called Weighted fair $ueue %WFI( From 20, allocate weighting to each flow that determines how many bots are sent during each round E ,f weighted 5, then 5 bits are sent per round >ives means of responding to different service re$uests >uarantees that delays do not e-ceed bounds 3eighted Fair &ueue 'mulates bit by bit >20 0ame strategy as 9RFI
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FIF@ % 3F& e
E E E
Proacti%e Packet iscard *ongestion management by proactive pac+et discard 9efore buffer full 3sed on single F,F8 $ueue or multiple $ueues for elastic traffic '.g. Random 'arly Detection %R'D(
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0urges fill buffers and cause discards 8n &*2 this is a signal to enter slow start phase, reducing load 7ost pac+ets need to be resent dds to load and delay >lobal synchroni4ation &raffic burst fills $ueues so pac+ets lost ;any &*2 connections enter slow start &raffic drops so networ+ under utili4ed *onnections leave slow start at same time causing burst 9igger buffers do not help &ry to anticipate onset of congestion and tell one connection to slow down
/2
esign 6oals
*ongestion avoidance >lobal synchroni4ation avoidance E *urrent systems inform connections to bac+ off implicitly by dropping pac+ets voidance of bias to bursty traffic E Discard arriving pac+ets will do this 9ound on average $ueue length E <ence control on average delay /2 Algorithm 9 @%er%iew *alculate average $ueue si4e avg if avg G &<min $ueue pac+et else if &<min avg < &hmacalculate probability 2a with probability 2a discard pac+et else with probability .)2a $ueue pac+et else if avg &<madiscard pac+et R'D 9uffer
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i!!erentiated $er%ices ( $)
E E
,0 and R0A2 comple- to deploy ;ay not scale well for large volumes of traffic mount of control signals ;aintenance of state information at routers D0 architecture designed to provide simple, easy to implement, low overhead 0upport range of networ+ services Differentiated on basis of performance
tool E
"haracteristics o! $ 3se ,2v1 header &ype of 0ervice or ,2v= &raffic *lass field E !o change to ,2 0ervice level agreement %07 ( established between provider %internet domain( and customer prior to use of D0 E D0 mechanisms not needed in applications 9uild in aggregation E ll traffic with same D0 field treated same '.g. multiple voice connections E D0 implemented in individual routers by $ueuing and forwarding based on D0 field 0tate information on flows not saved by routers
$er%ices
2rovided within D0 domain E *ontiguous portion of ,nternet over which consistent set of D0 policies administered E &ypically under control of one administrative entity Defined in 07 E *ustomer may be user organi4ation or other D0 domain E 2ac+et class mar+ed in D0 field 0ervice provider configures forwarding policies routers E 8ngoing measure of performance provided for each class D0 domain e-pected to provide agreed service internally ,f destination in another domain, D0 domain attempts to forward pac+ets through other domains E ppropriate service level re$uested from each domain $LA Parameters Detailed service performance parameters
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"on!iguration 9 Interior /outers Domain consists of set of contiguous routers ,nterpretation of D0 codepoints within domain is consistent ,nterior nodes %routers( have simple mechanisms to handle pac+ets based on codepoints E Iueuing gives preferential treatment depending on codepoint 2er <op behaviour %2<9( ;ust be available to all routers &ypically the only part implemented in interior routers E 2ac+et dropping rule dictated which to drop when buffer saturated "on!iguration 9 'oundary /outers ,nclude 2<9 rules lso traffic conditioning to provide desired service E *lassifier 0eparate pac+ets into classes E ;eter ;easure traffic for conformance to profile E ;ar+er 2olicing by remar+ing codepoints if re$uired E 0haper E Dropper $ Tra!!ic "onditioner
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Per 0op 'eha%iour 9 2:pedited !orwarding 2remium service E 7ow loss, delay, LitterF assured bandwidth end)to)end service through domains E 7oo+s li+e point to point or leased line E Difficult to achieve E *onfigure nodes so traffic aggregate has well defined minimum departure rate 'F 2<9 E *ondition aggregate so arrival rate at any node is always less that minimum departure rate 9oundary conditioners Per 0op 'eha%iour 9 2:plicit Allocation 0uperior to best efforts Does not re$uire reservation of resources Does not re$uire detailed discrimination among flows 3sers offered choice of number of classes ;onitored at boundary node E ,n or out depending on matching profile or not ,nside networ+ all traffic treated as single pool of pac+ets, distinguished only as in or out Drop out pac+ets before in pac+ets if necessary Different levels of service because different number of in pac+ets for each user P0' 1 Assured Forwarding Four classes defined E 0elect one or more to meet re$uirements Within class, pac+ets mar+ed by customer or provider with one of three drop precedence values E 3sed to determine importance when dropping pac+ets as result of congestion
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/$#P @peration >., >2, >5 members of multicast group 0., 02 sources transmitting to that group <eavy blac+ line is routing tree for 0., heavy grey line for 02 rrowed lines are pac+et transmission from 0. %blac+( and 02 %grey( ll four routers need to +now reservation s for each multicast address E Resource re$uests must propagate bac+ through routing tree Filtering >5 has reservation filter spec including 0. and 02 >., >2 from 0. only R5 delivers from 02 to >5 but does not forward to R1 >., >2 send R0A2 re$uest with filter e-cluding 02 >., >2 only members of group reached through R1 E R1 doesnZt need to forward pac+ets from this session E R1 merges filter spec re$uests and sends to R5 R5 no longer forwards this sessionZs pac+ets to R1 E <andling of filtered pac+ets not specified E <ere they are dropped but could be best efforts delivery R5 needs to forward to >5 E 0tores filter spec but doesnZt propagate it
/eser%ation $tyles
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Summary
R0A2 is a transport layer protocol that enables a networ+ to provide differentiated levels of service to specific flows of data. 8stensibly, different application types have different performance re$uirements. R0A2 ac+nowledges these differences and provides the mechanisms necessary to detect the levels of performance re$uired by different appli) cations and to modify networ+ behaviors to accommodate those re$uired levels. 8ver time, as time and latency)sensitive applications mature and proliferate, R0A2Ds capabilities will become increasingly important.
