America The Prison Nation: Melding Humanistic Jurisprudence With A Value-Centric Incarceration Model

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL
America the Prison Nation: Melding Humanistic Jurisprudence with a ValueCentric Incarceration Model
Saby Ghoshray
The mood and temper of the pub !" #!th re$ard to the treatment of "r!me and "r!m!na s !s one of the most unfa! !n$ tests of the "!%! !&at!on of any "ountry' ( From ()*+ to ()),- Ca !forn!a bu! t .( ne# pr!sons- and on y one ne# un!%ers!ty'.
I' INTRO/0CTION In the ast three de"ades- the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system !n the 0n!ted States has sh!fted !ts fo"us from rehab! !tat!%e !dea s to a pronoun"ed pun!t!%e and retr!but!%e fo"us' Th!s sh!ft !n fo"us !s #!tnessed !n the many states that ha%e str!pped author!ty from the!r paro e board and resorted to a predom!nant y f!2ed senten"!n$ re$!me' Th!s has resu ted !n s!$n!f!"ant !n"reases !n both the a%era$e en$th of !n"ar"erat!on for non%!o ent "r!mes and the s!&e of the !n"ar"erated popu at!on !n proport!on to the $enera popu at!on' The sheer enorm!ty of the !n"ar"erated popu at!on !n the 0n!ted States has transformed the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system !nto a nat!on #!th!n a
/r' Saby Ghoshray spe"!a !&es !n Const!tut!ona La#- Internat!ona La#- Cap!ta 3ur!spruden"e- M! !tary Tr!buna s- and Cyberspa"e La#- amon$ others' H!s #or4 has appeared !n Albany Law Review, ILSA Journal of International and Comparative Law, European Law Journal ERA-Forum, Toledo Law Review, Geor etown International Law Review, Temple !oliti"al # Civil Ri $t% Law, and &ew En land Law Review - to name a fe#' The author #ou d !4e to than4 3enn!fer S"hu 4e for her ass!stan"e !n e$a resear"h and typ!n$ of the manus"r!pt- and h!s beaut!fu "h! dren- Shreyosh! and Sayantan- for the!r pat!en"e and understand!n$' 5arm than4s $o to the members of the &ew En land Journal on Criminal and Civil Confinement' /r' Ghoshray "an be rea"hed at saby$hoshray 6sb"$ oba 'net' ( ' TH7 TAS8S OF 97NOLOGY: A SYM9OSI0M ON 9RISONS AN/ CORR7CTIONAL LA5at % ;Har%ey S' 9er man < Thomas =' A !n$ton eds'- (),)> ;?uot!n$ 5!nston Chur"h! >' . ' /R0G 5AR FACTS (@) ;/ou$ as A' M"Aay ed'- ,th ed' .BBC>- available at http:DD###'dru$#arfa"ts'or$Dfa"tboo4'pdf ;"!t!n$ TARAE37N AM=ROSIO < AINC7NT SCHIRAL/I- 30STIC7 9OLICY INST'- TR7N/S IN STAT7 S97N/ING- ()*CE())@- 7F7C0TIA7 S0MMARYEF7=R0ARY ())C ;())C>>'
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@* CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H nat!on- thus "ompe !n$ some "ommentators to abe the phenomenon as a !ri%on &ation-H or Lo"+down Ameri"a'+ Th!s art!" e ta4es an !ntrospe"t!%e oo4 at Amer!"aIs !n"ar"erat!on system and e2am!nes #hether the "urrent senten"!n$ re$!me used by "r!m!na "ourts !s "ons!stent #!th a %a ueE"entr!" frame#or4- or !nstead- #hether there !s an o%er re !an"e on a pun!t!%e fo"us' A %a ueE"entr!" frame#or4 der!%es !ts fundamenta prem!se from the re"o$n!t!on that e%ery !nd!%!dua #!th!n a so"!ety !s "apab e of !mpart!n$ %a ue' Th!s frame#or4 "a s for an ana ys!s of the e"onom!" tradeEoff bet#een en$thy !n"ar"erat!on and paro e or probat!on' Re"o$n!&!n$ th!s tradeEoff !s "r!t!"a !n determ!n!n$ the opt!ma pun!shment for a "r!me be"ause the s"ope and "onte2t of the pun!shment $!%en !s shaped by the per"e!%ed %a ue so"!ety der!%es from the pro"ess' 5h! e the "onser%at!%e !n"ar"erat!on frame#or4 !s pred!"ated on a prem!se that !n"ar"erat!on enhan"es so"!eta %a ue throu$h deterren"e and !n"apa"!tat!on- @ th!s art!" e "ha en$es the pun!t!%e fo"us of the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode ' A samp e of the Amer!"an popu at!on be !e%es !n 1ud!"!a san"t!on as the embod!ment of 1ust pun!shment', The e%o ut!on of th!s be !ef system "an be tra"ed to the ear y h!story of the or!$!na "o on!es- #h!"h borro#ed the!r peno o$!"a pra"t!"es from the =r!t!sh "r!m!na 1ust!"e system' C The =r!t!sh
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, See 9RISON NATION: TH7 5AR7HO0SING OF AM7RICAIS 9OOR ;Tara Her!%e < 9au 5r!$ht eds'- .BBH> Ghere!nafter 9RISON NATIONJ ;des"r!b!n$ a pr!son popu at!on e2p os!on o%er the ast t#o de"ades>' A so "ons!der a "orre"t!ona off!"erIs a""ount about the pr!son nat!on mon!4er' The "orre"t!ona off!"er re"a s that by the end of t#entyEone years #or4!n$ #!th!n the pr!son system he not on y sa# Kfathers and sons- but $randfathers' Three $enerat!ons of pr!soners !n the same pr!sonG'JL 5! Samson- On a 3ourney of /!s"o%ery To#ard God- So"!ety and Susta!nab! !ty- http:DD#! &head'typepad'"omD#! &headD .BB@DB@Damer!"aMaMpr!so'htm ;May ((- .BB@>' + , See CHRISTIAN 9AR7NTI- LOC8/O5N AM7RICA: 9OLIC7 AN/ 9RISONS IN TH7 AG7 OF CRISIS ;()))>' @ , See Issac Ehrlich, On the Usefulness of Controlling Individuals: An Economic Analysis of Rehabilitation, Incapacitation, and Deterrence , ! AM" EC#N" $EV" %& , %!!, %!'-!( )!*+!," , , See LIN/A /RANGA MAFFI7L/- 5ILLI7 MARTIN < CHRISTIN7 8ITCH7NS- 0'S' S7NT7NCING COMMIN- 30ST 90NISHM7NT: 90=LIC 97RC79TIONS AN/ TH7 F7/7RAL S7NT7NCING G0I/7LIN7S (- . ;())C>- http:DD###'uss"'$o%Dpub !"atD30ST90N'9/F ;KThe Senten"!n$ Reform A"t of ()*+ "har$ed the 0'S' Senten"!n$ Comm!ss!on #!th de%e op!n$ the Omeans of measur!n$ the de$ree to #h!"h the senten"!n$- pena - and "orre"t!ona pra"t!"es are effe"t!%e !n meet!n$ the purposes of senten"!n$ ' ' ' 'I These statutory purposes are: 1ust pun!shment- deterren"e- !n"apa"!tat!on- and rehab! !tat!on'L>P %ee al%o .* 0'S'C' Q ))(;b>;.> ;.BBB>' C , See Lou!s =' S"h#art&- T$e Ameri"an !enal Sy%tem- Spirit and Te"$ni.ue - in HH) ANNALS AM' ACA/' 9OL' < SOC' SCI' (- + ;Thorton Se !n < R!"hard /' Lambert eds'(),.>' S"h#art& out !nes the !nf uen"es that !mpa"ted the 0n!ted StatesI pena system' Id, at +EC' As summar!&ed by the ed!tors of the ANNALS- S"h#art& a so asserts that the "urrent pena system has "han$ed and be"ome more mer"!fu than the pena system from #h!"h !t e%o %ed'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL @) system emphas!&ed str!"t !n"ar"erat!on and the death pena ty for "r!m!na !nfra"t!ons- both of #h!"h #ere presume that so"!eta %a ue "an be enhan"ed by embra"!n$ f!%e pr!mary ob1e"t!%es: deterren"e- * retr!but!on-) !n"apa"!tat!on-(B rehab! !tat!on-(( and %en$ean"e'(. 5h! e deterren"eretr!but!on- !n"apa"!tat!on- and rehab! !tat!on ha%e been e2p !"!t y ment!oned !n !terature- %en$ean"e on y e2!sts #!th!n a so"!a "onstru"t' Ho#e%er- th!s ob1e"t!%e !ne%!tab y shapes the en$th of !n"ar"erat!on' An !n"ar"erat!on frame#or4 that e2p !"!t y re !es on these ob1e"t!%es !s not a susta!nab e mode - due to !ts !nab! !ty to both fu f! !n"ar"erat!onIs peno o$!"a ob1e"t!%es and !mpart %a ue to so"!ety'
Thus- at present- "r!m!na a#s and a!ms of the pena system are d!%erse' Certa!n !nf uen"es- ho#e%er- ha%e affe"ted the de%e opment of a the pena "odes' These !nf uen"es are the 7n$ !sh "ommon a#- 9ur!tan standards of the se%enteenth "entury- and the Amer!"an front!er' From the front!er "omes the emphas!s upon ay part!"!pat!on !n the e$a pro"ess' Th!s !s " ear y represented !n the !nst!tut!on of the 1ury and !n !ts effe"t upon a#- pre"edent- and "ourt pro"edures' The $enera Amer!"an and 7n$ !sh host! !ty to !deo o$y- fu y as mu"h as the ay e ement- has ser%ed as a bra4e upon "od!f!"at!on and rad!"a reform' As a resu t- the Amer!"an pena system tends to be anar"h!"- "omp !"ated- na!%e y mora !st!"- and ayE determ!ned- but !t !s- at the same t!me- e2per!menta - "reat!%e- and pro$ress!%e y more mer"!fu ' 5!th the pass!n$ of the front!er and the re"ed!n$ !nto h!story of 9ur!tan theo"ra"y- the for"es #h!"h produ"ed the "urrent pena system are y!e d!n$ to ne# !nf uen"es' The Mode 9ena Code- profound y Amer!"an !n sp!r!t and te"hn!?ue- #ou d end the dependen"e of the pena "ode upon the "ommon a# and offers system and pre"!s!on !n p a"e of frustrat!on and baff ement' Id, at ( ;?uot!n$ Thorsten Se !n- ed'>' See enerally /AAI/ 3' ROTHMAN- TH7 /ISCOA7RY OF ASYL0M: SOCIAL OR/7R AN/ /ISOR/7R IN TH7 N75 R790=LIC @(- @) ;())B> ;!nd!"at!n$ that dur!n$ the sett ement per!od- Amer!"an "o on!sts re !ed pr!mar! y on "orpora and "ap!ta pun!shment- dra#!n$ upon 7n$ !sh a#>' * , See Furman %' Geor$!a- +B* 0'S' .H*- H+.E@) ;()C.> ;Marsha - 3'- "on"urr!n$> ;d!s"uss!n$ the pr!mary ob1e"t!%es of the pun!shment "on"epts of retr!but!on and deterren"e and the!r re at!onsh!p to "ap!ta pun!shment>' 3ust!"e Marsha systemat!"a y "ons!ders and e !m!nates ea"h of these rat!ona es' F!rst- he e !m!nates retr!but!on- stand!n$ a one- as a e$!t!mate peno o$!"a ob1e"t!%e "ontend!n$ that Kthe 7!$hth Amendment !tse f #as adopted to pre%ent pun!shment from be"om!n$ synonymous #!th %en$ean"e'L Id, at H+H' Se"ond- he re1e"ts ar$uments that the death pena ty !s a ne"essary deterrent to "r!me !n so"!ety' C!t!n$ resear"h support!n$ the !dea that the death pena ty !s no more effe"t!%e a deterrent than !fe !mpr!sonment- 3ust!"e Marsha asserts that KG!Jn !$ht of the mass!%e amount of e%!den"e before us- I see no a ternat!%e but to "on" ude that "ap!ta pun!shment "annot be 1ust!f!ed on the bas!s of !ts deterrent effe"t'L Id, at H@+' ) , See Gerhard O'5' Mue er- !uni%$ment, Corre"tion%, and t$e Law- in TH7 TAS8S OF 97NOLOGY- %upra note (- at @C' Mue er notes: C ose y re ated to the a!m of %!nd!"at!on !s the a!m of retr!but!on' =ut the addressee of retr!but!on !s a d!fferent one' It !s not the a# !tse fP !t !s- rather- the or$an!&ed $roup #hose ru es ha%e been %!o ated and #hose sense of se"ur!ty has been d!sturbed' Th!s so"!ety !n" udes- of "ourse- the d!re"t %!"t!m of the #ron$ ;or h!s !mmed!ate re at!%es- !n "ase of a hom!"!de>' 9erhaps- at one t!me the demand of retr!but!on #as pure y that of the d!re"t %!"t!m of the hom!"!de- name y the
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CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H In the short term- !n"ar"erat!on may ha%e the po#er to "on%!n"e a potent!a "r!m!na offender not to "omm!t a "r!me- and thus may deter peop e from offend!n$- but !t !s the on$Eterm benef!"!a !mpa"t to so"!ety that has been "ha en$ed by "ontemporary resear"h' (H 5h! e !n"apa"!tat!on ensures that a "on%!"ted !nd!%!dua !s unab e to reoffend- the on$Eterm benef!t to so"!ety !n !n"apa"!tat!n$ an !nd!%!dua for a pro on$ed per!od of t!me rema!ns ?uest!onab e' The ph! osoph!"a underp!nn!n$ of retr!but!on !s the be !ef that pun!sh!n$ the offender as part of the 1ud!"!a san"t!on a o#s so"!ety- a"t!n$ on beha f of the %!"t!m- to redeem !tse f from a oss !mparted by the "r!m!na defendant' Ho#e%er- shou d a so"!ety stru"ture !ts "r!m!na
fam! y' =ut as the a# "ommun!ty $re# from the fam! y to the state or nat!on- !t #as that ar$er body #h!"h be"ame the re"!p!ent of the retr!but!on' Id, Cont!nu!n$ on h!s theme of retr!but!on- Mue er a so notes: Mr' Leopo d has "a ed !t ban+rupt on two round%: KOGett!n$ e%enI !s not a %ery mature mot!%ePL and Kthe se"ond reason #hy !t appears to me that reta !at!on !s not a proper $round for !mpr!sonment !s that #e are not "ons!stent' 5e "ou d be mu"h more drast!" !n the se%er!ty of !mpr!sonment' ' ' ' G#Je no on$er #h!p fe ons' ' ' ' GtJhe pub !" "ons"!en"e has $ro#n too tender to perm!t drast!" pun!shments'L Id, at @* ;"!tat!on om!tted> ;emphas!s !n or!$!na >' F!na y- Mue er "!tes an art!" e by Sh omo Shoham and N%! S on!m that e2p a!ns the "ont!nu!n$ %a ue of retr!but!on by des"r!b!n$: GTJhe "urrent y $ro#!n$ rea !sat!on of many "r!m!no o$!sts that the normat!%e barr!er a$a!nst pros"r!bed beha%!our ;!n" ud!n$ "r!me> !s stron$ y !n4ed #!th the depth of the !nterna !sat!on of norms and %a ues by a "erta!n person' The e2tent to #h!"h the nonE ;or ant!E> "r!m!na norms ha%e been !n"orporated !nto the persona !ty of a "erta!n person- i,e,- h!s be!n$ morally orientated may ar$e y determ!ne h!s "han"es of be"om!n$ an offender and h!s subse?uent Kreformat!onL or h!s be"om!n$ a re"!d!%!st' Id, at @) ;?uot!n$ Sh omo Shoham < N%! S on!m- T$e 'oral (ilemma of !enal Treatment* 30RI/' R7A' (H@- (H* ;(),H> ;footnotes om!tted> ;emphas!s !n or!$!na >>' (B , See Andre# /' Le!po d- Re"idivi%m, In"apa"itation, and Criminal Senten"in !oli"y- H 0' ST' THOMAS L'3' @H, ;.BB,> ;deta! !n$ %ar!ous aspe"ts of re"!d!%!sm!n"apa"!tat!on- and senten"!n$ po !"!es>' K=ut !t !s !mportant to remember that !n"apa"!tat!on #! often be temporary rather than permanent so ut!on to the prob em of !nmates #ho reE offend'L Id, at @+H' (( ' 5!th re$ard to rehab! !tat!on- 3ust!"e Ste#artIs "omment !n Furman #arrants repet!t!on: The pena ty of death d!ffers from a other forms of "r!m!na pun!shment- not !n de$ree but !n 4!nd' It !s un!?ue !n !ts tota !rre%o"ab! !ty' It !s un!?ue !n !ts re1e"t!on of rehab! !tat!on of the "on%!"t as a bas!" purpose of "r!m!na 1ust!"e' And !t !s un!?ue- f!na y- !n !ts abso ute renun"!at!on of a that !s embod!ed !n our "on"ept of human!ty' Furman- +B* 0'S' at HB, ;Ste#art- 3'- "on"urr!n$>' (. , See HARRY 7' ALL7N < CLIFFOR/ 7' SIMONS7N- CORR7CTIONS IN AM7RICA: AN INTRO/0CTION @E* ;Ma"m! an @th ed' ()*)> ;out !n!n$ the h!stor!"a re e%an"e of %en$ean"e as a rat!ona e for pun!shment>P 3OYC7LYN M' 9OLLOC8- 7THICS IN CRIM7 AN/
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL ,( 1ust!"e system on su"h a pr!m!t!%e "onstru"tR (+ Rehab! !tat!on !s more human!st!" and !s des!$ned to hab! !tate or repa!r the "r!m!na offender' ModernEday "r!m!na pun!shment pro"edure !s far remo%ed from the purpose of rehab! !tat!n$ defendants' Th!s !s due- !n part- to the !nf uen"e of retr!but!%e !mpu ses that sur$e throu$h the %e!ns of the Amer!"an "r!m!na 1ust!"e me"han!sm' As a resu t- these !mpu ses ha%e "ome to def!ne the under y!n$ $oa s of the 1ud!"!a san"t!on' As stated ear !er- th!s art!" e proposes the adopt!on of a %a ueE"entr!" !n"ar"erat!on mode to e2p ore ho# the e2!st!n$ pun!shment mode fa! s to en"apsu ate human "ap!ta and produ"t!%!ty of a !nd!%!dua s #!th!n so"!ety' Th!s art!" e- therefore- en$a$es a broader !n?u!ry !nto the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on ph! osophy and !ts "ontr!but!on to the preser%at!on of human "ap!ta by ensur!n$ the safety of !ts "!t!&ens' /oes th!s ph! osophy "ontr!bute to the eros!on of human "ap!ta by !n"apa"!tat!n$ a s!$n!f!"ant se$ment of the popu at!on #!thout pro%!d!n$ any opportun!ty to "ontr!bute to so"!etyR In my %!e#- the !rre%ers!b e eros!on of human "ap!ta "an be seen !n the $radua "on%ers!on of Amer!"a !nto a nat!on rep ete #!th 1a! s and 1a! ors' S!n"e the m!dE()CBs- the number of pr!soners !n o"a - stateand federa "ustody has !n"reased s!$n!f!"ant y' Cons!der that:
