Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers

INTRODUCTION
ENGINE: It is device by which the heat energy is converted into mechanical energy. The heat engine is divided into two major types: a! E"ternal #omb$stion Engine e.g. %team Engine. b! Internal #omb$stion Engine e.g. &iston Engine' (et Engine etc. Internal Combustion Engine: (Piston Engine) The internal comb$stion engine is divided into vario$s types based on n$mber of strokes to complete a cycle and type of f$el $sed to prod$ce power. a! Based on %troke: )! Two %troke Engine *! +o$r %troke Engine b! Based on +$el: )! %park Ignition Engine ,%.I.E.! or &etrol Engine. This type of engine may be of two or fo$r stroke type. *! #ompression Ignition Engine ,#.I.E.! or -iesel Engine. Two and +o$r %troke Engine falls $nder this category. our !tro"e !#ar" Ignition Engine (!$I$E$): The most internal comb$stion engine have the reciprocating piston principle' wherein a piston slide back and fo$rth in a cylinder and transmit power thro$gh' $s$ally' a simple connecting rod and a crank mechanism to drive shaft. our !tro"e C%cle: The se.$ence of operations by which the engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy is known as the fo$r stroke cycle. It is completed in two revol$tions of shaft. ) st' *nd and /th stroke of the fo$r stroke cycle are called idle stroke. The se.$ence of the operation is as follows: a! Inta"e !tro"e or Induction !tro"e: In an inlet stroke the inlet valve is opened and o$tlet valve remains closed. The piston moves from Top -ead #entre ,T-#! to Bottom -ead #entre ,B-#! and draws the mi"t$re of air and petrol into the cylinder of the engine. b! Com#ression !tro"e: In this stroke both inlet and e"ha$st valve remain closed and the piston moves from B-# to T-# to raise the temperat$re of the mi"t$re which is also compressed inside the cylinder and ignited by the electric spark. c! Ignition !tro"e or Po&er stro"e: In this stroke both the inlet and o$tlet valves remain closed. %park takes place at the end of the compression stroke and b$rns the mi"t$re inside the cylinder. The tremendo$s press$re is created d$e to the b$rning of the mi"t$re inside the cylinder as the gases e"pand. This e"pansion of gas p$shes the piston from T-# to B-#.

d! E'(aust !tro"e: This is the last stroke of fo$r stroke cycle. In e"ha$st stroke the inlet valve remains closed and o$tlet valve is open to e"pel the b$rn gases from the cylinder to the atmosphere our !tro"e Com#ression Ignition Engine (C$I$E$): The fo$r strokes are completed in two revol$tions of the crankshaft and are similar in principle to those of the gasoline engine ,%.I.E.! with similar valve action and timing. 0n the ind$ction stroke' air only is drawn into the cylinder for compression and the absence of f$el permits high compression ratios between)*:) and *1:)' those are needed for high compression ignition. The compressed air reaches temperat$res of aro$nd 211 1# which are s$fficient to ignite the f$el when it is sprayed into the comb$stion chamber. %tarting conditions are less favorable' partic$larly in cold weather3 the heat of compression may not ens$re a .$ick start. To overcome this' some man$fact$rers fit heating element for $se when making an ignition start from cold. The compression ignition engine is a rob$st engine and is' therefore a large 4 heavy power o$tp$t. Beca$se it is designed with a high compression ratio' the compression press$re generates s$fficient heat to light the f$el and no electrical spark system is needed. Electrical heaters may be fitted to aid cold starting b$t this is not spark ignition and s$ch heaters are not in $se when the engine is r$nning. 5 rather e"pensive and comple" f$el system is re.$ired beca$se it performs the following f$nctions: a! &ress$ri6ed the f$el system. b! &rovides a means of s$pply f$el to cylinder on the correct stroke for comb$stion. c! #alibrates the amo$nt of f$el necessary normal throttle setting. d! &rovides variable timing ,advance 4 retard!. e! Injects f$el into the comb$stion space as an atomi6ed spray. Therefore' the compression ignition engine7s f$el system re.$ires a high press$re p$mp' a f$el distrib$tor and f$el injectors to atomi6e the f$el when it is sprayed into the comb$stion chamber. Engineer M. A. Hamid )