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&E1s it necessary to migrate a2ay from your existing routing protocol to support (#3P4 AER0A2 is not a routing protocol. ,nstead, it was designed to wor+ in conLunction with e-isting routing protocols. &hus, it is not necessary to migrate to a new routing protocol to support R0A2. &E1dentify the three (#3P levels of service5 and explain the difference among them6 AER0A2Ds three levels of service include best)effort, rate)sensitive, and delay)sensitive service. 9est)effort service is used for applications that re$uire reliable delivery rather than a timely delivery. Rate)sensitive service is used for any traffic that is sensitive to variation in the amount of bandwidth available. 0uch applications include <.525 videoconferencing, which was designed to run at a nearly constant rate. R0A2Ds third level of service is delay)sensitive service. Delay)sensitive traffic re$uires timely but not reliable delivery of data. &E7hat are the t2o (#3P reservation classes5 and ho2 do they differ4 AE reservation style is a set of control options that defines how a reservation operates. R0A2 supports two primary types of reservation styles" distinct reservations and shared reservations. distinct reservation establishes a flow for each sending device in a session. 0hared reservations aggregate communications flows for a set of senders. 'ach of these two reservation styles is defined by a series of filters. &E7hat are (#3P filters4 AE filter in R0A2 is a specific set of control options that specifies operational parameters for a reservation. R0A2Ds styles include wildcard)filter %WF(, fi-ed)filter %FF(, and shared)e-plicit %0'( filters. &E8o2 can (#3P *e used through net2or$ regions that do not support (#3P4 AER0A2 supports tunneling through networ+ regions that do not support R0A2. &his capability was developed to enable a phased)in implementation of R0A2.
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'ackground
'fforts to marry ,2 and &; ,2 switching %,psilon( &ag switching %*isco( ggregate route based ,2 switching %,9;( *ascade %,2 navigator( ll use standard routing protocols to define paths between end points ssign pac+ets to path as they enter networ+ 3se &; switches to move pac+ets along paths E &; switching %was( much faster than ,2 routers E 3se faster technology
e%elopments
,'&F wor+ing group in .RRB, proposed standard 2//. Routers developed to be as fast as &; switches E Remove the need to provide both technologies in same networ+ ;270 does provide new capabilities E Io0 support E &raffic engineering E Airtual private networ+s E ;ultiprotocol support "onnection @riented &o$ $upport >uarantee fi-ed capacity for specific applications *ontrol latency:Litter 'nsure capacity for voice 2rovide specific, guaranteed $uantifiable 07 s *onfigure varying degrees of Io0 for multiple customers ;270 imposes connection oriented framewor+ on ,2 based internets Tra!!ic 2ngineering bility to dynamically define routes, plan resource commitments based on +nown demands and optimi4e networ+ utili4ation 9asic ,2 allows primitive traffic engineering E '.g. dynamic routing ;270 ma+es networ+ resource commitment easy E ble to balance load in face of demand
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#PN $upport &raffic from a given enterprise or group passes transparently through an internet 0egregated from other traffic on internet 2erformance guarantees 0ecurity Multiprotocol $upport ;270 can be used on different networ+ technologies ,2 E Re$uires router upgrades *oe-ist with ordinary routers &; E 'nables and ordinary switches co)e-ist Frame relay E 'nables and ordinary switches co)e-ist ;i-ed networ+ MPL$ Terminology MPL$ @peration 7abel switched routers capable of switching and routing pac+ets based on label appended to pac+et 7abels define a flow of pac+ets between end points or multicast destinations 'ach distinct flow %forward e$uivalence class E F'*( has specific path through 70Rs defined E *onnection oriented 'ach F'* has Io0 re$uirements ,2 header not e-amined E Forward based on label value MPL$ @peration iagram
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2:planation 9 $etup 7abelled switched path established prior to routing and delivery of pac+ets Io0 parameters established along path E Resource commitment E Iueuing and discard policy at 70R E ,nterior routing protocol e.g. 802F used E 7abels assigned 7ocal significance only ;anually or using 7abel distribution protocol %7D2( or enhanced version of R0A2 2:planation 9 Packet 0andling 2ac+et enters domain through edge 70R E 2rocessed to determine Io0 70R assigns pac+et to F'* and hence 702 E ;ay need co)operation to set up new 702 ppend label Forward pac+et Within domain 70R receives pac+et Remove incoming label, attach outgoing label and forward 'gress edge strips label, reads ,2 header and forwards Notes ;270 domain is contiguous set of ;270 enabled routers