At yearend Gs!"J .BB, Federa and State "orre"t!ona author!t!es had 1ur!sd!"t!on o%er (-@CB-*,( pr!soners- an !n"rease of .'*S s!n"e yearend Gs!"J .BB@' '''' /ur!n$ .BB,- the pr!son popu at!on $re# at a faster rate than !n the pre%!ous @ years' The .'*S !n"rease !n the number of pr!soners under State or Federa 1ur!sd!"t!on #as ar$er than the a%era$e annua $ro#th rate of (')S from .BBB throu$h .BB@'(@
Furthermore- !n .BB,- the state pr!son popu at!on !n"reased more rap!d y
30STIC7: /IL7MMAS AN/ /7CISIONS @) ;5ads#orth 9ub I$ Co' .d ed' ())+>' (H , See Nathan Leopo d- 0$at I% 0ron wit$ t$e !ri%on Sy%tem1 - in TH7 TAS8S OF 97NOLOGY- %upra note (- at .)' Leopo d notes: The fa! ure of !mpr!sonment to a"t as a deterrent !s surpr!s!n$ to many' I th!n4 !t need not be' I th!n4 !ts fa! ure !s eas! y e2p !"ab e on the bas!s of the !nd!%!dua psy"ho o$y of the "r!m!na ' No one #ho !ntends to "omm!t a "r!me be !e%es that he #! be apprehended' If he d!d- he #ou d not "omm!t the "r!me' =ut he a #ays fee s sure that he- at east- and th!s t!me- at east- #! not be "au$ht' 5!th th!s "on%!"t!on- pun!shment oses !ts s!$n!f!"an"e as a deterrent' If the man about to "omm!t the "r!me fee s sure that $e #! not be "au$ht- then $e #! not be pun!shed- and the thou$ht of !mpr!sonment !s no deterrent' Id,
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See %upra note )' See 5ILLIAM 3' SA=OL- H7ATH7R CO0T0R7 < 9AIG7 M' HARRISON- 0'S' /79IT OF 30STIC7- 9RISON7RS IN .BB,- at ( ;.BBC>- http:DD###'o1p'usdo1'$o%Db1sDpubDpdfDpB,'pdf'
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,. CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H than the federa system- resu t!n$ !n more than t#o m! !on peop e !n"ar"erated'(, A""ord!n$ to a .BB@ "ensus stat!st!"- the tota number of peop e !n the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system !n" ud!n$ persons !n"ar"eratedparo ed- and under probat!on e2"eeded s!2 m! !on- #h!"h "ompr!sed more than three per"ent of the "urrent 0n!ted States adu t popu at!on' (C 9r!son stat!st!"s a so re%ea that the tota number of !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s !n the K0'S' e2"eeds the tota "omb!ned popu at!on of A as4a- North /a4ota and 5yom!n$'L(* Some ha%e a""urate y referred to the !n"ar"erated popu at!on as the f!ftyEf!rst state of Amer!"a'() 5h! e the 0n!ted States popu at!on "ompr!ses ess than @S of the #or d popu at!on- Amer!"a "an boast that !t
(,
, See id,P 9AIG7 M' HARRISON < 37NNIF7R C' 8AR=7RG- 0'S' /79IT OF 30STIC79RISON AN/ 3AIL INMAT7S AT MI/Y7AR .BB.- at (E. ;.BBH>- http:DD###'o1p'usdo1'$o%D b1sDpubDpdfDp1!mB.'pdf ;report!n$ that- for the f!rst t!me the tota pr!son popu at!on #as $reater than t#o m! !on>' Stat!st!"s on pr!son popu at!on are read! y a%a! ab e- for e2amp e: On 3une HB- .BB, ' ' ' .-.+@-(*) pr!soners #ere he d !n Federa or State pr!sons or !n o"a 1a! s ' ' ' an !n"rease of .'*S from m!dyear .BB@- ess than the a%era$e annua $ro#th of H'+S s!n"e yearend ())@' GTJhere #ere an est!mated +)C pr!son !nmates per (BB-BBB 0'S' res!dents ' ' ' up from +(( at yearend ())@' GTJhe number of #omen under the 1ur!sd!"t!on of State or Federa pr!son author!t!es !n"reased +'*S from m!dyear .BB@- rea"h!n$ (((-+BH and the number of men rose .'CS- tota !n$ (-++@-((@' At yearend .BB@ there #ere H-(+@ b a"4 ma e senten"ed pr!son !nmates per (BB-BBB b a"4 ma es !n the 0n!ted States- "ompared to (-.++ H!span!" ma e !nmates per (BB-BBB H!span!" ma es and +C( #h!te ma e !nmates per (BB-BBB #h!te ma es' =0R7A0 OF 30STIC7 STATISTICS- 0'S' /79IT OF 30STIC7- 9RISON STATISTICS http:DD###'o1p'usdo1'$o%Db1sDpr!sons'htm ;see summary of f!nd!n$s> ; ast re%!sed Sept' .C.BBC>' (C , See enerally LA0R7N 7' GLAN7 < THOMAS 9' =ONCNAR- 0'S' /79IT OF 30STIC7- 9RO=ATION AN/ 9AROL7 IN TH7 0NIT7/ STAT7S .BB@- at ( ;No%' .BB,>http:DD###'o1p' usdo1'$o%Db1sDpubDpdfDppusB@'pdf' G a&e and Thomas report that: 9robat!oners !n" ude adu t offenders #hom "ourts p a"e on "ommun!ty super%!s!on $enera y !n !eu of !n"ar"erat!on' 9aro ees !n" ude those adu ts "ond!t!ona y re eased to "ommun!ty super%!s!on #hether by paro e board de"!s!on or by mandatory "ond!t!ona re ease after ser%!n$ a pr!son term' They are sub1e"t to be!n$ returned to 1a! or pr!son for ru e %!o at!ons or other offenses' At yearend Gs!"J .BB@- o%er +') m! !on adu t men and #omen #ere under Federa - State- or o"a probat!on or paro e 1ur!sd!"t!onP appro2!mate y +-(,.-@BB on probat!on and C*+-+BB on paro e' The B',S $ro#th !n the probat!on and paro e popu at!on dur!n$ .BB@ T an !n"rease of H(-,., dur!n$ the year T #as more than a f!fth of the a%era$e annua !n"rease of .'*S s!n"e ())@' Id, at (E.' (* , See 3OHN IR5IN- AINC7NT SCHIRAL/I < 3ASON NI7/7N=7RG- 30STIC7 9OLICY INST'AM7RICAIS ON7 MILLION NONAIOL7NT 9RISON7RS + ;()))>http:DD###'1ust!"epo !"y' or$D!ma$esDup oadD))E BHMR79MOneM! !onNon%!o ent9r!sonersMAC'pdf' () ' 3effreyE3ohn Nun&!ata- Impri%onin t$e 'a%%e%- T$e (ar+ Side of a !ri%on State ;Feb'EMar' ())+>- http:DD###'!mpa"tpress'"omDart!" esDfebmar))D!mpr!son.H))'htm '
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL ,H has more than .@S of the pr!soners !n the #or d' .B /esp!te the sta$$er!n$ "r!me bud$et- the $ro#!n$ pr!son popu at!on- and the s4yEro"4et!n$ spend!n$ on 1a! s and 1a! ors- the fre?uen"y of "r!m!na a"ts- and more !mportant y the !n"!den"e of "r!m!na !ty !n so"!ety- ha%e not #aned'.( There !s !tt e doubt that the restr!"t!%e "o%enant !n 1ud!"!a san"t!ons of "r!m!na offenders has not pre%ented "r!me rates from soar!n$' The o$!" beh!nd en$thy !n"ar"erat!onIs e2p !"!t prom!se to redu"e "r!me rates must be re%!s!ted- and the !n"ar"erat!onE"entr!" pun!shment pro"edure must be re%!e#ed to as"erta!n #hat so"!eta $a!n !s u t!mate y der!%ed from th!s pra"t!"e' Th!s art!" e ur$es po !"yma4ers to e2p ore a ternat!%e forms of 1ud!"!a san"t!ons that ta4e !nto "ons!derat!on retent!on and de%e opment of human "ap!ta as a #eapon a$a!nst the es"a at!on of "r!m!na !ty #!th!n our so"!ety' A "u ture of respe"t that pro%!des un !m!ted poss!b! !t!es for e%ery !nd!%!dua #! foster the abro$at!on of "r!m!na !ty' Therefore- !t !s of paramount !mportan"e to understand the %a ue propos!t!on .. #!th!n our so"!ety and to e2p ore ho# the eros!on of human "ap!ta !s "ontr!but!n$ to the shap!n$ of a "r!m!na "u ture' 5!th th!s ob1e"t!%e !n m!nd- 9art II of th!s art!" e d!s"usses the anatomy of the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on frame#or4- tra"es the rat!ona e beh!nd !ts pun!t!%e fo"us- and !ntrodu"es the d!ff!"u ty !n re"o$n!&!n$ %a ue #!th!n the "urrent frame#or4 due to a fa! ure to understand the "o atera !mpa"t of !n"ar"erat!on' 9art III des"r!bes the %ar!ous "o atera "onse?uen"es of
KThe State of the 0n!on !s stron$ and the prom!se of the future !s !m!t ess'L Yet there !s a dar4 s!de to th!s Amer!"a' If trends "ont!nue !n !n"ar"erat!on- an est!mated ( !n e%ery .B persons ;@ per"ent> #! ser%e some t!me !n a pr!son !n the!r !fet!me' Maybe !f #e ha%e a @(st state- #e shou d "a !t Kthe pr!son state'L After a - there are more peop e !%!n$ !n pr!son than !n some states !n the un!on' Id, ;?uot!n$ 0'S' 9res!dent =! C !nton>' See al%o 7LLIOT C0RRI7- CRIM7 AN/ 90NISHM7NT IN AM7RICA H ;Metropo !tan =oo4s ())*> ;KO%er the past t#entyEf!%e years- the 0n!ted States has bu! t the ar$est pr!son system !n the #or d' =ut desp!te a re"ent do#nturn !n the "r!me rate- #e rema!n far and a#ay the most %!o ent ad%an"ed !ndustr!a so"!ety on earth'L>' .B , See /R0G 5AR FACTS- %upra note .- at (@C ;KMore than )'.@ m! !on peop e are he d !n pena !nst!tut!ons throu$hout the #or d- most y as preEtr!a deta!nees ;remand pr!soners> or as senten"ed pr!soners' A most ha f of these are !n the 0n!ted States ;.'()m>Ch!na ;('@@m p us> and Russ!a ;B'*Cm>' A""ord!n$ to the 0'S' Census =ureau- the popu at!on of the 0n!ted States represents +',S of the #or dIs tota popu at!on ;.)(-+@B-**, out of a tota ,-HBH-,*H-.(C>'L ;"!t!n$ ROY 5ALMSL7Y- 5ORL/ 9RISON 9O90LATION LIST ( ;Cth ed' .BBC>>P 0'S' C7NS0S =0R7A0- 9O90LATION /IAISION- http:DD###'"ensus'$o%D ma!nD###Dpop" o"4'htm ' .( , See /R0G 5AR FACTS- %upra note .- at (@,E,BP %ee al%o 9RISON NATION- %upra note H- at (EH' .. , See d!s"uss!on infra 9arts II- III' In th!s art!" e- I def!ne the %a ue propos!t!on as the frame#or4 !n #h!"h a poss!b e %a ue dr!%ers for the !n"ar"erat!on mode are !dent!f!edP the!r !nd!%!dua %a ues are ass!$ned to der!%e the net %a ue transferred to so"!ety' I "ontend that the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode !s !n"apab e of e2tra"t!n$ fu %a ue from the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua P hen"e- I present the proposed !n"ar"erat!on mode '
,+ CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H !n"ar"erat!on and e2am!nes ho# the!r !mpa"ts s!$n!f!"ant y a ter the e2!st!n$ rat!ona e for e2"ess!%e !n"ar"erat!on' 9art IA de%e ops the fore$o!n$ %a ue propos!t!on as an a ternat!%e pun!shment proto"o by def!n!n$ the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on- the %a ue transferred to so"!ety- and h!$h !$ht!n$ the defe"ts of the "urrent frame#or4' 9art A ar$ues for me d!n$ human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e #!th a %a ueE"entr!" pun!shment me"han!sm and obser%es ho# to app y th!s %a ue propos!t!on #!th!n the e2!st!n$ "r!m!na 1ust!"e mode ' F!na y- 9art AI !s the authorIs " ar!on "a to stop the eros!on of human %a ues #!th!n Amer!"aIs pun!t!%eEfo"used 1ud!"!a san"t!on me"han!sm by ma2!m!&!n$ human "ap!ta $a!n at a e%e s #!th!n so"!ety- !n" ud!n$ "r!m!na offenders' II' 7FAMINING TH7 9HILOSO9HY OF 90NITIA7 INCARC7RATION The future of "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on !n Amer!"a !s !n dan$er due to the systemIs depr!%at!on of !nd!%!dua !bert!es of offenders and !ts departure from rehab! !tat!%e !dea s' Senten"!n$ !n "r!m!na "ourts shou d not be based on the depr!%at!on of !nd!%!dua !berty as a $uarantee for restor!n$ so"!a order' =y the same to4en- "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on of an offender shou d not be based on e?uat!n$ the se%er!ty of pun!shment #!th the de$ree of "r!m!na respons!b! !ty' An !n"ar"erat!on frame#or4 based on a temporary oss of !berty fo o#ed by a return to so"!ety shou d form the bas!s of "r!m!na pun!shment' A thou$h a "erta!n de$ree of depr!%at!on of !berty !s #arranted to d!m!n!sh the !mmed!ate repet!t!on of "r!m!na !ty or to !mpose a so"!a "ost for "r!m!na !tyUreturn!n$ to so"!ety must o""ur sooner rather than ater- and must be a""ompan!ed by an !n"ar"erat!on re$!me that benef!ts the offender #h! e !n "ustody' Ho#e%er- the rea !ty of !n"ar"erat!on #!th!n Amer!"aIs "r!m!na 1ust!"e system today pa!nts a $ oomy p!"ture #h!"h !s the resu t of the pun!t!%e tenden"!es present !n the "urrent "r!m!na senten"!n$ re$!me' These pun!t!%e tenden"!es ha%e be"ome se%ere y ops!ded a$a!nst any form of human de%e opment' The or!$!n of todayIs rea !ty of !n"ar"erat!on !n Amer!"a "an be tra"ed to the 5ar on /ru$s !n!t!at!%es of the ())Bs- #h!"h had a s!$n!f!"ant !mpa"t on the pr!son popu at!on'.H F!rst- dru$ offenders !n pr!sons and 1a! s ha%e
.H
, See 9AIG7 M' HARRISON < ALL7N 3' =7C8- 0'S' /79IT OF 30STIC7- 9RISON7RS .BB@- at (B tb '(+ ;No%' .BB,>- http:DD###'o1p'usdo1'$o%Db1sDpubDpdfDpB@'pdf ;report!n$ that at yearEend .BBH- federa pr!sons he d a tota of (@*-+., !nmates- of #hom *,-)C. ;@@S> #ere dru$ offenders' =y "ompar!son !n .BBB federa pr!sons he d (H(-CH) tota !nmates of #hom C+-.C, ;@,S> #ere dru$ offenders- and !n ())@ federa pr!sons he d a tota of **-,@* !nmates of #hom @.-C*. ;,BS> #ere dru$ offenders'>P MATTH75 R' /0ROS7 < 9ATRIC8 A' LANGAN- 0'S' /79IT OF 30STIC7- STAT7 CO0RT S7NT7NCING OF CONAICT7/ F7LONS())* STATISTICAL TA=L7S(* tb '.'@ ;.BB(>http:DD###'o1p'usdo1'$o%Db1sDpubDpdfDs"s"f)*'pdf' It !s start !n$ to note that- amon$ persons "on%!"ted of dru$ fe on!es !n state "ourts- #h!tes #ere ess !4e y than Afr!"anEAmer!"ans to be sent to pr!son' 5h! e HHS of "on%!"ted #h!te defendants re"e!%ed a pr!son senten"e- @(S of Afr!"anEAmer!"an defendants re"e!%ed pr!son senten"es' Id, See enerally /an Che"4IN
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL ,@ !n"reased ((BBS s!n"e ()*BP #!th near y one ha fEm! !on peop e !n"ar"erated as of .BBH- "ompared to an est!mated +(-BBB !n ()*B- desp!te the fa"t that most !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s are o#E e%e foot so d!ers !n the h!erar"hy of the dru$Ere ated "r!m!na emp!re' .+ Se"ond- more than ha f the states o%er the ast de"ade ha%e "han$ed the!r senten"!n$ a#s by rep a"!n$ the 1ud$ment of the paro e board #!th truthE!nEsenten"!n$ $u!de !nes' .@ 7nshr!ned #!th!n the truthE!nEsenten"!n$ frame#or4 !s a f!2ed senten"!n$ re$!me that has e !m!nated the eff!"a"y of the paro e board !n shap!n$
T$e Su""e%%e% and Failure% of Geor e 2u%$3% 0ar http:DD###'tfy'dru$sense'or$DtfyDbush#ar'htm ; ast %!s!ted Feb' .- .BB*>'
on
(ru % -
0n!ted States 9res!dent Geor$e =ush off!"!a y be$an h!s K#ar on dru$sL on September @- ()*)- #hen he $a%e the f!rst pr!me t!me address of h!s pres!den"y- !n #h!"h he out !ned the federa $o%ernmentIs strate$y for erad!"at!n$ dru$ use' The p an "a ed for VC') b! !on from Con$ress- a V.'. b! !on !n"rease from the pre%!ous bud$et' Of the VC') b! !on that =ush as4ed for- CBS #ou d $o to a# enfor"ement- #h!"h !n" uded V(', b! !on for 1a! s' Ho#e%er- on y HBS #ent to pre%ent!onedu"at!on- and treatment' The =ush adm!n!strat!on sou$ht to #a$e !ts #ar by pr!mar! y fo"us!n$ on demand !n the 0n!ted States- #h!"h- to =ush- meant atta"4!n$ and arrest!n$ the dru$ user- rather than fo"us!n$ on pre%ent!onedu"at!on and treatment- or !nterd!"t!on ;try!n$ to redu"e the supp y of dru$s>' S!n"e the federa $o%ernment has %ery !m!ted po !"e po#er- !t #ou d ha%e to #a$e th!s #ar throu$h the "oer"!on of states' States that d!d not "omp y #!th the =ush p an #ou d be pena !&ed #!th a redu"t!on !n fund!n$ from the federa $o%ernment' Id,
.+