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Internal Combustion Engine: In an internal comb$stion engine' the comb$stion of f$el takes place internally within the cylinder. The ignition of f$el depends largely on efficient compression of air among other factors. The air press$re reaches as high as 81 9 :; bar at the end of compression with a temperat$re of ;;1o#. +$el is injected in the hot and t$rb$lent air' press$re and temperat$re rise d$ring comb$stion and the press$re at the end of comb$stion reaches as high as )/1 bar and above. The high press$re energy is imparted on the piston and the reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion at the crankshaft. )eaning of a C%cle: 5 cycle is f$ll separate steps or events essential for efficient engine operation. These steps or events as follows: ). %$ction of air *. #ompression of air <. Injection of f$el /. E"pansion of gases ;. E"ha$sting of gases. The engine will not r$n if one of the above mentioned steps is missing. The engine performance will significantly deteriorate if there is problem related to any one of the above events or steps. If above mentioned steps or events are completed in / strokes of piston or two revol$tions of the crankshaft' the engine is called 4-stroke cycle engine. If above mentioned steps or events are completed in * strokes of piston one revol$tion of the crankshaft' the engine is called 2-stroke cycle engine. !tro"e of a Piston: %troke of a piston is the distance traveled by the piston from the T-# to B-# or vice versa. %troke is determined by the length of the crank. If the crank length is increased' the length of the stroke is increased and the engine is called s$per stroke engine. Clearance *olume: The clearance vol$me is the vol$me on top of the cylinder when the piston is at T-#. The clearance vol$me space forms the comb$stion chamber. !&e#t *olume: %wept vol$me is the vol$me swept by the piston d$ring one stroke. %wept vol$me is the prod$ct of &iston 5rea and %troke. Po&er )easurement: There is two possible meas$rement of engine power: a! Indicated power b! %haft power The indicated power is the power developed within the engine cylinder 4 is meas$red by an engine indicator. The shaft power is the power available at the o$t p$t shaft of the engine and can be meas$red $sing a torsion meter or with a brake. T(e unction of Cross(ead and Piston Trun": The f$nction of the crosshead and piston tr$nk is the play a part in the conversion of the reciprocating movement of the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. They also transmit the transverse load on to the fi"ed parts of the engine designed to take these loads. Difference bet&een Cross(ead and Trun" T%#e Engines: The main difference between crosshead and tr$nk piston type engines is the manner in which the transverse thr$st from the piston and connecting rod is taken $p' and the nat$re of bearing assembly at the $pper part of the connecting rod. #rosshead engines have piston rod and tr$nk engines do not. The transverse thr$st of the connecting rod engine is transmitted to the engine or cylinder g$ide by the g$ide slippers and the transverse thr$st of the tr$nk engine is transmitted by the piston tr$nk or skirt to the cylinder. +d,antage of Cross(ead T%#e Engines: #rosshead engines are able to develop m$ch higher power at lower rotational speed' beca$se the space available for the crosshead bearings is greater than the space within the piston for g$dgeon pin bearing. #heaper .$ality of f$els may be b$rnt in crosshead engines as it is possible to isolate the cylinder space from the crankcase' this preventing acidic resid$es entering the crankcase. The total cost of l$brication is less with crosshead engines than with tr$nk piston engines of e.$ivalent power. +d,antage of Trun" T%#e Engines: Tr$nk piston engines have the advantage of re.$iring less head room than crosshead engines. Engineer M. A. Hamid *

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Their working parts are fewer in n$mber and m$ch less costly to prod$ce.