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La7el $tacking
2ac+et may carry number of labels 7,F8 %stac+( E 2rocessing based on top label E ny 70R may push or pop label 3nlimited levels E llows aggregation of 702s into single 702 for part of route E *.f. &; virtual channels inside virtual paths E '.g. aggregate all enterprise traffic into one 702 for access provider to handleReduces si4e of tables La7el Format iagram
Time to Li%e Processing !eeded to support &&7 since ,2 header not read First label &&7 set to ,2 header &&7 on entry to ;270 domain &&7 of top entry on stac+ decremented at internal 70R E ,f 4ero, pac+et dropped or passed to ordinary error processing %e.g. ,*;2( E ,f positive, value placed in &&7 of top label on stac+ and pac+et forwarded t e-it from domain, %single stac+ entry( &&7 decremented E ,f 4ero, as above E ,f positive, placed in &&7 field of ,p header and La7el $tack ppear after data lin+ layer header, before networ+ layer header &op of stac+ is earliest %closest to networ+ layer header(
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F2"sD L$PsD and La7els &raffic grouped into F'*s &raffic in a F'* transits an ;720 domain along an 702 2ac+ets identified by locally significant label t each 70R, labelled pac+ets forwarded on basis of label. E 70R replaces incoming label with outgoing label 'ach flow must be assigned to a F'* Routing protocol must determine topology and current conditions so 702 can be assigned to F'* E ;ust be able to gather and use information to support Io0 70Rs must be aware of 702 for given F'*, assign incoming label to 702, communicate label to other 70Rs Topology o! L$Ps 3ni$ue ingress and egress 70R E 0ingle path through domain 3ni$ue egress, multiple ingress 70Rs E ;ultiple paths, possibly sharing final few hops ;ultiple egress 70Rs for unicast traffic ;ulticast
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/oute $election 0election of 702 for particular F'* <op)by)hop E 70R independently chooses ne-t hop E 8rdinary routing protocols e.g. 802F E DoesnZt support traffic engineering or policy routing '-plicit E 70R %usually ingress or egress( specifies some or all 70Rs in 702 for given F'* E 0elected by configuration,or dynamically "onstraint 'ased /outing Algorithm &a+e in to account traffic re$uirements of flows and resources available along hops E *urrent utili4ation, e-isting capacity, committed services E dditional metrics over and above traditional routing protocols %802F( ;a- lin+ data rate *urrent capacity reservation 2ac+et loss ratio 7in+ propagation delay
La7el istri7ution 0etting up 702 ssign label to 702 ,nform all potential upstream nodes of label assigned by 70R to F'* E llows proper pac+et labelling E 7earn ne-t hop for 702 and label that downstream node has assigned to F'* llow 70R to map incoming to outgoing label /eal Time Transport Protocol &*2 not suited to real time distributed application E 2oint to point so not suitable for multicast E Retransmitted segments arrive out of order E !o way to associate timing with segments 3D2 does not include timing information nor any support for real time applications 0olution is real)time transport protocol R&2 /TP Architecture
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/TP ata Trans!er Protocol &ransport of real time data among number of participants in a session, defined by" E R&2 2ort number 3D2 destination port number if using 3D2 E R&2 *ontrol 2rotocol %R&*2( port number Destination port address used by all participants for R&*2 transfer E ,2 addresses ;ulticast or set of unicast
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/TP "ontrol Protocol (/T"P) R&2 is for user data R&*2 is multicast provision of feedbac+ to sources and session participants 3ses same underlying transport protocol %usually 3D2( and different port number R&*2 pac+et issued periodically by each participant to other session members /T"P Functions Io0 and congestion control ,dentification 0ession si4e estimation and scaling 0ession control /T"P Transmission !umber of separate R&*2 pac+ets bundled in single 3D2 datagram E 0ender report
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Packet Fields (All Packets) Aersion %2 bit( currently version 2 2adding %. bit( indicates padding bits at end of control information, with number of octets as last octet of padding *ount %5 bit( of reception report bloc+s in 0R or RR, or source items in 0D'0 or 9d' 2ac+et type %? bit( 7ength %.= bit( in 52 bit words minus . ,n addition 0ender and receiver reports have" E 0ynchroni4ation 0ource ,dentifier Packet Fields ($ender /eport) $ender In!ormation 'lock !&2 timestamp" absolute wall cloc+ time when report sent R&2 &imestamp" Relative time used to create timestamps in R&2 pac+ets 0enderZs pac+et count %for this session( 0enderZs octet count %for this session(
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