' MARC MA07R < RYAN S' 8ING- A .@EY7AR W0AGMIR7: TH7 5AR ON /R0GS ITS IM9ACT ON AM7RICAN SOCI7TY- TH7 S7NT7NCING 9RO37CT: R7S7ARCH AN/ A/AOCACY FOR R7FORM .(H ;Sept' .BBC>http:DD###'senten"!n$pro1e"t'or$DAdm!nD/o"umentsD pub !"at!onsDdpM.@year?ua$m!re'pdf' .@ ' 3era yn Merr!tt- Trut$-in-Senten"in Law% E4po%ed- TAL8L7FT: TH7 9OL' OF CRIM7- No%' .H- .BB+- http:DD###'ta 4 eft'"omDstoryD.BB+D((D.HDC+.D*(H)B' TruthE!nE senten"!n$ $enera y refers to %ar!ous d!fferent but re ated senten"!n$ po !"!es app !ed to "on%!"ted offenders #!th!n the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system' In most "onte2ts- ho#e%er- truthE!nE senten"!n$ po!nts to those po !"!es and e$!s at!%e de%e opments #hose e2p !"!t ob1e"t!%e !s to e !m!nate paro e- su"h that a "r!m!na defendant ser%es the per!od that they ha%e been senten"ed'
AN/
Most Otruth !n senten"!n$ a#sI re?u!re !nmates to do *@S of the!r t!me' Not 5!s"ons!n' ItIs (BBS' Not on y that- !t app !es to both %!o ent offenders and nonE %!o ent property and dru$ offenders' It e !m!nates the ro e of the paro e board' And there !s no $u!de !ne system re?u!r!n$ 1ud$es to senten"e !n a part!"u ar ran$e' Id, KF!rst ena"ted !n ()*+- GTruthE!nESenten"!n$J a#s re?u!reGJ offenders to ser%e a substant!a port!on of the!r pr!son senten"e' 9aro e e !$!b! !ty and $oodEt!me "red!ts are restr!"ted or e !m!nated'L 9A0LA M' /ITTON < /ORIS 3AM7S 5ILSON- /79IT OF 30STIC7TR0TH IN S7NT7NCING IN STAT7 9RISONS ( ;()))>- http:DD###'o1p'usdo1'$o%Db1sDpubD pdfDtssp'pdf' A""ord!n$ to the truthE!nEsenten"!n$ a#s- KG%J!o ent offenders re eased from pr!son !n ()), #ere senten"ed to ser%e an a%era$e of *@ months !n pr!son'L Id, at (- . tb '('
,, CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H !nd!%!dua senten"!n$ me"han!sms' ., As a resu t- the paro e boardIs f e2!b! !ty !n shap!n$ the en$th of !nd!%!dua "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on as a fun"t!on of per"e!%ed rehab! !tat!%e needs of the !nd!%!dua and probab! !ty of !nd!%!dua re"!d!%!sm has ar$e y been ta4en out of the "urrent senten"!n$ me"han!sm' In most states- the str!n$ent re?u!rements mandate that the "on%!"ted !nd!%!dua ser%e more than *@S of h!s senten"e' .C In th!s frame#or4- a typ!"a !nmate enters the pr!son system #!th h!s re ease date predom!nate y predeterm!ned- thereby ea%!n$ h!m #!th no !n"ent!%e to a"h!e%e any rehab! !tat!%e $oa s su"h as a"?u!r!n$ a trade or !mpro%!n$ h!s edu"at!on e%e ' The pre"ed!n$ d!s"uss!on dramat!"a y deta! s ho# the abo !t!on of the paro e me"han!sm and hea%y re !an"e on mandatory !n"ar"erat!on has rendered the "urrent "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on mode ar$e y !neffe"t!%e' The present system !s not on y stru"tura y unsusta!nab e- but a so !neff!"!ent due to !ts fa! ure to proper y en"ompass the stated ob1e"t!%es of deterren"eretr!but!on- !n"apa"!tat!on- and rehab! !tat!on' .* The pr!mary defe"t !n the e2!st!n$ 1ust!"e me"han!sm der!%es from the fa"t that !n"ar"erat!on po !"y !s shaped by so"!eta sent!ments and po !t!"a man!pu at!on- #h!"h !s !n "onf !"t #!th any susta!nab e %a ue theory of !n"ar"erat!on' 5h! e determ!n!n$ the 1ud!"!a san"t!on of a "r!m!na #ron$doer- the pr!mary !nst!n"t !s to #or4 #!th!n a ba"4#ardE oo4!n$ frame#or4' The e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode !s ba"4#ardE oo4!n$ be"ause !t !s prem!sed on a stat!" parad!$mP th!s parad!$m presupposes that "r!m!na offenders must be pun!shed !n proport!on to the reprehens!b! !ty of the!r a"ts' The stat!" nature of th!s frame#or4 "an be ana y&ed on t#o d!st!n"t $rounds' F!rst- th!s %!e# assumes that the "r!m!na "ourt at the t!me of senten"!n$ "an ma4e snap 1ud$ments re$ard!n$ the offenderIs "r!m!na respons!b! !ty on the bas!s of h!s past h!story as #e as h!s future pro$nos!s' Se"ond- !n d!spers!n$ a f!2edE en$th senten"e- th!s %!e# does not ta4e !nto "ons!derat!on the future rehab! !tat!on and potent!a so"!eta %a ue of the "r!m!na offender' Thusoperat!n$ on these erroneous assumpt!ons- the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode does not re"o$n!&e %a ue !n e%ery "omponent of so"!ety' As a resu t- !t
K9r!or to re ease they ser%ed about ha f of the!r pr!son senten"e or +@ months'L Id, at (' K0nder truthE!nEsenten"!n$ a#s re?u!r!n$ *@S of the senten"e- %!o ent offenders #ou d ser%e an a%era$e of ** months !n pr!son based on the a%era$e senten"e for %!o ent offenders adm!tted to pr!son !n ()),'L Id, at (- ,' KNear y C !n (B State pr!son adm!ss!ons for a %!o ent offense !n ())C #ere !n States re?u!r!n$ offenders to ser%e at east *@S of the!r senten"e'L Id, at (' K=y ())*- .C States and the /!str!"t of Co umb!a met the Federa TruthE!nE Senten"!n$ In"ent!%e Grant 9ro$ram e !$!b! !ty "r!ter!a'L Id' K7 e%en States adopted truthE!nE senten"!n$ a#s !n ())@- ( year after the A!o ent Cr!me Contro and La# 7nfor"ement A"t of ())+'L Id, ., , See /ITTON < 5ILSON- %upra note .@- at .' .C , See id, at (- . tb '(' .* , See 9OLLOC8- %upra note (.- at @) ;d!s"uss!n$ the audab e $oa s of reform and rehab! !tat!on but e2p a!n!n$ that su"h $oa s ha%e no p a"e !n a retr!but!%e system>'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL ,C transfers ess than opt!ma ut! !ty $a!n to so"!ety- render!n$ the frame#or4 bro4en and fundamenta y f a#ed' The ob1e"t!%e of a %a ueE"entr!" pun!shment me"han!sm !s fundamenta y d!fferent from the e2!st!n$ system' 5!th!n th!s %a ueE"entr!" mode emanates a "omp e2- ut! !tyEdr!%en me"han!sm borne out of e"onom!" 1ust!f!"at!on' It !s therefore poss!b e to !n"orporate the four ob1e"t!%es pre%!ous y def!ned #!th!n th!s %a ueE"entr!" pun!shment frame#or4-.) but not !n the proport!ons "urrent y !n %o$ue' For reasons h!$h !$hted abo%e- !t !s !mperat!%e to re"o$n!&e that a a"4 of %a ue ana ys!s or ut! !tyEtheoryEbased d!s"uss!on "ou d be the pr!mary "ause of the !neffe"t!%eness of e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode s' Thus- the "urrent e$!s at!%e pro"ess that determ!nes "r!m!na pun!shment by de%e op!n$ senten"!n$ $u!de !nes !s ar$e y ar"ha!" !n !ts tota a"4 of "omprehens!on of a %a ue propos!t!on of !n"ar"erat!on %!sEXE%!s so"!eta !mpa"t' 7%en !f !t #ere "on"eded for the sa4e of ar$ument that a ut! !tyEbased ana ys!s has been underta4en to shape the !n"ar"erat!on frame#or4- th!s ana ys!s has not ne"essar! y been based on a proper %a ue propos!t!on' 5hat !s meant by the %a ue propos!t!on for "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on !s that the a$$re$ate %a ue "an be !mparted to so"!ety by ta4!n$ !nto "ons!derat!on a re e%ant mo%!n$ parts that are !n%o %ed !n the de"!s!onEma4!n$ pro"ess !n "r!m!na senten"!n$' There are t#o "ompet!n$ %!e#po!nts' The "on%ent!ona parad!$m ar$ues for retent!on of so"!eta %a ue by pro on$!n$ the !n"ar"erat!on of "r!m!na s' Th!s art!" e see4s to present the "ontrary %!e#po!nt- #h!"h "a s for e2tra"t!n$ %a ue from a members of so"!ety!n" ud!n$ "r!m!na offenders' The bas!s of th!s propos!t!on !s der!%ed from the re"o$n!t!on that so"!etyIs des!re for retr!but!on and %en$ean"e turns a b !nd eye to the rehab! !tat!%e ob1e"t!%e of the !n"ar"erated popu at!on- and thus fa! s to e2tra"t so"!eta %a ue from those !nd!%!dua s' 5!th!n the "urrent system- en$thy !n"ar"erat!on of "r!m!na offenders does not rehab! !tate !nd!%!dua s to the po!nt that they "an !mpart %a ue and !nte$rate !nto so"!ety' Th!s !s be"ause the e2!st!n$ mode of "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on has not embra"ed the %a ue propos!t!on- "a !n$ !nto ?uest!on the effe"t!%eness of the "urrent senten"!n$ frame#or4 and ! ustrat!n$ that "han$e has been stym!ed by !nert!a' Th!s !nert!a !s dr!%en by t#o fundamenta fa"tors: 1ud!"!a san"t!on and fa se rat!ona !ty' 3ud!"!a san"t!ons "an be seen as senten"!n$ $u!de !nes that are borne out of e$!s at!%e me"han!sms that are predom!nant y po !t!"a pro"esses !n #h!"h the out"omes are based on an asymmetr!" ut! !ty "on"ept' Th!s !s referred to as an asymmetr!" ut! !ty "on"ept be"auseoften t!mes- the po !t!"a pro"ess does not transfer true "!t!&en preferen"es !nto a e$!s at!%e out"ome' For e2amp e- !t may be poss!b e that an !nd!%!dua e$!s ator or a s!$n!f!"ant popu at!on of h!s or her "onst!tuen"y may not support
.)
See id' at ,(E,.'
,* CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H unreasonab y en$thy !n"ar"erat!on for a part!"u ar "r!me' Ho#e%er- !f the pre%a! !n$ po !t!"a en%!ronment supports a tou$hEonE"r!me att!tude- that e$!s ator may "hoose not to 1eopard!&e the potent!a of be!n$ e e"ted by endors!n$ a "ontrar!an %!e#po!nt' In the pro"ess- the e$!s ator may- thou$h not %o !t!ona y- he p ena"t f!2ed senten"!n$ $u!de !nes that do not support the so"!eta %a ue propos!t!on d!s"ussed abo%e' Fa se rat!ona !ty- the se"ond fa"tor- !s borne out of an erroneous so"!eta re !an"e on retr!but!%e pr!n"!p es and !s nurtured by the under"urrent of %en$ean"e #!th!n so"!ety' Fa se rat!ona !ty dra#s !ts 1ust!f!"at!on from a set of erroneous assumpt!ons re$ard!n$ the !mpa"t of !n"ar"erat!on and effe"t!%e y re1e"ts any human!st!" %a ue propos!t!on that may e2!st' =o stered by a po !t!"a y mot!%ated e$!s at!%e pro"ess- th!s restr!"t!%e tenden"y of the e2!st!n$ pun!shment me"han!sm be"omes hope ess y !n"apab e of transferr!n$ fu %a ue to so"!ety' There rema!n se%era dr!%!n$ fa"tors that ha%e made the e2!st!n$ mode of !n"ar"erat!on !neffe"t!%e- #h!"h pose a p ethora of unans#ered ?uest!ons' These ?uest!ons are paramount !n de%e op!n$ a 1ust and e?u!tab e 1ud!"!a san"t!on!n$ me"han!sm for "r!m!na #ron$do!n$' Cons!der that the tradeEoff bet#een en$thy !n"ar"erat!on and the !mpos!t!on of the "omb!nat!on of paro eEprobat!on has thus far on y been ana y&ed from a so"!eta !mpa"t e%e - or on y from a %!"t!mE"entr!" %!e#po!nt' The %!"t!mE"entr!" ana ys!s does not a""ount for the "o atera e"onom!" !mpa"t upon the defendantIs fam! y- the "ommun!ty the "r!m!na defendant ha! s from- or the defendant h!mse f' The "o atera e"onom!" %a ue !mpa"t- ho#e%er- has not been a""ounted for !n the "urrent "r!m!na 1ust!"e me"han!sm- #h!"h must be ta4en !nto "ons!derat!on !n order to de%e op a %a ue propos!t!on for an e?u!tab e and 1ust !n"ar"erat!on mode ' None of the theor!es of !n"ar"erat!on e2am!ne !n deta! the mu t!tude of eros!%e !mpa"ts suffered by the "ommun!ty and the fam! y of the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua - not to ment!on the de$radat!on of human "ap!ta that ta4es p a"e #!th!n the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua ' A thou$h e2!st!n$ s"ho arsh!p !s a#are of !n"ar"erat!onIs ne$at!%e !mpa"t on the "ommun!ty- HB e$!s atorsI ha%e not ta4en th!s a#areness !nto a""ount' S!m! ar y- e2!st!n$ resear"h has estab !shed the on$Eterm ne$at!%e !mpa"t
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, See 3ASON NI7/7N=7RG- 30STIC7 9OLICY INST'- =7YON/ =ARS: 3AIL SANCTIONS /R0GER7LAT7/ OFF7N/7RS AR7 HARMF0L AN/ CO0NT7R9RO/0CTIA7 ;.BBC>http:DD###' h"'"a'$o%D h"d!rDAO/MRe%!e#DN!edenber$Au$BC'
FOR
Re"ent resear"h has ! um!nated the detr!menta effe"ts of !n"ar"erat!on on both !nd!%!dua s and the!r "ommun!t!es' In"ar"erat!on "an e2a"erbate menta ! ness!n"rease a personIs r!s4 of su!"!de- h!nder the!r emp oyab! !ty and d!srupt fam! !es' 3a! s are asso"!ated #!th d!sease- o%er"ro#ded and !nhumane "ond!t!ons and h!$h "osts for "ount!es' Furthermore- !n"ar"erat!on ma4es a person more !4e y to re"!d!%ate upon re ease' Id,
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL ,) of !n"ar"erat!on on "h! dren of !n"ar"erated parents- H( yet has fa! ed to d!s"uss ho# to "ombat the onset of "r!m!na !ty amon$ the "h! dren #hose parents ha%e been !n"ar"erated' Therefore- a fu %a ue e2am!nat!on !s ar$e y m!ss!n$ from the d!s"uss!on of "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on' Ar$uments "ou d be made that the oss of e"onom!" empo#erment of the fam! y of the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua ne$at!%e y !mpa"ts "h! dren- #h!"h !n"reases the!r "han"es of e!ther de%e op!n$ a "r!m!na m!ndset- or $ett!n$ subsumed !n the "u ture of "r!m!na !ty' S!m! ar y- the oss of a #or4!n$ popu at!on as a resu t of !n"ar"erat!on "ou d be seen as "ontr!but!n$ to the de$radat!on of a "ommun!ty' /e"reas!n$ the #or4!n$Ea$e popu at!on #ou d ne$at!%e y shape the e"onom!" #e Ebe!n$ of a "ommun!ty- #h!"h !n turn #ou d !nf uen"e the !n"!den"e of !nd!%!dua "r!m!na beha%!or' From th!s- !t "an be !nferred that e"onom!" empo#erment shou d ha%e pos!t!%e e2terna !t!esH(
, See 8ath een 3' = o"4 < Mar$aret 3' 9otthast- Girl S"out% 2eyond 2ar%Fa"ilitatin !arent-C$ild Conta"t in Corre"tional Settin % - in CHIL/R7N 5ITH 9AR7NTS IN 9RISON: CHIL/ 57LFAR7 9OLICY- 9ROGRAM- AN/ 9RACTIC7 ISS07S )H- )HE((B ;Cynth!a Seymour < Creas!e F!nney Ha!rston eds'- .BB(>' /!stant pr!sons- !n"on%en!ent %!s!tat!on s"hedu es- and the ne$at!%e !mpa"ts of mothersI !n"ar"erat!on on "h! dren present "ha en$es for "h! d #e fare profess!ona s #ho #or4 #!th the "h! dren of !n"ar"erated mothers' Separat!on by pr!son "an be de%astat!n$ to "h! dren- resu t!n$ !n fee !n$s of abandonmentsadness- and an$er- and "an ead to eat!n$ and s eep!n$ d!sorders- o#er a"adem!" performan"e- and d!srupt!%e beha%!or' It !s often d!ff!"u t for "h! dren to %!s!t the!r mothers !n pr!son' 9r!sons may be far a#ay- or "are$!%ers may not be #! !n$ to ta4e them' 5hen %!s!ts do o""ur- standard %!s!tat!on sett!n$s !n"rease the an2!et!es e2per!en"ed by "h! dren and the!r mothers' A!s!tat!on rooms are !nappropr!ate for "h! dren- pro%!d!n$ !tt e opportun!ty for mean!n$fu parentE"h! d !ntera"t!on' Se%era states ha%e de%e oped enhan"ed %!s!tat!on pro$rams for !n"ar"erated mothers and the!r "h! dren' See4!n$ to norma !&e !ntera"t!on- these pro$rams pro%!de more f e2!b e %!s!t!n$ s"hedu es- p ay areas #!th toys and a"t!%!t!es- and on$er "onta"t t!mes' Id, See enerally Creas!e F!nney Ha!rston- T$e For otten !arent- /nder%tandin t$e For"e% t$at Influen"e In"ar"erated Fat$er%3 Relation%$ip% wit$ T$eir C$ildren - in CHIL/R7N 5ITH 9AR7NTS IN 9RISON: CHIL/ 57LFAR7 9OLICY- 9ROGRAM- AN/ 9RACTIC7 ISS07S- %upra note H(- at (+)- (@B ;not!n$ that #h! e fe# ser%!"es and pro$rams are pro%!ded for !n"ar"erated fathers or the!r "h! dren and the !mportan"e of fatherE"h! d re at!onsh!ps are often !$nored- the sheer number of "h! dren #hose fathers are or #! be !n"ar"erated #arrants a " oser oo4>P Tra%!s A' Fr!ts"h < 3ohn /' =ur4head- 2e$avioral Rea"tion% of C$ildren to !arental Ab%en"e (ue to Impri%onment - HB FAM' R7L' *HE** ;()*(> ;f!nd!n$ parenta absen"e due to !n"ar"erat!on to be re ated to bad beha%!or !n "h! dren>P /en!se 3ohnston- Effe"t% of !arental In"ar"eration - in CHIL/R7N OF INCARC7RAT7/ 9AR7NTS @)- @)E** ;8ather!ne Gabe < /en!se 3ohnston eds'- ())@> ;re"o$n!&!n$ that parenta !n"ar"erat!on and re ated endur!n$ trauma- separat!on- and !nade?uate "are !nterfere #!th "h! d de%e opment- resu t!n$ !n ne$at!%e on$Eterm out"omes!n" ud!n$ !nter$enerat!ona !n"ar"erat!on- and be"4ons to re%!s!t the "urrent !n"ar"erat!on fundamenta s>'