-EDP.+TE:
Bedplate provides the rigid seating of the crankshaft' which is absol$tely essential for satisfactory engine operation. Modern engine bedplate is bo" shape or =>= shape constr$ction. Design feature: The bedplate is constr$cted of deep longit$dinal girder ?r$nning along the length of the engine@ and transverse or cross girder ?across the engine@. Transverse and longit$dinal girders are joined together by welding: ,)! Cross girder: #ast constr$ction and made of #ast %teel The central portion of the transverse girder is called the bearing saddle' which form the main bearing seating. The transverse girders partic$larly the bearing saddles are the most heavily loaded part of the engine str$ct$re. The static load of the r$nning gear and dynamic load down the piston and connecting rod are transmitted thro$gh the crank jo$rnal to the bearing saddle of the cross girder. There is no s$pport at the centre of the cross girder The s$pport is only at the two sides with the aid of chocks. Tie rods are fitted near to the centre of cross girder. Each main bearing of the engine is fitted at the centre of the cross girder. ,*! .ongitudinal girder: +abricated constr$ction and made of Mild %teel The longit$dinal girder plays an important role in maintaining the longit$dinal rigidity and strength of the bedplate. This in t$rn keeps the crankshaft aligned in longit$dinal direction. Tie bolt Main bearing BeepsC %addle Aightening hole #ross girder Aongit$dinal girder

)odern !lo& !#eed Engine -ed#late

Older T%#e !lo& !#eed Engine -ed#late

+reas of bed#late &(ic( re/uire s#ecial attention during ins#ection: ). -earing saddle: The bearing saddle is the most heavily loaded part of the engine str$ct$re. The static load of the r$nning gears and the dynamic load down the piston and connecting rod are transmitted thro$gh the crank jo$rnal to the bearing saddle of the cross girder. There is no s$pport at the centre of the cross girder' the ma"im$m bending moment is at the centre. %o cracks may takes place at the centre portion of the cross girder and ro$nd the saddle. *. 0unction &eld: It is e"tremely important to pay close attention to the j$nction welds between transverse and longit$dinal girder d$ring inspection. The cross girder has no s$pport at the centre. %o' d$ring firing of the engine the transverse girders are s$bjected to bending moment' which is transmitted to the longit$dinal girder as it is welded to the transverse girder. %o' the j$nction welds are s$bjected to high load' where cracks may take place at the weak points. Tie bolt (oles: Tie bolts are fitted to keep the engine str$ct$re $nder compression. They are s$bjected to a high cyclic stress d$e to the firing force. %o' there is possibility of cracking to takes place in the way of tie bolt holes and ro$nd the holes. .ig(tening (oles: %pecial attention sho$ld be given the areas of lightening holes for crack distrib$tion d$e to stress concentration. -ase of main bearing "ee#s: -$ring the bedplate inspection' the base of the main bearing keeps sho$ld be checked for cracks. C(oc"s: The chocks are $sed to compensate for the nat$ral $nevenness of the tank top. The whole bedplate sits on n$mber of chocks' so' incase of loose or if fretting occ$rs in n$mber of adjacent chocks' severe crankshaft damage can take place d$e to misalignment.

<.

/. ;. 2.

1olding do&n bolts: >olding down bolts is always $nder tensile stress. -$ring the r$nning of the engine' they are s$bjected to a high fl$ct$ation of stress. %o' they may r$n loose and conse.$ences of r$nning an engine with slack bolts are disastro$s. %o' d$ring inspection' ma"im$m attention sho$ld be given to loose bolts. Engineer M. A. Hamid <

D.

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers .i"el% +reas of Crac"s on -ed#late: #entral portion of transverse girder ?main bearing saddle@ and aro$nd the saddle. ($nction welds between transverse and longit$dinal and all the welded points. Tie bolt holes and aro$nd the holes ?top of the transverse girder@. Aightening holes. Base of main bearing keeps. orce on )ain Engine -ed#late: +l$ct$ating gas press$re from the engine cylinder and thro$gh the connecting rod' crankshaft to the bedplate. Inertia forces from the reciprocating masses ?piston@. %tatic weight of all engine parts side thr$st from g$ide faces. Reasons for ailure and Crac"s: E"cessive vibration. Tor.$e reaction from propeller. %lack tie bolts. >$ll deflection. 0verloading of main bearings d$e to Eibration forces d$e to tor.$e fl$ct$ations and shock loading. wear. Thermal stresses. &oor welding. Aoose chocks.