CB CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H #h!"h "ou d %ery #e ead to a o#er "r!me rate' My hope- therefore- !s that !n"orporat!n$ a ut! !tar!an "r!m!na 1ust!"e system- an"hored !n human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e- #ou d $arner a fa%orab e !mpa"t on re"!d!%!sm' A thou$h some un"erta!nty rema!ns about ho# to re%erse the "urrent 1ur!sprudent!a o"4do#n approa"h- th!s mu"h !s " ear: by sh!n!n$ a human!st!" !$ht on !n"ar"erat!on- #e may be ab e to s o# do#n- !f not ha tthe runa#ay pr!sonEnat!on'H. Th!s art!" e thus far has unra%e ed both the sha o# nature of the e2!st!n$ ph! osophy re$ard!n$ 1ud!"!a san"t!on of "r!m!na offenders and !ts a"4 of %a ueEdr!%en e"onom!" ana ys!s' 5e must "ons!der ho# to "onstru"t a %a ue frame#or4- as #e as ho# to de%e op a pun!shment me"han!sm that ma2!m!&es so"!eta %a ues #h! e at the same t!me 4eep!n$ step #!th the h!stor!"a e%o ut!on of deterren"e theory and !n"orporat!n$ any benef!ts of !n"apa"!tat!on and rehab! !tat!on' Cou d th!s %a ueEbased frame#or4 be !n"orporated #!th!n our e2!st!n$ pena systemR Can !t eas! y be !n"orporated !nto both the e$a and so"!a frame#or4 #!thout ma4!n$ many r!pp esR These ?uest!ons are !mportant !n th!s ana ys!s- as the po !t!"a pro"ess and so"!eta a""eptan"e are 4ey fa"tors !n the !mp ementat!on of any s!$n!f!"ant "han$e' To estab !sh the %a ue propos!t!on- !t !s !mportant to understand the tradeEoff bet#een e2p !"!t re !an"e on deterren"e and retr!but!on- and the re"o$n!t!on of a %a ueE"entr!" frame#or4 of !n"ar"erat!on' /esp!te the d!ff!"u t!es !mp !"!t !n a %a ueEdr!%en "r!m!na 1ust!"e system- a susta!nab e %a ue propos!t!on of !n"ar"erat!on !s unatta!nab e #!thout fu y !nte$rat!n$ the "o atera !mpa"t on the tr!o of fam! y- "ommun!ty- and !nd!%!dua ' It !s therefore !mportant to d!s"uss some of the dra#ba"4s of en$thy !n"ar"erat!on and ho# th!s $!%es r!se to "o atera !mpa"ts on the aforement!oned tr!o' 5!thout "omprehend!n$ th!s "o atera !mpa"t of !n"ar"erat!on- the e ements of human "ap!ta or human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e #! fa ter !n the fa"e of the stron$- retr!but!%e- and %en$ean"eEdr!%en system "urrent y endorsed by so"!ety' III' COLLAT7RAL IM9ACT AN/ HO5 IT AFF7CTS TH7 AAL07 9RO9OSITION OF INCARC7RATION 7"onom!" ana ys!s of "r!m!na a# re !es on ant!"!pat!n$ a poss!b e out"omes of an a"t!on and subse?uent y ass!$n!n$ e"onom!" %a ue to those out"omes under probab! !st!" "ond!t!ons'HH Th!s out"ome determ!nat!on and
H. HH
, See enerally 9RISON NATION- %upra note H' ' N0NO GARO09A- AN 7CONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CRIMINAL LA5 H ;.BBH>available at http:DD.B)'*@'(.)'(B+Dsear"hR?Y"a"he:nr+TC25SRI$3:esn!e'uE par!s(B'frDpdfDte2tesM.BB+ DGaroupaM"r!m!na a#B('pdfZ S..AnZ7"onom!"ZAna ys!sZofZCr!m!na ZLa#S..<h Yen<"tY" n4<"dYC' The app !"at!on of e"onom!" ana ys!s to "r!m!na a# !s based on the propos!t!on that e"onom!" eff!"!en"y !s usefu for e2am!n!n$ and des!$n!n$ ru es and
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL C( %a ue ass!$nment !s hea%! y !nf uen"ed by some spe"!f!ed theory of %a ue#h!"h then a o#s for de%e op!n$ a spe"!f!" d!re"t!on to a""ount for the %ar!ous out"omes and d!%er$!n$ states of affa!rs that "ou d e%o %e' H+ Th!s !n turn "an he p as"erta!n #hat the a# !s try!n$ to ma2!m!&e' 5!th!n the e2!st!n$ frame#or4- there !s an o%eremphas!s on deterren"e and retr!but!on' Th!s !s due to the erroneous !dent!f!"at!on of re e%ant %ar!ab es that "onf!nement a# !s try!n$ to ma2!m!&e' The !nab! !ty to a""ount for a poss!b e out"omes of the !nd!%!dua ob1e"t!%es of "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on- !n the absen"e of a frame#or4 of e"onom!" %a ue determ!nat!on- e2p a!ns #hy an asymmetr!" re !an"e !s p a"ed on deterren"e and retr!but!on' H@ For e2amp e- the e2!st!n$ "r!m!na 1ust!"e system see4s to prote"t so"!ety by depr!%!n$ "r!m!na offenders of the!r !bert!es' Th!s "onstru"t !s !m!ted by a restr!"ted set of "ontemp ated out"omes su"h as #hether: ;!> the offender #! harm the pub !" !f not !n"ar"eratedP ;!!> the offender #! not harm the pub !" !f !n"ar"eratedP and ;!!!> more offenders #! harm so"!ety !f en$th of !n"ar"erat!on for a spe"!f!" "ase !s 4ept be o# a spe"!f!ed per!od' If one #ere to ana y&e a poss!b e out"omes under %ar!ous "ond!t!ons- one #ou d arr!%e at the s!mp !st!" s"enar!o of the f!rst out"ome#h!"h #! !mpart ma2!mum %a ue to so"!ety' Ho#e%er- th!s s"enar!o suffers from an o%ers!mp !f!"at!on on a""ount of
!nst!tut!ons' 7"onom!" eff!"!en"y means that there !s no #ay to ma4e a "han$e that benef!ts someone #!thout harm!n$ someone e se' A $!%en "han$e !s eff!"!ent !f those #!nn!n$ from that "han$e "ompensate those os!n$ so that no one !s #orse off after the "han$e' Th!s !s the #e E4no#n K9areto eff!"!en"y'L Most of our ana ys!s !s based on a ess restr!"t!%e "on"ept of eff!"!en"y- so"!a #e fare ma2!m!&at!on or K8a dorEH!"4s eff!"!en"y'L 0nder th!s ess restr!"t!%e "on"ept- a $!%en "han$e !s eff!"!ent !f an !nd!%!dua "ou d !n pr!n"!p e "ompensate those #ho ose and rema!n better off but #!th no re?u!rement p a"ed on the benef!"!ary to a"tua y hand o%er "ompensat!on' 0nderstand!n$ eff!"!en"y !s fundamenta to the e"onom!" ana ys!s of "r!m!na a# !n t#o #ays' F!rst- !n a pos!t!%e sense- to e%a uate the eff!"!en"y of "urrent !nst!tut!ons' Se"ond- !n the normat!%e s!de- to propose more eff!"!ent !nst!tut!ona arran$ements' Id,
H+
' The term spe"!f!" theory of %a ue refers to the frame#or4 by #h!"h !nd!%!dua %a ue dr!%ers are !dent!f!ed- asso"!ated #!th the!r !nd!%!dua %a ues- and a$$re$ate %a ue !s "a "u ated' Therefore- !t !s my "ontent!on that- e2tra"t!n$ %a ue from a spe"!f!" pro"ess #! depend on the under y!n$ %a ue theory that !s ut! !&ed' H@ , See CHRISTY AISH7R- TO=I 9ALM7R < CAT7RINA GO0AIS ROMAN - 0R=AN INST'CL7A7LAN/ STA87HOL/7RSI 97RC79TION OF 9RISON7R R77NTRY . ;.BBC>http:DDurban'or$D 0p oaded9/FD+((@(@M" e%e andMpr!sonerMreentry'pdf' 5hen as4ed to !dent!fy the pr!mary barr!ers that former pr!soners en"ounter #hen return!n$ to the "ommun!ty- most sta4eho ders "!ted emp oyment as the pr!mary barr!er' Ser%!"e pro%!ders part!"u ar y fe t that there are !nsuff!"!ent emp oyment opportun!t!es are a%a! ab e to th!s popu at!on- be"ause the!r s4! s are not "omparab e #!th 1obs a%a! ab e !n the "ommun!ty' Id,
C. CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H !ts !nab! !ty to en"ompass a broader set of poss!b e out"omes' The poss!b e out"omes that ha%e been eft out !n th!s s!mp !st!" mode "ou d !n" ude: ;!> so"!ety #! be harmed by the future onset of "r!m!na !ty on the "r!m!na offenderIs "h! dren- !f the en$th of !n"ar"erat!on e2"eeds a spe"!f!ed per!od of t!meP ;!!> so"!ety #! be harmed by eros!on of the "ommun!ty- !f the en$th of !n"ar"erat!on e2"eeds a spe"!f!ed per!od of t!meP and ;!!!> so"!ety #! be harmed !f the "r!m!na offender !s not pro%!ded #!th ade?uate rehab! !tat!on #h! e !n"ar"erated' 5h! e the poss!b e out"omes abo%e do not "onst!tute an e2haust!%e set of s"enar!os- !t sho#s ho# %ar!ous d!mens!ons of "o atera "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on ha%e not been fa"tored !nto the "urrent !n"ar"erat!on mode ' Thus- any senten"!n$ stru"ture used by the "ourts must en"ompass a poss!b! !t!es that "ou d emer$e from a spe"!f!" senten"!n$ de"!s!on' A !$n!n$ a su"h poss!b e out"omes and atta"h!n$ the!r est!mated probab! !ty of o""urren"e #! a o# for the de%e opment of a 1ustEpun!shment me"han!sm' Therefore- !f one #ere to a !$n a the proper %ar!ab es- !dent!fy the e"onom!" %a ues ass!$nab e to ea"h of these %ar!ab es- and "a "u ate the %a ue $a!n to so"!ety- !t #! be poss!b e to redu"e the emphas!s on deterren"e and retr!but!on- resu t!n$ !n a more e?u!tab e and %a ueE"entr!" !n"ar"erat!on mode ' To understand th!s %a ue propos!t!on- one must re"o$n!&e the net %a ue transferred to so"!ety as an a$$re$at!on of %a ues der!%ed from a poss!b e s"enar!os or out"omes- su"h that the set of a out"omes en"ompasses a ho !st!" %!e# of !n"ar"erat!on' In the present system- an out"ome represents a spe"!f!" and narro# ob1e"t!%e of !n"ar"erat!on- su"h as retr!but!on%en$ean"e- !n"apa"!tat!on- or rehab! !tat!on' H, Yet there !s a m!ss!n$ e ementUthe fu spe"trum of "o atera "onse?uen"es- #h!"h "an be spe"!f!ed as a state of affa!rs that the a# must ma2!m!&e' In order to spe"!fy "o atera "onse?uen"es as a state of affa!rs- the fu !mpa"t of these "onse?uen"es under %ar!ous "ond!t!ons of !n"ar"erat!on must be understood' F!rst- en$thy !n"ar"erat!on !n"reases the "ha en$e of f!nd!n$ emp oyment after a pr!soner !s re eased' HC Se"ond- the en$th of !n"ar"erat!on !s d!re"t y proport!ona to the !n"reased d!ff!"u ty !n re"onne"t!n$ #!th fam! y' Th!s !s "aused by three d!st!n"t fa"tors' The f!rst !s that en$thy !n"ar"erat!on d!storts the symmetry and ba an"e of fam! y
H, HC
, See %upra te2t a""ompany!n$ notes *E(.' ' In th!s "onte2t- I dra# attent!on to the $enera a"4 of rehab! !tat!on pro%!ded !n present day !n"ar"erat!on' If the e2!st!n$ pena system pro%!des mean!n$fu rehab! !tat!on and sur%!%a s4! s- there #! not be su"h a de%astat!n$ !mpa"t- as I ha%e h!$h !$hted throu$hout th!s art!" e' See enerally 3ohn Ha$an- (en%ity and (rift- Sub"ultural !referen"e%, Statu% Attainment%, and t$e Ri%+% and Reward% of 5out$ - @, AM' SOC' R7A' @,C ;())(> ;not!n$ that de !n?uen"y had a more ser!ous ne$at!%e effe"t on future emp oyment for o#erE!n"ome youths "ompared to those from h!$her so"!oEe"onom!" ba"4$rounds>'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL CH !fe'H* The se"ond !s that en$thy !n"ar"erat!on !n"reases the de !n?uen"y of 1u%en! es #!th !n"ar"erated parents' H) Thus- !n rea !ty- both of these s"enar!os s!$n!f!"ant y enhan"e the probab! !ty of "r!m!na !ty !n so"!ety#hereas the !ntended purpose !s the oppos!te- #h!"h !s to de"rease "r!m!na re"!d!%!sm' Th!rd- as the en$th of the !n"ar"erat!on !n"reases- the !nd!%!dua be"omes ess "onne"ted #!th fam! y and so"!ety and- as a resu t!s ess prepared for "ommun!tyEbased so"!a reentry pro$rams' +B Susta!ned !n"ar"erat!on produ"es other "o atera "onse?uen"es- a of #h!"h s!$n!f!"ant y d!m!n!sh the o%era so"!eta %a ue' As the en$th of !n"ar"erat!on !n"reases #!th!n a f!2ed senten"!n$ $u!de !ne- part!"u ar y #hen the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua "annot !nf uen"e the !n"ar"erat!on out"ome- the !nd!%!dua oses hope' Th!s hope essness ma4es the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua more prone to substan"e abuse and sub1e"t to menta hea th de$radat!on' In add!t!on- the en$th of !n"ar"erat!on restr!"ts the ab! !ty of the !nd!%!dua to pro"ure 1obs- hous!n$- or so"!a ser%!"esrender!n$ the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua %a ue ess to so"!ety' +( Th!s " ear y demonstrates ho# the "urrent !n"ar"erat!on mode shapes the underut! !&at!on of human "ap!ta as an asset' 7%en a s !$ht re !an"e on rehab! !tat!on !n4ed #!th paro eEprobat!on a ternat!%es "ou d s!$n!f!"ant y !n"rease the ut! !&at!on of human "ap!ta from a so"!eta E%a ueEenhan"ement perspe"t!%e' These aspe"ts of asset ut! !&at!on of human "ap!ta must be !n"orporated !n de%e op!n$ the e"onom!" %a ue theory of !n"ar"erat!on' Cou d there be a potent!a tradeEoff bet#een ma2!m!&!n$ a defendantIs !nd!%!dua human "ap!ta ut! !&at!on #!th that of ma2!m!&!n$ so"!etyIs se"ur!ty %!a deterren"eR 5h! e th!s seems to be a d!ff!"u t ?uest!on to address- further e2p orat!on of "o atera "onse?uen"es #! !dent!fy the potent!a tradeEoffs #h! e de%e op!n$ a more human!st!" %!e#po!nt of "r!m!na pun!shment' A' /ef!n!n$ Co atera Conse?uen"es of In"ar"erat!on Co atera effe"ts of !n"ar"erat!on "an be def!ned as those "onse?uen"es that ha%e not been "aptured #!th!n the e2!st!n$ %!"t!mE"entr!" 1ud!"!a san"t!on me"han!sm'+. These "onse?uen"es resu t from the "r!m!na offenderIs !n"ar"erat!on and ha%e not been a""ounted for !n the ob1e"t!%es
H*
, See =R0C7 57ST7RN- INCARC7RATION- MARRIAG7- AN/ FAMILY LIF7 + ;.BB+>available at http:DD###'russe sa$e'or$Dpub !"at!onsD#or4!n$papersD!n"ar"erat!onmarr!a$e fam! y !feDdo"ument ;not!n$ ho# the st!$ma of !n"ar"erat!on affe"ts fam! y re at!onsh!ps and e%entua y #ea4ens the bond>' H) , See id, at H*' +B , See id, at +E,P 3OAN 97T7RSILIA- 5H7N 9RISON7RS COM7 HOM7: 9AROL7 AN/ 9RISON7R R77NTRY +BE+( ;.BBH> ;e2p a!n!n$ that !nd!%!dua s #ho en$a$e !n a "r!m!na !festy e ha%e a d!ff!"u t t!me re"onne"t!n$ upon return!n$ to K"on%ent!ona so"!etyL>' +( , See Ha$an- %upra note HC- at @C)' +. , See enerally INAISI=L7 90NISHM7NT: TH7 COLLAT7RAL CONS7W07NC7S OF MASS IM9RISONM7NT ;Mar" Mauer < Meda Chesney eds'- .BB.>'
C+ CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H of !n"ar"erat!on' The pr!mary assumpt!on emp oyed for !n"orporat!n$ "o atera effe"ts of !n"ar"erat!on !nto an e"onom!" %a ue theory !s based on the "on"ept that e%ery a"t!on has both !mp !"!t and e2p !"!t "onse?uen"es' Therefore- "on"eptua y- there are "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on that "ou d be "hara"ter!&ed as !mp !"!t- and hen"e- may not ha%e been re"o$n!&ed !n the e2!st!n$ "ostEbenef!t ana ys!s' Ho#e%er- #hen !t "omes to !n"ar"erat!onthe terms Kd!re"tL or K!nd!re"tL are not abso ute termsP rather- they are based on the po!nt of referen"e be!n$ used' In"ar"erat!on !s the resu t of a "r!m!na a"t and therefore has dua po!nts of referen"e: the %!"t!m and the offender' If the "onse?uen"es are %!e#ed from a %!"t!mE"entr!" po!nt of %!e#- the "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on e2per!en"ed by the offender- the offenderIs fam! y- and the "ommun!ty #here the offender "omes from are "ons!dered !nd!re"t "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on' The %ery same "onse?uen"es e2per!en"ed by the offendersthe!r fam! !es- and "ommun!t!es "an be seen as d!re"t "onse?uen"es !f %!e#ed from the offenderIs po!nt of %!e#' =e"ause these effe"ts are rea per%as!%e- and pers!stent- and "an be further "ate$or!&ed !nto "ommun!tyfam! y- and !nd!%!dua - !t !s ar$uab e #hether "o atera "onse?uen"es are rea "onse?uen"es- for$otten by so"!ety- and s!deEs#ept by the po !t!"a pro"ess of !n"ar"erat!on' KThese effe"ts are pers!stent and per%as!%e and "an !n" ude persona so"!a - f!nan"!a - emot!ona - psy"ho o$!"a - and phys!"a "on"erns'L +H Not on y do these ne$at!%e effe"ts per"o ate #!th!n "ommun!t!es- they a so ha%e the transferen"e effe"t of d!m!n!sh!n$ human "ap!ta a"ross the "ommun!ty' ++ Resear"h has su$$ested that the remo%a of offenders from "ommun!t!es as a resu t of en$thy !n"ar"erat!on has done more harm than $ood- espe"!a y !n Afr!"anEAmer!"an and H!span!" "ommun!t!es' +@ Th!s !s
+H
' CO0NCIL ON CRIM7 AN/ 30STIC7- TH7 COLLAT7RAL 7FF7CTS OF INCARC7RATION FATH7RS- FAMILI7S- AN/ COMM0NITI7S + ;.BB,>- available at ###'"r!meand1ust!"e' or$D"oun"! !nfo'"fmRpI/YC@ ;fo o# KCo atera 7ffe"ts of In"ar"erat!on on Fathers- The!r Fam! !es- and Commun!t!esL hyper !n4>' ++ , Id, +@ ' Cra!$ Haney < 9h! !p N!mbardo- T$e !a%t and Future of /,S, !ri%on !oli"yTwenty-Five 5ear% After t$e Stanford !ri%on E4periment - @H AM' 9SYCHOL' CB)- C(, ;())*> ;not!n$ that at the start of the ())Bs- the 0'S' had Kmore youn$ = a"4 men ;bet#een the a$es of .B and .)> under the "ontro of the nat!onIs "r!m!na 1ust!"e system ' ' ' than the tota number !n "o e$e'L> ;"!tat!on om!tted>' Th!s- and other fa"tors- ha%e ed some s"ho ars to "on" ude that K"r!me "ontro po !"!es are a ma1or "ontr!butor to the d!srupt!on of the fam! ythe pre%a en"e of s!n$ e parent fam! !es- and "h! dren ra!sed #!thout a father !n the $hettoand the O!nab! !ty of peop e to $et the 1obs st! a%a! ab e'IL Id, ;"!tat!on om!tted>' A%a! ab e pub !" data presents a $r!m p!"ture of the !mpa"t of "r!m!na !n"ar"erat!on on persons of "o or' For e2amp e- a""ord!n$ to .BB+ stat!st!"s- Kthe tota number of peop e d!senfran"h!sed due to a fe ony "on%!"t!on had r!sen to @'H m! !on Gout of #h!"hJ ' ' ' ( !n (. Afr!"an Amer!"ans #as d!senfran"h!sed be"ause of a fe ony "on%!"t!on- a rate near y f!%e t!mes that of nonEAfr!"an Amer!"ans'L RYAN S' 8ING- S7NT7NCING 9RO37CT- A /7CA/7 OF R7FORM: F7LONY /IS7NFRANCHIS7M7NT 9OLICY IN TH7 0NIT7/ STAT7S . ;.BB,>- http:DD###'
ON
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL C@ ar$e y due to the fa"t that !mpr!sonment d!sproport!onate y !mpa"ts Afr!"anEAmer!"an and H!span!" men and "ommun!t!es' +, Re"ent stat!st!"s !nd!"ate that more than e!$hty per"ent of adu t pr!soners re eased a"ross the "ountry !n .BBB ha%e returned to ma1or metropo !tan areas- a stat!st!" #h!"h !s up from f!fty per"ent !n ()*@' +C 9r!soner reentry has not re"e!%ed a s!$n!f!"ant emphas!s !n !terature- yet !t forms a %ery !mportant fa"tor !n the fu e2p !"at!on of a %a ueE"entr!" theory of !n"ar"erat!on' More !mportant y- reentry !nto "ommun!t!es !s "on"entrated !n on y a fe# ne!$hborhoods resu t!n$ !n a h!$h "on"entrat!on of return!n$ pr!soners #ho !mpose a $reat "ost upon o"a "ommun!t!es' +* The "ost to so"!ety !n"reases s!$n!f!"ant y as a resu t of pr!sonersI reentry and must be "ons!dered #hen des!$n!n$ a 1ud!"!a san"t!on me"han!sm based on an e"onom!" %a ue theory frame#or4' F!rst- there are s!$n!f!"ant "osts asso"!ated #!th "r!me and pub !" safety' As the number of "r!m!na s enter!n$ the "ommun!ty !n"reases- so does the r!s4 to the pub !"' +)
senten"!n$pro1e"t'or$DAdm!nD/o"umentsDpub !"at!onsDfdMde"adeMreform'pdf' Th!s per"entE a$e "an a so be ana y&ed d!fferent y to ref e"t that- KGtJh!rteen per"ent of a adu t b a"4 men U('+ m! !onUare d!senfran"h!sed- represent!n$ oneEth!rd of the tota d!senfran"h!sed popu at!on and ref e"t!n$ a rate of d!senfran"h!sement that !s se%en t!mes the nat!ona a%era$e'L 3AMI7 F7LLN7R < MARC MA07R- S7NT7NCING 9RO37CT- LOSING TH7 AOT7: TH7 IM9ACT OF F7LONY /IS7NFRANCHIS7M7NT LA5S IN TH7 0NIT7/ STAT7S * ;())*>http:DD###'senten"!n$pro1e"t'or$DtmpDF! eDFARDfdM os!n$the%ote'pdf ;"!t!n$ LYNN7 M' CAS97R < LOR7TTA 7' =ASS- 0'S' C7NS0S =0R7A0- AOTING AN/ R7GISTRATION IN TH7 7L7CTION OF NOA7M=7R ()), ;())*>- http:DD###'"ensus'$o%DprodDHD)*pubsDp.BE@B+'pdf>' In add!t!on- Ka most one !n three b a"4 men bet#een the a$es of .B and .) years are under "orre"t!ona super%!s!on or "ontro 'L MARC MA07R < TRACY H0LING- S7NT7NCING 9RO37CT- YO0NG =LAC8 AM7RICANS AN/ TH7 CRIMINAL 30STIC7 SYST7M: FIA7 Y7ARS LAT7R ( ;())@>http:DD###'senten"!n$pro1e"t'or$DAdm!nD/o"umentsDpub !"at!onsDrdMyoun$b a"4M @yrs ater'pdf' 5hen !t "omes to the probab! !ty of $o!n$ to pr!son dur!n$ a !fet!me- !t !s h!$hest amon$ b a"4 ma es ;H.'.S>- fo o#ed by H!span!" ma es ;(C'.S> and o#est amon$ #h!te ma es ;@')S>' THOMAS 9' =ONCNAR- 0'S' /79IT OF 30STIC7- 9R7AAL7NC7 OF IM9RISONM7NT IN TH7 0'S' 9O90LATION- ()C+E.BB(- at * tb ') ;.BBH>- http:DD###'o1p' usdo1'$o%Db1sDpubDpdfDp!uspB('pdf' The !fet!me "han"es of $o!n$ to pr!son amon$ b a"4 fema es ;@',S> #ere near y as h!$h as for #h!te ma es- fo o#ed by H!span!" fema es ;.'.S>- #h! e #h!te fema es ;B')S> had mu"h o#er "han"es of $o!n$ to pr!son' Id, +, ' See =ONCNAR- %upra note +@- at * tb ')' +C ' LISA 7' =ROO8S 7T AL'- 30STIC7 9OLICY CTR'- 9RISON7R R77NTRY IN MASSACH0S7TTS H ;Mar"h .BB@>- http:DDurban'or$Dup oaded9/FD+(((,CM9r!sonerMRe entryMMA'pdf ;footnote om!tted> ;not!n$ resear"h f!nd!n$s that KGtJ#oEth!rds of the adu t pr!soners re eased a"ross the "ountry !n ()), returned to ma1or metropo !tan areasUup from @B per"ent !n ()*+L>' +* , See /INA R' ROS7 AN/ TO// R' CL7AR - INCARC7RATION- R77NTRY- AN/ SOCIAL CA9ITAL: SOCIAL N7T5OR8S IN TH7 =ALANC7 (*H ;.BB.>- http:DD###'urban'or$D up oadedpdfD +(B,.HMSo"!a Cap!ta 'pdf' +) , See id, 5h! e members of h!$h !n"ar"erat!on ne!$hborhoods fre?uent y "a for more
C, CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H Th!s a so !n"reases the rate of unemp oyment and home essness' @B Lon$er t!me ser%ed beh!nd pr!son bars !mpa"ts the e%e of atta"hments the offender "an ma!nta!n #!th both fam! y and "ommun!ty' @( 7mp!r!"a resear"h su$$ests that the on$er the term of !n"ar"erat!on fa"ed by a pr!soner- the ess atta"hment the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua reta!ns #!th h!s or her fam! y' @. Th!s- !n turn- !mpa"ts the offenderIs re!nte$rat!on !nto so"!ety upon re ease from pr!son' /ue to attenuat!on !n the atta"hment bet#een the offender- fam! y members and so"!ety- !t "an be ar$ued that the en$th of !n"ar"erat!on ad%erse y affe"ts the pr!sonerIs reentry !nto so"!ety' @H =' Co atera Impa"t on the Ind!%!dua Co atera "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on ha%e not been fa"tored !nto senten"!n$ determ!nat!ons made by "ourts' Th!s !s due to the fa"t that "urrent d!s"ourse re$ard!n$ the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system assumes a %!"t!mE "entr!" %!e#po!nt'@+ Therefore- #hen the term K"o atera L !s atta"hed- !t refers to the !mpa"t upon the "r!m!na offender- and the authent!"!ty of su"h an !mpa"t be"omes e!ther tr!%!a !&ed or s!$n!f!"ant y redu"ed' 7%en !f th!s po!nt !s "on"eded- the %a ue of the "r!m!na defendant st! must be !nd!re"t y measured by h!s or her "omm!ss!on of a "r!me' As "o atera effe"t at an !nd!%!dua e%e "an be seen "on"eptua y as the oss of human "ap!ta - !t "an be pre%ented by pro%!d!n$ the !nd!%!dua #!th some a%enue of redempt!on'@@ In th!s "onte2t- human "ap!ta "an be def!ned as a humanIs s4! s and ab! !t!es as a "ontr!but!on to so"!ety' @, Th!s !s be"ause human "ap!ta pro%!des a ens throu$h #h!"h so"!ety "an assess an !nd!%!dua Is
"r!me "ontro !n the!r "ommun!t!es- there a so are m!2ed fee !n$s about the re at!onsh!p bet#een res!dents and the po !"e and the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system !n $enera ' Reentry e2a"erbates these fee !n$s as e2Eoffenders are returned to "ommun!t!es #here res!dents ha%e !tt e say !n the pro"ess' Other resear"h ' ' ' demonstrates that #hen peop e #ho 4no# someone #ho has been to pr!son ha%e a o# assessment of forma so"!a "ontro they a so are !4e y to ha%e a o# assessment of !nforma so"!a "ontro ' Yet- the oppos!te re at!onsh!p !s true for those #ho do not 4no# someone #ho has been to pr!son' Thus- a !enat!on produ"ed by the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system "an resu t !n essened safety' Id, at ().E)H ;"!tat!on om!tted>' @B , See Ha$an- %upra note HC- at @C)' @( , See 57ST7RN- %upra note H*- at +E@' @. , See 3oan 9eters! !a- !arole and !ri%oner Reentry in t$e /nited State% - ., CRIM7 < 30ST' +C)- +)@ ;()))>' @H , Id, @+ , See %upra te2t a""ompany!n$ notes .+E.)' @@ , See 8e%!n M' Roy < Omar! L' /yson- Gate+eepin in Conte4t- 2abymama (rama and t$e Involvement of In"ar"erated Fat$er%- H FATH7RING .*)- HB, ;Fa .BB@>' @, , See /!na R' Rose < Todd R' C ear- In"ar"eration, So"ial Capital and CrimeImpli"ation% for So"ial (i%or ani6ation T$eory - H, CRIMINOLOGY ++(- ++C- +@@ ;())*> ;not!n$ some human "ap!ta s4! s are read!n$- #r!t!n$- and reason!n$ ab! !ty>'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL CC ab! !ty to !mpart %a ue to h!s or her "ommun!ty' A thou$h !n some "ases !n"ar"erat!on may !n"rease an !nd!%!dua Is human "ap!ta by !n"u "at!n$ !fe s4! s or enhan"!n$ a"adem!" ?ua !f!"at!ons- "are must be ta4en so that a !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s are pro%!ded #!th the opportun!ty to !n"rease the!r human "ap!ta '@C The ne$at!%e "onnotat!on of !n"ar"erat!on o%ershado#s any %est!$e of humanness asso"!ated #!th an offender due to the e2traord!nary nature of !n"ar"erat!on and the st!$ma that so"!ety atta"hes to !t' 72posure to pr!son sub"u ture ma4es !t e2treme y d!ff!"u t for the offender to return to a typ!"a - fun"t!on!n$ en%!ronment' Moreo%er- most !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s fa"e d!strust from "ommun!ty members- espe"!a y #omen- #h!"h "an erode the!r "onf!den"e to re!nte$rate' @* Th!s a"4 of "onf!den"e d!m!n!shes the ab! !ty of offenders to re!nte$rate !nto hea thy "ommun!ty net#or4sresu t!n$ !n d!ff!"u ty f!nd!n$ mean!n$fu emp oyment upon reentry !nto so"!ety' @) The !nab! !ty to f!nd emp oyment !s further a""entuated by the !m!ted a%a! ab! !ty of fe onEfr!end y emp oyers- a"4 of 1ob s4! s- or se%ere a"4 of !feEs4! s amon$ on$Eterm !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s' ,B As a resu t!n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s are hope ess y de$raded !n terms of the!r human "ap!ta and f!nd !t d!ff!"u t to o"ate any reasonab e emp oyment upon reentry' ,(
@C @*
, , 7d!n>'
See Roy < /yson- %upra note @@- at HBBEB+' See 57ST7RN- %upra note H*- at (HE(+ ;d!s"uss!n$ a study "ondu"ted by 8athryn
The st!$ma of !n"ar"erat!on a so stra!ns e2!st!n$ re at!onsh!ps' 7r%!n$ Goffman des"r!bes st!$maIs "onta$!ous ?ua !ty- suffus!n$ persona re at!onsh!ps: KIn $enera the tenden"y for a st!$ma to spread from the st!$mat!&ed !nd!%!dua to h!s " ose "onne"t!ons pro%!des a reason #hy su"h re at!ons tend e!ther to be a%o!ded or to be term!nated #here e2!st!n$'L =ramanIs f!e d#or4 !n 5ash!n$ton /C pro%!des emp!r!"a support' The h!$h pre%a en"e of !n"ar"erat!on- he f!nds- does !tt e to redu"e !ts st!$mat!" effe"t' Id, at (+ ;"!tat!ons om!tted>' @) , Id, ,B , See 8athryn 7d!n- T!mothy 3' Ne son < Re"he e 9arana - Fat$er$ood and In"ar"eration a% !otential Turnin !oint% in t$e Criminal Career% of /n%+illed 'en - in IM9RISONING AM7RICA: TH7 SOCIAL 7FF7CTS OF MASS INCARC7RATION +,- ,CE,* ;Mary 9att! o et' a ' eds'- .BB+>P 3oan Moore- 2earin t$e 2urden- 7ow In"ar"eration !oli"ie% 0ea+en Inner-City Communitie%- in TH7 0NINT7N/7/ CONS7W07NC7S OF INCARC7RATION ,C- C. ;()),>- http:DD###'%era'or$Dpub !"at!onMpdfDu"!'pdfP =ru"e 5estern- Mary 9att! o < /a%!d 5e!man- Introdu"tion to- IM9RISONING AM7RICA: TH7 SOCIAL 7FF7CTS OF MASS INCARC7RATION %upra note ,B- at (- +P Todd R' C ear- /!na R' Rose < 3ud!th A' RyderIn"ar"eration and t$e Community- T$e !roblem of Removin and Returnin *ffender% - +C CRIM7 < /7LINW' HH@- H+( ;.BB(>P 8ath een M' O !%ares- Ae mer S' =urton- 3r' < Fran"!s T' Cu en- T$e Collateral Con%e.uen"e% of a Felony Convi"tion- A &ational Study of State Le al Code% 89 5ear% Later- ,B F7/' 9RO=ATION (B- (B ;()),>' ,( , See sour"es "!ted %upra note ,B'
C*
CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T C' Co atera Impa"t on Fam! y
GAo ' H+:H(H
It !s d!ff!"u t to est!mate the number of m!nor "h! dren #ho ha%e at east one parent !n"ar"erated',. Th!s d!ff!"u ty ar!ses from se%era reasons ran$!n$ from !mproper dataE"o e"t!on pro"edures and #ea4 tra"4!n$ me"han!sms- to a a"4 of "ommun!"at!on bet#een the !n"ar"erated parent and h!s or her "h! d' ,H Some est!mate- ho#e%er- that ('@ m! !on "h! dren ha%e at east one !n"ar"erated parent- ,+ and at east H'@ m! !on ha%e a parent on e!ther paro e or !n the probat!on system' ,@ /esp!te the re"o$n!t!on that parenta !n%o %ement !s essent!a to the psy"ho o$!"a de%e opment of "h! dren- the !n"ar"erat!on system has ar$e y !$nored the needs of "h! dren !n th!s matter' The pr!son system ne!ther en"oura$es nor fa"! !tates "onta"t bet#een !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s and the!r "h! dren' ,, Therefore- !t !s e2treme y d!ff!"u t for parentE"h! d re at!onsh!ps to $ro# as a resu t of en$thy !n"ar"erat!on' A p ethora of fa"tors !nf uen"e the attenuat!on of "ommun!"at!on bet#een an !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua and h!s or her fam! y' These fa"tors ran$e from !na""ess!b! !ty of pr!sons due to remoteness- to oss of !n"ome #!th!n the fam! y- to !n"ons!stent !mpos!t!on of pr!son po !"y- as #e as asymmetr!" app !"at!on of "!%! r!$hts remed!es upon the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua ',C From a f!nan"!a po!nt of %!e#- !f a father !s !n"ar"erated- h!s fam! y !s !4e y to be se%ere y !mpa"ted' The "y" e of "r!m!na !ty "ont!nues #hen the !nd!%!dua offenders "annot "ontr!bute to the!r fam! !es after re ease' Stepp!n$ a#ay from the f!nan"!a
,.