Describe (o& t(e Cross2girder is connected to t(e .ongitudinal girder3 #ross girder is connected to longit$dinal girder by welding' casting or bolt. Modern engines $se welding for this connection to avoid repair diffic$lties and to red$ce risk of distortion. Felding res$lts a lot of defects in the welded str$ct$re. Therefore' preca$tions sho$ld be taken to minimi6e defects before welding: a! The welding m$st be of a very high standard' caref$lly controlled and inspected. b! N$mber of joints sho$ld be minim$m to avoid stress concentration at the joint points. c! (oints sho$ld be do$ble welded b$tt joint. d! 0ne plate or slab to red$ce joining point or welding. e! No intricate shape' if then casting is recommended. f! #ontin$o$s f$ll strength welding sho$ld be carried o$t witho$t diffic$lties. g! Minim$m intersection. h! No abr$pt change of plate section. If there is a change it sho$ld be done grad$ally' s$dden section change ca$ses high stress concentration. i! %ingle plate transverse girder plate e"tension is necessary at joining points. 5 non destr$ctive test to be carried o$t after welding has been done to detect the defects. This can be done by $sing $ltrasonic or magnetic method. Then it sho$ld be taken for stress relieving heat treatment i.e. annealing' normali6ing' hardening and tempering. 1O.DING DO4N +RR+NGE)ENT!: The engine bedplate is s$pported on a series of chocks. #hocks are made of either mild steel or e#o'% resin. #hocks are fitted at partic$lar interval along the periphery of the base of the bedplate after the engine is aligned with the intermediate shafting. The chocks sit on the inner bottom plating of the h$ll str$ct$re' which forms the part of the engine seating. The chocks are fitted more closely to the cross girder as there is no s$pport at the centre of the cross girder. Modern main prop$lsion engines are fitted with side and end chocks in addition to main s$pporting chocks. >olding down st$ds pass thro$gh the bedplate' chock and tank top plating. The st$ds in most of the modern prop$lsion engines are free thro$gh the bedplate' chocks and tank top plating. >olding down bolts are made of 1ig( UT! steel. Bedplate End C(oc" %pherical washer N$t %t$d !ide C(oc" >olding down %t$d

)ain !u##orting C(oc"

Engineer M. A. Hamid

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Tank top 1olding do&n +rrangement for .arge Engine Design eature of 1olding do&n -olts: a! UT! !teel: The bolts are made of high GT% steel. %o they are having high fatig$e strength. b! .ong !tuds: The bolts are longer3 therefore they can be stretched witho$t fail$re ,higher tensile strength!. c! T(in Elastic -olts: &ercentage of elongation is more' which increase fatig$e strength. d! ree !tuds: The bolts are free thro$gh the matting s$rfaces' so there is no stress concentration. e! f! !#acers: The bolts are fitted with long spacer t$bes' which give vibration damping effect. Na"ed !ection: The holding down bolts invariably carry a naked section with o$tside diameter smaller than the diameter at the root of the threaded section. The potential for fail$re at the root of a thread is th$s alleviated. g! 1ig( Degree of !urface inis(: The matting s$rfaces of bedplate' chocks and tanktop are given a high degree of s$rface finish. This red$ces the bending stress in the holding down bolts. h! !ide and End C(oc"s: Modern engines are fitted with side and end chocks addition to main s$pporting chocks. This red$ces shear stress in holding down bolts. actors result in fatigue failure of (olding do&n bolts: The holdings down bolts are s$bjected to fatig$e fail$re' beca$se of fl$ct$ation of stresses. The main factors' which res$lt in fatig$e fail$re of holding down bolts' are: a! Under tig(tened bolts: If the bolts are s$bjected to less stress or less pretension d$ring initial tightening' the stress fl$ct$ation will increase' which will lead to fatig$e fail$re of holding down bolts. b! !lac" studs: The st$ds may get slack d$e to over loading of the engine' which will increase the fl$ct$ation of stress. c! Damaged studs: 5ny scratch' pop marks or s$rface flaw of the naked section of the st$d can lead to the locali6ing of stress that can ca$se fatig$e fail$re. d! !lac" c(oc"s: %lack chocks will also ca$se the bolts to be slack. %lackness of bolts increases stress fl$ct$ation. e! retting of mating surfaces: %evere fretting on mating s$rfaces of bedplate' chocks and fo$ndation plate will ca$se the bolts to r$n loose' which will lead to fatig$e fail$re.