, See, e, ,- RO=7RT 3' LALON/7 < S0SAN MARI7 G7ORG7- INCARC7RAT7/ MOTH7RS: TH7 CHICAGO 9RO37CT ON F7MAL7 9RISON7RS AN/ TH7IR CHIL/R7N ,EC ;3une .BB.> ;not!n$ that f! es do not "onta!n !nformat!on about the "h! dren of !n"ar"erated mothers su"h as K#hether the mother #as the "ustod!a parent #hen she #as adm!tted to pr!son-L and that as a resu t !t "ou d not be est!mated Kho# many "h! dren had the!r "are$!%er "han$e #hen the!r mothers #ere sent to pr!sonL>P 3oy"e A' Ard!tt!- Sara A' Smo"4 < T!ffaney S' 9ar4man- It3% 2een 7ard to be a Fat$er- A :ualitative E4ploration of In"ar"erated Fat$er$ood- H FATH7RING .,C- .,* ;.BB@>' ,H ' Cynth!a Seymour- C$ildren wit$ !arent% in !ri%on- C$ild 0elfare !oli"y, !ro ram, and !ra"ti"e I%%ue%- in CHIL/R7N 5ITH 9AR7NTS IN 9RISON- %upra note H(- at (H ;not!n$ that a thou$h "ase #or4ers as"erta!n on a "aseEbyE"ase bas!s #hen "h! dren ha%e !n"ar"erated parents- tra"4!n$ me"han!sms are #ea4 be"ause state systems do not $ather parenta !n"ar"erat!on data !n a "ompetent manner to $a!n any system #!de ana ys!s benef!t>' See enerally Ard!tt!- Smo"4 < 9ar4man- %upra note ,.- at .,* ;not!n$ that se%era states do not tra"4 fam! y data from !nd!%!dua s !n the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system>' ,+ ' Ard!tt!- Smo"4 < 9ar4man- %upra note ,.- at .,* ;"!t!n$ Seymour- %upra note ,H>' ,@ , Id, ,, , See id, ;po!nt!n$ to se%era fa"tors that !nh!b!t "h! drenIs %!s!tat!on #!th !n"ar"erated parents !n" ud!n$ $eo$raph!" d!stan"e- transportat!on and f!nan"!a barr!ersa"4 of "h! dEfr!end y %!s!t!n$ atmosphere- and a $enera m!streatment of the !n"ar"erated and the!r fam! !es dur!n$ %!s!ts>' ,C ' Haro d 5atts < /emetra Sm!th N!$ht!n$a e- Addin it /p- T$e E"onomi" Impa"t of In"ar"eration on Individual%, Familie%, and Communitie% - in TH7 0NINT7N/7/ CONS7W07NC7S OF INCARC7RATION- %upra note ,B- at )('
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL C) aspe"t- the !mpa"t of !n"ar"erat!on must a so be understood throu$h the pr!sm of "u tura d!%ers!ty' For e2amp e- !n a "u tura "onte2t- the !mpa"t of !n"ar"erat!on !s more pronoun"ed !n the Lat!no and Afr!"anEAmer!"an "ommun!t!es,* due !n part to the fa"t that fam! !es are !nter"onne"ted and " oseE4n!t' Thus- !n "ommun!t!es su"h as these- !n"ar"erat!on may !mpa"t a $reater number of !nd!%!dua s #ho may be f!nan"!a y and emot!ona y dependent on the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua ',) /' Co atera Impa"t on Commun!t!es Some of the "o atera effe"ts on "ommun!t!es "an be understood throu$h the fo o#!n$ fa"tors' F!rst- the ne$at!%e st!$ma of !n"ar"erat!on e2tends to the ne!$hborhoods and "ommun!t!es that e2per!en"e a h!$h rate of pr!soner mob! !ty as a resu t of reentry !nto the "ommun!ty' CB Se"ond- the st!$ma "ont!nues as the "ommun!ty $arners a ne$at!%e reputat!on- deterr!n$ ne# bus!nesses and !nh!b!t!n$ the entry of h!$her !n"ome res!dents C( and e"onom!" de%e opment $enera y' C. Th!rd- the eros!%e !mpa"t on a "ommun!tyIs so"!a "ap!ta has not re"e!%ed due attent!on- desp!te f!nd!n$s
,*
, See /onna 5! mott < 3u !ana %an O phen- C$allen in t$e 7ealt$ Impa"t% of In"ar"eration- T$e Role for Community 7ealt$ 0or+er% - H CAL' 3' OF H7ALTH 9ROMOTION H*- H* ;.BB@>- http:DD###'"su"h!"o'eduD"1hpDHD.DH*E+*E#! mott'pdf' ,) , See id, CB , See 57ST7RN- %upra note H*- at (+E(@' C( ' Often- the terms Kbad ne!$hborhoodL or Kundes!rab e peop eL "hara"ter!&e so"!etyIs broader %!e# of "ommun!t!es to #h!"h pr!soners reEenter' On"e su"h st!$ma !s atta"hed to a ne!$hborhood or !nhab!tants of that "ommun!ty- !t be"omes e2treme y d!ff!"u t to de%e op a mean!n$fu re at!onsh!p #!th so"!ety $enera y- the !mpa"t of #h!"h "an be fe t at %ar!ous e%e s- !n" ud!n$ ha%!n$ an e"onom!" !mpa"t' See ROS7 < CL7AR- %upra note +*at ()H' F!na y- the !dent!t!es of res!dents of the "ommun!tyEatE ar$e are !mpa"ted by h!$h e%e s of "oer"!%e mob! !ty be"ause they- and others outs!de the "ommun!ty!dent!fy them as "om!n$ from a KbadL ne!$hborhood' Our respondents reported th!s trans ated !nto res!dents #!thdra#!n$ from ma!nstream so"!ety- fee !n$ the!r opt!ons #ere !m!ted and !fe "han"es d!m!n!shed' For "h! dren- th!s redu"ed the!r sta4e !n "onform!n$ to "o e"t!%e norms and %a ues' The 4no# ed$e that others thou$ht ess of them be"ause of #here they !%ed a so meant res!dents #ere !n" !ned to be !e%e $o%ernment off!"!a s d!d not "are about them or the!r ne!$hborhoods and that pers!stent ra"!sm #as the true "ause of "ond!t!ons found !n the ne!$hborhood' In add!t!on- res!dents !n h!$h !n"ar"erat!on ne!$hborhoods report that as the!r ne!$hborhood de%e ops a reputat!on as a p a"e for return!n$ offenders to res!de- other Kundes!rab eL peop e ;su"h as the home ess> m!$rate there as #e ' The "onse?uen"e of h!$h e%e s of e2Eoffenders and other trans!ents !s d!m!n!shed fee !n$s of safety !n the ne!$hborhood' F!na y- #h! e many res!dents too4 pr!de !n the!r ne!$hborhood- others e2pressed a des!re to ea%e!nd!"at!n$ a o# e%e of be on$!n$' Id,
C.
See 5atts < N!$ht!n$a e- %upra note ,C'
*B CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H that poorer "ommun!t!es are d!sproport!onate y affe"ted as a resu t of !nd!%!dua members be!n$ !n"ar"erated'CH These fa"tors resu t !n "ommun!t!es #!th h!$h e%e s of pr!soner reentry be"om!n$ a !enated from a ar$er "ommun!ty "onte2t' Th!s a !enat!on "ou d- !n turn- re!nfor"e both so"!a and po !t!"a !so at!on of the "ommun!tyIs res!dents' Ho# "an th!s !nformat!on be !n"orporated !nto a theory of !n"ar"erat!onR /oes the %a uat!on of "r!me respons!%eness and en$th of !n"ar"erat!on be"ome a symmetr!" e2er"!se by the 1ury and the 1ud$eR Th!s pert!nent !nformat!on shou d be $!%en due #e!$ht and !ts "onse?uen"es fa"tored !nto the senten"!n$ e?uat!on' In my %!e#- !nd!%!dua s $enera y "onform to the!r f!rm y he d be !efs #hen "onfronted #!th the d! emma of se e"t!n$ amon$ un4no#ns !n a "ontro ed en%!ronment' In th!s frame#or4- ob1e"t!%!ty "ou d be ost due to sub1e"t!%e shap!n$ der!%ed from oneIs !nherent %a ue system' Th!s same me"han!sm !s at p ay #!th!n our "r!m!na 1ust!"e system' For e2amp e!nd!%!dua s !n%o %ed !n shap!n$ the e$!s at!%e pro"ess use the!r !nherent %a ue systems- some based on retr!but!%e !mpu ses- !n fash!on!n$ the e$!s at!%e response to "r!m!na !ty throu$h the po !t!"a pro"ess' In th!s #aythe most !nf uent!a po !t!"!ans u t!mate y be"ome the arb!ters of the pun!shment thresho d- render!n$ the %a ueE"entr!" pun!shment me"han!sm unatta!nab e' The !ssue- then- !s ho# to !n"orporate a %a ueEdr!%en pun!shment me"han!sm #!th!n th!s h!$h yEpo !t!"!&ed "r!m!na 1ust!"e system' IA' 7FAMINING TH7 AAL07 9RO9OSITION Th!s art!" e has art!"u ated #hy a ne# %a ue system based on e"onom!" "ons!derat!ons !s re?u!red for de%e op!n$ a %a ue theory of !n"ar"erat!on' In order to better understand the pra"t!"a !ty and s!$n!f!"an"e of th!s ne# %a ueE"entr!" mode - th!s art!" e #! de%e op a %a ue propos!t!on of !n"ar"erat!on' A""ord!n$ to th!s %a ue propos!t!on- the e%e of pun!shment shou d be set su"h that the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on must not e2"eed the e2pe"ted %a ue or a$$re$ated benef!t transferred to so"!ety' In trad!t!ona e"onom!" terms- the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on must not e2"eed the e2pe"ted net benef!t a"h!e%ed by so"!ety as a #ho e' Therefore- th!s %a ue e2press!on "onta!ns t#o %ar!ab es: the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on and the transferred %a ue $a!ned by so"!ety as a resu t of the !n"ar"erat!on' A' /eterm!n!n$ the Cost of In"ar"erat!on In the trad!t!ona !n"ar"erat!on mode - the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on !s "a "u ated based on s!mp e e"onom!" terms that fa! to ta4e !nto "ons!derat!on the oss of human "ap!ta by so"!ety' C+ In %!e# of th!s
CH C+
, ,
See GARO09A- %upra note HH- at CE) ;d!s"uss!n$ nonEmonetary san"t!ons>' See d!s"uss!on %upra 9art III'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL *( def!"!en"y- a ne# !n"ar"erat!on mode shou d arr!%e at a "ost "a "u at!on based on t#o steps' F!rst- a "ost dr!%ers for !n"ar"erat!on must be !dent!f!ed and !nd!%!dua %a ues ass!$ned to a su"h !dent!f!ed dr!%ers' Se"ond- probab! !ty fa"tors for ea"h "ost dr!%er must be ass!$ned- su"h that ea"h !nd!%!dua "ost e ement !s determ!ned by proper y d!s"ount!n$ the probab! !ty of o""urren"e of su"h "ost dr!%ers' For e2amp e- assume that d ! represents an !nd!%!dua "ost dr!%er- #hose probab! !ty of o""urren"e has been !dent!f!ed as p!' Furthermore- assume that " ! represents the "ost ass!$ned to the spe"!f!" "ost dr!%er d !' The tota "ost of !n"ar"erat!on "an be "a "u ated as C Y "!p!' To ! ustrate the "ost "a "u at!on- suppose for a part!"u ar "r!m!na offense the s"enar!o !s as fo o#s: " ( represents the e"onom!" "ost of !n"ar"erat!on for a spe"!f!" per!od- " . represents the "ost of ost human "ap!ta !n"urred as a resu t of !n"ar"erat!n$ the !nd!%!dua "r!m!na offender"H denotes the "ost to so"!ety as a resu t of the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua Is "h! dren "omm!tt!n$ "r!mes- and " + denotes the "ost !mposed on so"!ety as a resu t of de$radat!on !n the "ommun!ty from #here the offender "omes from' If p(- p.- pH- p+ represent the probab! !ty #!th #h!"h a "osts #! e%o %e- the tota "ost of !n"ar"erat!on !n th!s "r!m!na offense "an be "a "u ated as C Y "(p( Z ".p. Z "HpH Z "+p+' C ear y- th!s ! ustrat!on !s a s!mp !st!" s"enar!o- but !t he ps "apture the essen"e of the proposed %a ueEbased "ost of !n"ar"erat!on' Here- the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on !s "a "u ated on y after !dent!fy!n$ a poss!b e "ost dr!%ers and proper y d!s"ount!n$ them based on the!r !nd!%!dua probab! !ty of o""urren"e' The frame#or4 a so he ps ! ustrate another d!mens!on of !n"ar"erat!on- #h!"h !s that any senten"!n$ de"!s!on #! s!$n!f!"ant y !n"rease the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on due to the sheer number of add!t!ona %ar!ab es !n%o %ed !n the "a "u at!on' =' 72pe"ted Aa ue Ga!n to So"!ety In the trad!t!ona mode - the e2pe"ted %a ue !mparted to so"!ety !s determ!ned by de%e op!n$ a measure of e"onom!" $a!n from the stated ob1e"t!%es of !n"ar"erat!on' Th!s art!" e proposes to "a "u ate e2pe"ted e"onom!" $a!ns for ea"h measure of the four ob1e"t!%es pre%!ous y out !ned: retr!but!on- !n"apa"!tat!on- deterren"e and rehab! !tat!on' C@ Net so"!eta $a!n #ou d d!ffer for ea"h of these ob1e"t!%es- as the so"!eta $a!n #ou d be dr!%en by the spe"!f!" ut! !ty of the ob1e"t!%e to so"!ety !n $enera thus attr!but!n$ the separate ut! !ty fa"tors to ea"h ob1e"t!%e' Thereforeso"!eta $a!n from the ob1e"t!%e #ou d be attenuated by !ts respe"t!%e ut! !ty fa"tor- #h!"h #! then "on%ert the so"!eta $a!n !nto a #e!$hted $a!n e ement' For e2amp e- !f ur- u!- ud- and ur represent the respe"t!%e ut! !ty fa"tors- and $r- $!- $d and $r denote the!r "orrespond!n$ $a!ns- the a$$re$ate $a!n !mparted to so"!ety "an be seen as the "ompos!te !nde2 s"ore G Y u r$r
C@
See %upra pp' H..E.H'
*. CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H Z u!$! Z ud$d Z ur$r' The e2pe"ted %a ue $a!ned by so"!ety "an therefore be determ!ned by f!$ur!n$ out the "ompos!te !nde2 s"ore as "a "u ated abo%e' Con"eptua y!f an a"t!on has mu t!p e ob1e"t!%es #!th d!ffer!n$ ut! !ty fa"tors ass!$ned to ea"h ob1e"t!%e- and !f ea"h of these ob1e"t!%es has a spe"!f!ed e"onom!" %a ue- then the %a ue of the a"t!on "ou d be determ!ned by mu t!p y!n$ the ut! !ty fa"tors #!th the!r "orrespond!n$ e"onom!" %a ues' The "on"ept of #e!$hted a%era$e "omes from the fa"t that !nd!%!dua ut! !ty fa"tors "on%ert the !nd!%!dua e"onom!" %a ue of an ob1e"t!%e by the respe"t!%e #e!$ht of !nd!%!dua ut! !ty' Th!s #e!$hted a%era$e %a ue of ut! !t!es #ou d "onst!tute the "ompos!te !nde2 s"ore for the part!"u ar a"t!on' No#- !f one #ere to app y th!s frame#or4 to "a "u ate the a$$re$ate so"!eta $a!n from !n"ar"erat!on- one has to rep a"e the a"t!on #!th !n"ar"erat!on !n the mode ' The "ompos!te !nde2 s"ore for the !n"ar"erat!on as a measure of ut! !ty %a ue !n th!s frame#or4 "ou d then be obta!ned as fo o#s: ;!> !dent!fy both the !nd!%!dua ut! !ty fa"tors ass!$ned to the stated ob1e"t!%es of !n"ar"erat!on and the "orrespond!n$ e"onom!" %a ues for those ob1e"t!%esP and ;!!> a$$re$ate the #e!$hted e"onom!" $a!n for ea"h one of the stated ob1e"t!%es- !n" ud!n$- deterren"e, retribution, in"apa"itation, and re$abilitation' Th!s #! then pro%!de the des!red #e!$hted a%era$e ut! !ty $a!n of the four d!fferent ob1e"t!%es' The d!ff!"u ty !n obta!n!n$ a proper %a ue for these e2pe"ted so"!eta $a!ns ar!ses from "ontrad!"tory theor!es of so"!a ut! !ty' C, There are a mu t!tude of an$ es from #h!"h th!s "an be %!e#ed' For e2amp e- th!s art!" e has ar$ued and #! pro"eed on the assumpt!on that there !s no per"e!%ab e deterren"e %a ue that "an be as"r!bed to !n"ar"erat!on' CC Therefore- for ?uant!tat!%e purposes- the e2pe"ted %a ue $a!n to so"!ety %!a deterren"e may ha%e a ut! !ty $a!n fa"tor " ose to &ero- or not a$$re$ate to a s!$n!f!"ant ut! !ty %a ue' As sho#n ear !er- s"ho ars ha%e !nd!"ated that retr!but!on does not ha%e any per"e!%ab e e"onom!" %a ue #h!"h "an be transferred to so"!ety as ut! !ty $a!n throu$h !n"ar"erat!on' C* Retr!but!on supp !es a psy"ho o$!"a d!mens!on #!th!n the %!"t!mEoffender dua frame#or4- #h!"h does not ha%e any s!$n!f!"ant ut! !ty $a!n !n the so"!eta frame#or4' Therefore- !n a "ostE benef!t e"onom!" ana ys!s- so"!eta $a!n "annot be a"h!e%ed by !n"orporat!n$ both retr!but!on and deterren"e' There are- ho#e%er- t#o