E'#lain &(% (olding do&n bolts often run loose3 >olding down bolts often r$n loose d$e to vibration. Eibration is d$e to tor.$e fl$ct$ation and shock loading. Fhen the ship is s$bjected to severe load the deformation occ$rs. Fhen that load is removed the ship tends to go into its original position. This action contin$es and the ship is called vibrating. -$e to this vibration the bedplate will be $nder severe stress and fretting will occ$r between the mating s$rfaces of bedplate and chocks and in long r$n bolts will get loose. Main ca$ses are Eibration' 0verloading of engine' %lack chocks and >$ll deflection. E'#lain t(e effect of running a main #ro#ulsion engine &it( slac" (olding do&n bolts for a #rolonged #eriod$ The holding down bolts passes thro$gh the holes in the bedplate' chocks and fo$ndation plate. They are s$bjected to fl$ct$ation of stress. %o they may often r$n loose and the conse.$ences of r$nning engine with slack bolts are disastro$s. The effects are: ,a! *ibration: E"cessive vibration and abnormal movement of the $pper part of the engine occ$r if the bolts r$n loose. ,b! retting: #ontin$o$s operations with slack bolts allow severe fretting on the matting s$rfaces of bedplate' chocks and fo$ndation plate. ,c! Damage to engine seating: +retting res$lts in severe and permanent damage to engine seating. ,d! Cran"s(aft misalignment: If fretting occ$rs in n$mber of adjacent chocks severe crankshaft damage can take place thro$gh misalignment. #rankshaft can go $nnoticed for a considerable period of time with serio$s effect on the engine and safety of the vessel. ,e! -ending stress: %lack bolts will increase bending stress on bolts' which lead to fail$re of bolts. (f) Cross girder crac"ing 4(% t(e engine is carried on number of c(oc"s rat(er t(an resting directl% on inner bottom #lating3 The engine is carried on a n$mber of chocks fitted aro$nd the $nderside of the periphery of the bedplate. The chocks are $sed to compensate for the nat$ral $nevenness of the tanktop. The chocks sit on the fo$ndation plate' which forms part of the inner bottom plating of the h$ll str$ct$re. 5ny vibrations of the tanktop s$rface will not ca$se misalignment as the bedplate is s$pported by chocks and ship deflection is transmitted to engine thro$gh a minim$m n$mber of points. Engineer M. A. Hamid ;

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers These chocks can be individ$ally adj$sted in case of any chaffing or fretting taking place. 5ny distortion after fitting d$e to settlement can also be corrected. The chocks also absorb some of the stresses d$e to heavy seas' which wo$ld be transmitted to the bedplate. They have very good vibration damping properties. The chocks are closely spaced in the location of cross girder' so that' good s$pport is given to the area of the bedplate' which is s$pporting the main bearing and engine H5H frame. This prevents any locali6ed distortion or sag in the bedplate.

Non2metallic c(oc"ing arrangement suitable for main #ro#ulsion engine: Modern highly rated main prop$lsion engines are $sing e#o'% resin as non metallic chocks. #hocks are fitted after the engine alignment with intermediate shaft. The epo"y resin comes as a po$rable fl$id into' which is mi"ed a hardening agent. The fl$id then can be po$red into preformed retaining dams $nder the engine bedplate setting witho$t any contraction in dimension. Ireased dowels or thin metal sleeves are $sed to protect the bolt from filling $p with the li.$id resin. 5fter po$ring' the resin is allowed to c$re completely' talking abo$t 56 ho$rs when the temperat$re of the s$rro$nding is 78 oC. The area of the resin chocks is nat$rally' larger than that $sed for metallic chocking and may cover several holding down bolts at a time. The epo"y resin $sed m$st be approved by the appropriate classification society. By intermitting the matching of s$rfaces it gives e"cellent load bearing and avoids possibly of fretting.