C,
' I #ant to re"o$n!&e here that the fourEpron$ ob1e"t!%e of !n"ar"erat!on !s based on one part!"u ar so"!a theory %!e#po!nt' As I ha%e !nt!mated throu$hout th!s art!" ea ternat!%e %a ue systems e2!st and re"o$n!&!n$ them #! he p us re y ess on the ut! !ty measures obta!ned from the " ass!"a %!e# of !n"ar"erat!on' CC , See %upra notes +CE+* and a""ompany!n$ te2t' I ha%e made the ar$ument here that the ut! !ty fa"tor for retribution and deterren"e !s mu"h ess than #hat !s proposed !n the " ass!"a theory of !n"ar"erat!on' The ar$ument presented !n th!s art!" e estab !shes th!s po!nt' C* , See sour"es "!ted %upra note ) and a""ompany!n$ te2t'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL *H rema!n!n$ fa"tors- rehab! !tat!on and !n"apa"!tat!on- for #h!"h s!$n!f!"ant ut! !ty %a ues "an be ass!$ned' Furthermore- !t "an be ar$ued that the abo%e representat!on pro%!des an erroneous %!e# of the so"!eta $a!n under the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode as th!s fa se y assumes that so"!eta $a!n "an on y be determ!ned by a""ount!n$ for the stated ob1e"t!%es of !n"ar"erat!on' =y !n"orporat!n$ human "ap!ta based $a!ns from the "ommun!ty and the fam! y of !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua s !nto the abo%e e?uat!on for so"!eta $a!n- #e "an eas! y de%e op a ne# "ompos!te e?uat!on as fo o#s: G Y u "$" Z uf$f Z ur$r Z u!$! Z ud$d Z ur$r ' C' /efe"ts !n 72!st!n$ Aa ue /!s"uss!on The ?uest!on then be"omes #hether the tota e2pe"ted %a ue $a!n to so"!ety from rehab! !tat!on and !n"apa"!tat!on a one !s a suff!"!ent bas!s upon #h!"h to 1ust!fy the "ost of !n"ar"erat!onR A ternat!%e y- #hether there !s an anoma y #!th!n the e2!st!n$ mode that !n"orre"t y attr!butes ut! !ty fa"tors #h! e "a "u at!n$ so"!eta $a!nR As demonstrated abo%e- the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on !n the e2!st!n$ frame#or4 erroneous y "a "u ates a $a!n based on e!ther a !m!ted set of fa"tors or by ass!$n!n$ a set of fau ty ut! !ty fa"tors'C) C ear y- a %a ueEdr!%en ana ys!s of !n"ar"erat!on ! ustrates that the def!"!en"y of the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode "omes from !ts fa! ure to !n"orporate the "o atera "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on' 7ar !er- !t #as estab !shed that "o atera "onse?uen"es ha%e a s!$n!f!"ant d!mens!on !n the ent!re "r!m!na 1ust!"e pro"ess' *B Co atera "onse?uen"es "ome !n a %ar!ety of forms to %ar!ous ent!t!es su"h as the !nd!%!dua defendant and the fam! !es of the !nd!%!dua defendantIs "ommun!ty' *( If the %a ue dra!n from these ent!t!es !s s!$n!f!"ant as a resu t of !n"ar"erat!on- then th!s %a ue dra!n must be part of the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on' Therefore- the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on shou d be mod!f!ed by a "orre"t!on fa"tor that proper y "a "u ates the %a ue of "o atera "onse?uen"es to so"!ety' =ased on th!s "a "u at!on- there !s !tt e doubt that- #!th!n the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode - the "ost of !n"ar"erat!on !s d!sproport!onate y h!$her than the e2pe"ted %a ue $a!n to so"!ety' Therefore- the ana ys!s !nd!"ates that the trad!t!ona %a ue propos!t!on does not !n"orporate the %a ue of human "ap!ta ' S!n"e a of the "r!m!na 1ust!"e d!s"uss!ons and the "ost benef!t ana yses are based on atta"h!n$ ut! !tyEdr!%en %a ue to the part!"!pat!n$ ent!t!es- they do not a""ount for the oss of human "ap!ta at the $ranu ar e%e of so"!ety' As a resu t- the e2!st!n$ mode fa! s to ta4e !nto a""ount the "ost to the !nd!%!dua defendant- the "ost to fam! y members of the defendant- and the "ost to the
C) *B *(
, , ,
See %upra 9art IA'A' See %upra 9art III' See INAISI=L7 90NISHM7NT - %upra note +.'
*+ CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H "ommun!ty- #h! e ea"h are "ons!dered !n the ne# mode of "ost of !n"ar"erat!on demonstrated abo%e'*. A these "ost dr!%ers emanate from the re"o$n!t!on of the o%era %a ue of both human "ap!ta and of broader so"!eta "ap!ta - both of #h!"h must be proper y !n"orporated !nto the ne# %a ueE"entr!" 1ud!"!a san"t!on mode s' 5hy- then- !s the trad!t!ona !n"ar"erat!on mode def!"!ent !n proper y assess!n$ e"onom!" %a ue to re at!%e parts of th!s e?uat!onR F!rst- the 1ust!"e me"han!sm !n the 0n!ted States !s predom!nate y a der!%at!%e of the "o on!a ph! osophy that #as !nher!ted from the An$ oE Sa2on mode of "r!m!na pun!shment' *H Th!s mode does not "omport #!th human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e- nor does !t "apture the !nherent %a ue of an !nd!%!dua ' H!story and trad!t!on as!de- there are other fa"tors at #or4' One su"h fa"tor !s the e$!s at!%e respons!b! !ty of "reat!n$ and f!2!n$ senten"!n$ $u!de !nes' =y effe"t!%e y f!2!n$ the ?uantum of pun!shment- !t be"omes %ery d!ff!"u t to a o# for the pro !ferat!on of a more e2pans!%e pun!shment system'*+ 5!th!n the "urrent 1ust!"e me"han!sm- pun!shments and de"!s!ons re$ard!n$ paro e or probat!on %ersus !n"ar"erat!on are determ!ned !n!t!a y at the e$!s at!%e e%e and are then !mp emented at the se"ond e%e throu$h the 1ud!"!a pro"ess' *@ =oth the e$!s at!%e and 1ud!"!a pro"esses are hea%! y po !t!"!&ed to#ards a status ?uo or bent to#ard %ested !nterests #h! e "ater!n$ to an [berE"onsumerEdr!%en so"!ety' The dr!%e of the [berE"onsumer to#ard more $oods and mater!a "omforts fosters deta"hment from other human!st!" !mpu ses' *, Th!s- !n turn- str!ps that "onsumer from e$!t!mate fee !n$s to#ard the!r fe o# humans and resu ts !n the de%e opment of a so"!ety #here !nd!%!dua front!ers are not on y restr!"ted- but a so hea%! y fort!f!ed' Any
*. *H
, See d!s"uss!on %upra pp' HHCEH*' , See R!"hard C ar4- 7i%tory of Judi"ial 7an in in 2ritain 8;<=-8>?@http:DD###'r!"hard'" ar4H.'bt!nternet'"o'u4Dhan$!n$('htm ; ast %!s!ted Feb' +- .BB*> ;d!s"uss!n$ An$ oESa2on so"!ety- #here han$!n$ #as the pr!n"!pa form of e2e"ut!on unt! !t #as abo !shed !n (),+- and further report!n$ that dur!n$ the s!2teenth and se%enteenth "entur!es- s"ores of men- #omen and 1u%en! es #ere e2e"uted by pub !" han$!n$>' *+ , See %upra te2t a""ompany!n$ note .@ ;d!s"uss!n$ f!2ed senten"!n$ re$!mes- su"h as truthE!nEsenten"!n$- #h!"h ma4e !t d!ff!"u t to !mp ement a f e2!b e ?uantum of pun!shment>' *@ ' Here I note the pro"ess of "reat!n$ the !n"ar"erat!on me"han!sm #!th!n a demo"rat!" so"!ety !4e the 0n!ted States' Genera y- senten"!n$ $u!de !nes are !n!t!a y determ!ned throu$h or by the "r!m!na 1ust!"e system %!a the e$!s at!%e pro"ess- #h!"h shou d ref e"t the %!e#po!nt of the "ommun!ty' On"e the senten"!n$ $u!de !nes are put !n p a"e- the a"tua senten"!n$ !s "arr!ed out throu$h the 1ud!"!ary' See 8e%!n R' Re!t&- T$e (i%a%%embly and Rea%%embly of /,S, Senten"in !ra"ti"e% - in S7NT7NCING AN/ SANCTIONS IN 57ST7RN CO0NTRI7S ...- ..@E.* ;M!"hae Tonry < R!"hard S' Frase eds' .BB(>' *, , See SA=Y GHOSHRAY- Symmetry, Rationality and Con%"iou%ne%%- Revi%itin 'ar"u%ean Repre%%ion in Ameri"a3% 0ar on Terror- in 7ROS AN/ LI=7RATION: H7R=7RT MARC0S7IS AISION FOR A N75 7RA ;forth"om!n$ .BB*> Ghere!nafter Symmetry, Rationality and Con%"iou%ne%%J'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL *@ en"roa"hment upon or !n1ury to these mater!a $oods and "omforts resu ts !n a hu$e ba"4 ash ref e"ted !n the emer$en"e of %!o ent retr!but!%e !mpu ses'*C A' A99LYING TH7 AAL07 9RO9OSITION TO TH7 TH7ORY OF INCARC7RATION No# that the %a ue frame#or4 has been de%e oped and !ts benef!ts !n "ompar!son to the defe"ts !n the trad!t!ona mode ha%e been d!s"ussed- ** a "entra ?uest!on ar!ses: #hy must th!s %a ue propos!t!on be app !ed to the theory of !n"ar"erat!onR As noted abo%e- *) the trad!t!ona mode of !n"ar"erat!on not on y has fa! ed to s!$n!f!"ant y a ter "r!m!na re"!d!%!sm rates- but a so has fa! ed to !n"orporate the rehab! !tat!%e !dea s of "r!m!na pun!shment')B The !nab! !ty to eff!"!ent y "ommun!"ate the %a ue propos!t!on that estab !shes the re at!%e d!sad%anta$es of restr!"t!%e !n"ar"erat!on a$a!nst a more !bera - %a ueE"entr!" !n"ar"erat!on parad!$m has "reated th!s pr!son nat!on' )( Th!s a"4 of re"o$n!t!on of the %a ue propos!t!on of !n"ar"erat!on has resu ted !n a s!$n!f!"ant !n"rease !n the !n"ar"erat!on bud$et- and a dramat!" redu"t!on !n the edu"at!ona and human de%e opment bud$et at a e%e s a"ross the 0n!ted States' ). Th!s
*C
' Here I refer to the $enera y retr!but!%e !mpu ses that ha%e h!stor!"a y !nf uen"ed Amer!"an peno o$!"a pra"t!"es- #h!"h has a so been do"umented !n !terature' See TH7 TAS8S OF 97NOLOGY- %upra note (- at @CE,B' ** , See %upra 9art IA' *) , See d!s"uss!on %upra pp' H.(E..' )B ' 5!th re$ard to liberty v%, %e"urity- Ramsey C ar4 noted: Our system of "r!m!na 1ust!"e fa! s to redu"e "r!me' It !s not #or4!n$ #e ' 9o !"e are not profess!ona - "ourts are unab e to pro"ess "ase oads- pr!sons ma4e "r!m!na s of boys they "ou d rehab! !tate' 5e see the reforms that are desperate y needed- yet ' ' ' #or4!n$ at the most effe"t!%e e%e poss!b e- they "ou d not substant!a y or permanent y redu"e "r!me #h! e "ond!t!ons e2!st that breed "r!me' Mere #ords of proh!b!t!on- #!th for"e and the threat of for"e the!r on y san"t!on"annot shape human "ondu"t !n mass so"!ety' As turbu en"e- doubt and an2!ety "ause fear to !n"rease- fear !n turn see4s repress!%eness as sour"e of safety' =ut e2per!en"e te s us that the resu t of repress!%eness !s more turbu en"e and more "r!me' In frustrat!on o%er fa! ure of a# enfor"ement to "ontro "r!me- ne#- ?u!"4 and "heap methods by #h!"h po !"e and "ourts and pr!sons m!$ht be made more effe"t!%e are sou$ht am!d desperate hope and r!s!n$ hatred' A pub !" that be !e%es the po !"e a one are respons!b e for "r!me "ontro - and therefore no other effort !s needed- #! %est any po#er !n the po !"e that seems to prom!se safety #hen fear of "r!me !s $reat' =ut there !s no su"h po#er' RAMS7Y CLAR8- CRIM7 IN AM7RICA: O=S7RAATIONS ON ITS NAT0R7- CA0S7S9R7A7NTION AN/ CONTROL .C(EC. ;()CB>' )( , See enerally 9RISON NATION- %upra note H' ). , See =R0C7 57ST7RN- AINC7NT SCHIRAL/I < 3ASON NI7/7N=7RG - 30STIC7 9OLICY INST'7/0CATION < INCARC7RATION HE+ ;.BBH>-
*, CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H apparent anoma y #!th!n the e2!st!n$ pun!shment frame#or4 "a s for a of the sta4eho ders !n the !n"ar"erat!on system to re"o$n!&e the enorm!ty of th!s "ha en$e and a"t a""ord!n$ y' F!rst and foremost- the sta4eho dersUthe e$!s ature- 1ud!"!ary- and $o%ernment a$en"!esUmust be empo#ered to "omprehend the "omp e2 !ntera"t!on bet#een !n"ar"erat!on and so"!ety' Se"ond- these sta4eho ders must rea !&e that !n"ar"erat!on not on y !mpa"ts the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua but a so the fam! !es !n%o %ed and so"!ety as a #ho e' 9romot!n$ th!s empo#erment and edu"at!on #! usher !n a %a ueE"entr!" !n"ar"erat!on mode that "an be susta!ned and ut! !&ed to redu"e the !n"!den"e of "r!m!na !ty at e%ery e%e of so"!ety' Re"o$n!&!n$ the ut! !ty of a %a ue propos!t!on #!th!n the !n"ar"erat!on mode - #e are natura y ed to re%!e# ho# th!s theoret!"a %a ue propos!t!on "an be app !ed #!th!n a pra"t!"a frame#or4 of !n"ar"erat!on' Sett!n$ as!de "onstra!nts of so"!eta !nert!apo !t!"a !mped!ments and $enera !$noran"e- there st! rema!n operat!ona "onstra!nts and pra"t!"a !m!tat!ons as d!s"ussed ear !er' )H A' So"!a Cons"!ousness as an Imped!ment to the Aa ue 9ropos!t!on La"4 of so"!eta "ons"!ousness !s perhaps one of the most s!$n!f!"ant fa"tors "onstra!n!n$ the !mp ementat!on of the %a ue propos!t!on' Th!s so"!eta "ons"!ousness !s part and par"e to the po !t!"a pro"ess- the [berE "onsumerEdr!%en m!ndset- and the retr!but!%e !dea s !nher!ted and propa$ated s!n"e the b!rth of th!s nat!on' A of these fa"tors "ontr!bute to an emer$en"e of fa se rat!ona !ty that !nf uen"es the so"!eta de"!s!onE ma4!n$ pro"ess')+ The h!story of man4!nd !s rep ete #!th s!tuat!ons #here a s!$n!f!"ant mass of human!ty de%e ops a "erta!n per"ept!on re$ard!n$ an e%ent or phenomenon- e%en thou$h ob1e"t!%e e%!den"e " ear y !nd!"ates the e2!sten"e of a d!fferent rea !ty' A retrospe"t!%e $ an"e !nto the %ery re"ent past rem!nds us of ho# a manufa"tured amb!en"e of fear "atapu ted Amer!"a !nto a dra#nEout #ar !n Ira?- #here the ob1e"t!%e rea !ty d!"tated a d!fferent a"t!on' Suppose a ma1or!ty per"e!%es a threat #here there !s no threat: th!s "ou d be "ons!dered fa se "ons"!ousness' )@ Th!s fa se "ons"!ousness "reates a "o$n!t!%e stress barr!er- ), as #e as a po !t!"a barr!er- #h!"h re?u!re "on"erted efforts to o%er"ome !n order to de %e !nto an emer$!n$ human!st!"E1ur!spruden"eE"entr!" !n"ar"erat!on frame#or4'
http:DD###'soros'or$D!n!t!at!%esD1ust!"e Dart!" esMpub !"at!onsDpub !"at!onsDedu"at!onM!n"ar"erat!onM.BBHB*.*D7du"at!onIn"ar"erat! on('pdf' )H , See Roy < /yson- %upra note @@' )+ , See d!s"uss!on %upra 9art II and p' H.+' )@ , See Symmetry, Rationality and Con%"iou%ne%%- %upra note *,' ), , See Saby Ghoshray- /ntan lin t$e CSI Effe"t in Criminal Juri%pruden"eCir"um%tantial Eviden"e, Rea%onable (oubt and Jury 'anipulation - +( N75 7NG' L' R7A' @HH- @+C ;.BBC>'
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL =' Me d!n$ Human!st!" 3ur!spruden"e #!th the Frame#or4 of In"ar"erat!on
*C
A sense of human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e "an be understood throu$h t#o means of ph! osoph!"a frame#or4' F!rst- there must be re"o$n!t!on of human "ap!ta at a e%e s amon$ e%ery part!"!pant !n the 1ud!"!a pro"ess' Se"ond- a 1ud!"!a san"t!on that re"o$n!&es the !nherent human d!$n!ty of a !nd!%!dua s has a mu"h better "han"e of estab !sh!n$ a 1ust and e?u!tab e so"!ety' The "urrent frame#or4 of !n"ar"erat!on ne!ther re"o$n!&es human "ap!ta as a %!ab e for"e to re"4on #!th- nor does !t re"o$n!&e the !nherent human d!$n!ty')C Human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e !s an a !en "on"ept #!th!n th!s e2!st!n$ retr!but!%e "r!m!na 1ust!"e system' Human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e !s based on the e2p !"!t prem!se of further!n$ the ma2!mum potent!a of e%ery human e ement !n so"!ety' =y do!n$ so- the resu t !s the ma2!m!&at!on of so"!eta $a!n by de%e op!n$ human "ap!ta ' The ?uest!on rema!ns- #hy !s !t paramount to be$!n the pro"ess of !n"orporat!n$ human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e !n the present day 1ust!"e systemR Absent a "on"ept!on of human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e- the 1ust!"e system !s
)C
, See Furman %' Geor$!a- +B* 0'S' .H*- .*,- .*) ;()C.> ;=rennan- 3'- "on"urr!n$>P 5! !am 3' =rennan- 3r'- T$e Con%titution of t$e /nited State%- Contemporary Ratifi"ation .C S' T7F' L' R7A' +HH- +++ ;()*,>' The preser%at!on of human d!$n!ty !es at the %ery "ore of our human e2!sten"e and thus must shape the 1ur!sprudent!a pr!n"!p es $u!d!n$ the path to a more humane peno o$!"a system' Id, KGAJ""ord!n$ to 3ust!"e =rennan- an en !$htened so"!ety must mo%e for#ard !n !ts peno o$!"a pra"t!"es the same #ay the matur!n$ so"!ety mo%es ahead !n "u tura - so"!a - and e"onom!"a pra"t!"es'L Saby Ghoshray- Tra"in t$e 'oral Contour% of t$e Evolvin Standard% of (e"en"y- T$e Supreme Court3% Capital Juri%pruden"e !o%t-Roper- +@ 3' CATH' L7GAL ST0/' @*@- @*,E*C ;.BB,>, In add!t!on- the Ke%o %!n$ standards of de"en"yL thresho d ma4es !t !n"umbent on a matur!n$ so"!ety to under$o str!"t mora human s"rut!ny' The "onfrontat!on #!th e%o %!n$ standards of mora !ty a o#ed for the abo !shment of s a%ery and the e !m!nat!on of torture as pun!shment as 5estern "!%! !&at!on mar"hed to#ards matur!ty' The !ssue #e must "onfront- therefore- !s #hen so"!ety- as !t has done !n the past #!th s a%ery and torture- #! be ab e to ea%e beh!nd yet another dra"on!an pra"t!"e of yesteryears and e2tr!"ate !tse f from t!n4er!n$ #!th the ma"h!nery of death as a form of pun!shmentR ' ' ' Le$a d!s"ourse "enter!n$ on human d!$n!ty forms the %ery "ore of 3ust!"e =rennanIs 1ur!sprudent!a ph! osophy- #h!"h shaped h!s perpetua oppos!t!on to the death pena ty as he sees the den!a of human d!$n!ty not to be !n "onform!ty #!th the "on"ept of a matur!n$ so"!ety' Id, The "a "u ated 4! !n$ of a human be!n$ by the state !n%o %es- by !ts %ery naturean abso ute den!a of the e2e"uted personIs human!ty' The most %! e murder does not- !n my %!e#- re ease the state from "onst!tut!ona restra!nts on the destru"t!on of human d!$n!ty' Yet an e2e"uted person has ost the %ery r!$ht to ha%e r!$htsno# or e%er' For me- then- the fata !nf!rm!ty of "ap!ta pun!shment !s that !t treats members of the human ra"e as nonhumans- as ob1e"ts to be ' ' ' d!s"arded' =rennan- %upra at +++'
** CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H e2pand!n$ the pun!t!%e fo"us on "r!m!na 1ur!spruden"e- #h! e str!pp!n$ a#ay !ts rehab! !tat!%e !dea s' The !n"u "at!on of human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e #! ser%e a mu t!tude of purposes' F!rst and foremost- human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e #! rea !&e the %a ue propos!t!on as d!s"ussed throu$hout th!s art!" e' =y rea !&!n$ the %a ue propos!t!on- the ne# 1ud!"!a me"han!sm #! effe"t!%e y address the "o atera "onse?uen"es at mu t!p e e%e s- su"h as not!"!n$ the !mpa"t on the "ommun!ty- the "r!m!na defendant- and the fam! y members of the defendant' Th!s re"o$n!t!on of "o atera "onse?uen"es !s a s!$n!f!"ant step to#ard a fu rea !&at!on of the %a ue propos!t!on and proper y !dent!f!es both s!des of the %a ue e?uat!on' Th!s d!s"uss!on sho#s ho# !n"orporat!n$ an erroneous mode of !n"ar"erat!on "ou d resu t !n !n"orre"t y assess!n$ so"!eta %a ue transfer from !n"ar"erat!on' On the other hand- us!n$ a d!fferent %a ue frame#or4#h!"h !n"orporates %ar!ous "o atera "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on- #! a o# for a the re e%ant %a ue dr!%ers to be proper y a""ounted for' Th!s !n turn #! a o# for a better re at!%e %a ue e2er"!se !n "on1un"t!on #!th a proper so"!a $a!n ana ys!s' =y !n"orporat!n$ human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e and proper y #e!$h!n$ the d!sparate e ements- the ob1e"t!%e of !n"ar"erat!on "ou d be rea !&ed' As a resu t- the %a ue propos!t!on #! be ab e to d!s"ount the effe"ts of retr!but!on and deterren"e- #h! e proper y ad1ust!n$ for rehab! !tat!on and !n"apa"!tat!on' Th!s re"o$n!t!on #! he p remo%e the o%erEbear!n$ $ oss of retr!but!%e !mpu ses #!th!n the Amer!"an !n"ar"erat!on mode s- #h! e $radua y !n"orporat!n$ a %a ueE"entr!"- human "ap!ta retent!on frame#or4 #!th!n the senten"!n$ frame#or4' C' 9ra"t!"a !ty Issue of the Aa ue Frame#or4 As th!s deta! ed anatomy has e2posed the many defe"ts and #ea4 !n4s !n the e2!st!n$ !n"ar"erat!on mode and proposed a ne#er %a uat!on frame#or4- the pra"t!"a !ssue of de%e op!n$ a human!st!" %a ue propos!t!on mode re!$ns supreme' Moreo%er- a number of operat!ona so"!o o$!"a - and trad!t!ona "onstra!nts e2!st' Therefore- the feas!b! !ty of !mp ementat!on has to be re"o$n!&ed and de%e oped not !n an o%ern!$ht epo"hEma4!n$ #ay- but or$an!"a y- us!n$ a stepEbyEstep pro"ess' /' Chart!n$ the Future Course So"!ety "an o%er"ome some of the pra"t!"a !m!tat!ons or operat!ona "onstra!nts by de%e op!n$ sma er- tas4Edr!%en pro"edures that "an !nf uen"e the so"!eta !nert!a !n a s!$n!f!"ant #ay' 5hat fo o#s !s a set of re"ommendat!ons #h!"h "ou d form the ba"4bone of de%e op!n$ more rehab! !tat!%e !n"ar"erat!on mode s' F!rst- and most !mportant y- fr!end y #ebs!tes "ou d be de%e oped to ass!st the pr!son popu at!on !n a"?u!r!n$ so"!a and net#or4!n$ s4! s that #! foster rehab! !tat!on and ease the pro"ess of reentry !nto the!r "ommun!ty' Se"ond- for the fam! !es and "ommun!t!es !mpa"ted by
.BB*J )AL/E-CE&TRIC I&CARCERATI*& '*(EL *) !n"ar"erat!on- the "reat!on of support $roups funded by the !n"ar"erat!on bud$et "ou d pro%!de for a more eff!"!ent reE!nte$rat!on !n the postE !n"ar"erat!on phase' Th!rd- the system must re"o$n!&e that the transportat!on d!ff!"u ty fa"ed by many fam! y members of those !n"ar"erated dr!%es a #ed$e of deta"hment !nto the m!nd of the !n"ar"erated- further !mped!n$ the pro"ess of reentry !nto the "ommun!ty' Therefore- part of the es"a at!n$ !n"ar"erat!on bud$et )* shou d be spent on ensur!n$ fam! y %!s!ts for e"onom!"a y d!stressed pr!soners by pro%!d!n$ free bus ser%!"es to transport "h! dren and o der fam! y members' Th!s #! "ontr!bute s!$n!f!"ant y to#ards redress!n$ the "y" e of perpetua "r!m!na beha%!or- as the e2!st!n$ resear"h po!nts to an !n"reased !n"!den"e of "r!m!na !ty amon$ "h! dren of !n"ar"erated parents' )) Fourth- for the !n"ar"erated parent- !mmers!on !n a 1a! house parent "urr!"u um #!th tra!n!n$ !n !fe s4! s and fam! y %a ues #! enhan"e "ommun!"at!on #!th fam! y- pro%!de !mpetus for rehab! !tat!on- and fa"! !tate smooth "ommun!ty reentry' F!fth- one of the "o atera "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on !s the de$radat!on of "ommun!t!es' Therefore- by d!%ert!n$ part of the !n"ar"erat!on "ost to !mpro%!n$ the "ommun!t!es #!th "on"entrated !n"!den"es of "r!m!na !ty- and pay!n$ attent!on to the !mpro%ement of the!r ?ua !ty of !fe- s!$n!f!"ant !mpro%ement "ou d be made !n the postE !n"ar"erat!on e"onom!" fa"tors "onfront!n$ the offender' Th!s !s bound to pos!t!%e y !mpa"t the "r!me rate and u t!mate y redu"e re"!d!%!sm' Last yemp!r!"a stud!es fo"us!n$ on the !mpa"t of !n"ar"erat!on as #e as fa"tors affe"t!n$ postE!n"ar"erat!on e"onom!" !ssues are ur$ent y needed' Th!s resear"h #ou d he p a sta4eho ders !n%o %ed !n the frame#or4 of !n"ar"erat!on' Furthermore- de%e op!n$ a thorou$h understand!n$ of the "hara"ter!st!"s of pr!soners- and the "ha en$es and !m!tat!ons fa"ed by them- the!r fam! !es- and the!r "ommun!t!es !s an !mportant aspe"t !n shap!n$ pub !" po !"y' A of th!s to$ether "ou d !n"rease safety #!th!n so"!ety and !n"rease the #e fare of a members of the "ommun!ty #h! e redu"!n$ re"!d!%!sm amon$ those former y !n"ar"erated' AI' CONCL0SION Th!s art!" e be$an by deta! !n$ the !ssue of s!$n!f!"ant eros!on of human %a ues !n the e2!st!n$ Amer!"an !n"ar"erat!on mode ' As Amer!"a has sh!fted a#ay from a rehab! !tat!%e frame#or4 and sett ed !nto a more pun!t!%e !n"ar"erat!on mode - the t!me has "ome to embra"e a humanE %a ueEbased 1ur!spruden"e' A a"4 of re"o$n!t!on of !nherent human d!$n!ty pre%ents us from de %!n$ !nto a senten"!n$ me"han!sm that e2tra"ts human "ap!ta %a ue at a e%e s #!th!n "ontemporary so"!ety' Th!s so"!a ma a!se !s further e%!den"ed by the sta$$er!n$ stat!st!"s #h!"h sho# the
)* ))
, ,
See 57ST7RN- SCHIRAL/I < NI7/7N=7RG- %upra note ).- at HEC' See 5! mott < %an O phen- %upra note ,*- at +BE+('
)B CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T GAo ' H+:H(H d!sproport!onate and asymmetr!" nature of f!s"a !n"ar"erat!on bud$ets' (BB Th!s art!" e has presented the bro4en state of affa!rs !n the !n"ar"erat!on system and attempted to present an a ternat!%e frame#or4' =y fo"us!n$ on "o atera "onse?uen"es of !n"ar"erat!on- the art!" e re%!e#s the ne$ e"ted areas of so"!o o$!"a "a am!t!es' Th!s h!$h !$hts that !n"ar"erat!on !s mu"h more than pun!sh!n$ the "r!m!na for the!r "r!me' It has a re%erberat!n$ !mpa"t on the !n"ar"erated !nd!%!dua Is fam! y and h!s or "ommun!ty' Here be$!ns the re%o %!n$ door of produ"!n$ "r!m!na beha%!or resu t!n$ !n !n"ar"erat!on' Ha%!n$ e2am!ned the anatomy of the so"!eta frame#or4 #!th!n a "r!meE andEpun!shment frame#or4- the ana ys!s then !n"orporated a dua E rat!ona !ty of human %a ueE"entr!" pun!shment me"han!sm #!th human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e by de%e op!n$ a ne#er %a ue propos!t!on' Th!s %a ue propos!t!on !n"orporates a pra"t!"a and susta!nab e fa"tors proper y #h! e d!s"ount!n$ the %a ue of pun!shment and "arefu y a$$re$at!n$ a re e%ant dr!%ers and e ements that pro%!de ma2!mum %a ue $a!n to so"!ety' F!na y- !t #as "ontended that th!s %a ue based approa"h !s more susta!nab e and the retent!on of human "ap!ta !s poss!b e at a e%e s' Marry!n$ rehab! !tat!%e !dea s #!th human!st!" 1ur!spruden"e !n the proposed pun!shment frame#or4 not on y re"o$n!&es %a ues- but str!%es to#ard de%e op!n$ a so"!ety #here d!senfran"h!sement and de$radat!on of "ommun!t!es "an be stopped and re"!d!%!sm "an be redu"ed'
(BB
, See =ryan 3' Grapes- Introdu"tion to 9RISONS: C0RR7NT CONTROA7RSI7S (H- (+ ;=ryan 3' Grapes ed'- .BBB> ;report!n$ that three statesUNe# Yor4- Ca !forn!a- and Te2asU spent more money !n"ar"erat!n$ "r!m!na s than they d!d fund!n$ h!$her edu"at!on !n .BBB>P Sasha Abrams4y- !ri%on 2rea+down- IN TH7S7 TIM7S- O"t' ..- .BBC- http:DD###'!nthese t!mes'"omDart!" eDpr!sonMbrea4do#n ; ast %!s!ted Feb' .C- .BB*>'

America The Prison Nation: Melding Humanistic Jurisprudence With A Value-Centric Incarceration Model

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GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

See id' at ,(E,.'

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

CRI'I&AL A&( CI)IL C*&FI&E'E&T C' Co atera Impa"t on Fam! y

GAo ' H+:H(H

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

See 5atts < N!$ht!n$a e- %upra note ,C'

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

See %upra pp' H..E.H'

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

GHOSHRAY MACRO FINAL

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