)erits and Demerits of non2metallic c(oc"ing o,er con,entional design: )erits: ). 5pproved for critical alignment. *. Gniform precio$s mo$nting. <. >elps to maintain crankshaft deflection and machinery alignment d$ring h$ll fle"$re or distortion. /. J$ick installation. ;. Machined flat s$rface not re.$ired. 2. Eibration damping high. D. Aess noise. &o$ring space for Kesin 8. Non fretting. :. Kesists degradation' corrosion and wastage. %leeve )1. K$nning ho$rs *11 million LL. )). Gsed for engines );111 B>& LL. E#o'% Resin Demerits: ). &roblem in case of fire. *. %peciali6ed method of chocking. <. Ma"im$m temperat$re limit at 81 o#. N$t %t$d Non )etallic C(oc" +rrangement

4(% side and end c(oc"s are incor#orated in addition to (olding do&n bolts in large main engines3 Most of the modern engines are fitted with side and end chocks in addition to main s$pporting chocks. Aongit$dinal and transverse movement of the bedplate is prevented by end and side chocks. !ide c(oc"s are #ro,ided: To absorb side load d$e to $nbalanced reciprocating forces. To prevent chaffing of the s$pporting chocks and tank top. It helps the holding down bolts to resist the lateral forces when the vessel is rolling. End c(oc"s are #ro,ided at eac( end of t(e longitudinal girder: To position the engine. To absorb the collision loads. To absorb propeller thr$st in case of integral thr$st block. To absorb propeller e"cited vibration. If the side and end chocks are not fitted' the holding down bolts will have to take $p the longit$dinal and transverse movement of bedplate' ca$sing shear stress onto the holding down bolts. Engineer M. A. Hamid 2

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers Fith the chocks in place' the holding down bolts will only have to hold the bedplate rigidity to the ship str$ct$re.

R+)E!:
)aterial:2 Mild %teel &lates 4 T$bes. Construction: ; Individ$al frame is fitted to each cross girder. ; &lates are fitted in spaces between frames. ; %trong transversely 4 fle"ible longit$dinally. ; 5lignment of cylinder block 4 bedplate vary. ; 0verall str$ct$ral weakness. )odified +##roac( to Construction (-o' Girder) Effects:2 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Bedplate is re.$ired to contrib$te 79: o overall str$ct$ral strength. #onventional engine bedplate contrib$tes 8;: of overall strength. >igh degree of stiffness. No discontin$ities in engines. #ylinder liners remain at clamping points. - &iston performance improvement. - Ainer wears rate low. Tor.$e reaction g$ide plane red$ced. Kocking 4 twisting of engine red$ced. Modern engine with high firing press$re res$lts local vibration. %tiff frame maintains nat$ral fre.$ency high M beyond e"citation range. Improved fabrication. Engine smaller 4 lighter compared to #ast Iron #onstr$ction. - >igher &ower: Feight ratio. 4elded !tructure defects: Mostly poor workmanship 0verlap &oor r$n f$sion Gnderc$t &oor side f$sion &orosity Trapped gases #avities No root penetration Crac"ing: Aack of penetration 4 f$sion. Kes$lts in severe stress concentration. Aocation weld metal. &arent metals ,heated 6one!. 1ot crac"ing: Felded metal M %$lf$r. Cold Crac"s: >eated 6one near f$sion line. Martensite formation. %$rface defect rectification Irinding 4 Ke welding. -efect identification: Gltrasonic' Kadio graphics etc.

Cast !tructure: ; Fitho$t proper facilities: Gnreliable and Gnpredictable. ; N rays identify blowholes 4 cavities. ; %ome defects show d$ring service. ; Main consideration or cast constr$ction: Intricate s(a#e and Cost$ Defect in Cast !tructure: -lo&(oles:2 ; +$rnace gases dissolved in metal. ; Ias dissolved in molten metal M Aess sol$ble d$ring solidification. 0n solidification M Iases liberate and res$lt in trapped B$bbles 4 Blowholes. Porosit%:2 ; %teel not completely de o"idi6ed. ; #arbon tends to red$ce o"ide' +e0 L # O +e L #0. ; Initial stage solidification M &$re +e. ; E"cess +e0 4 # O Trapped #0' Kes$lts in Blowholes. aults in !tructure: !egregation of Im#urities:2 ; %olidify last ; Kemains on crystal bo$ndaries. ; 0verall brittleness. !(rin"age:2 On Solidification ; Eol$me decreases. ; 0$t side s$rfaces solidify. ; Aeaves #avities. ; %ol$tion: %hape of the mo$ld

Engineer M. A. Hamid

Crac"s: ; Behind g$ides ; Bearing pockets ; Felding places ; Bolts 4 -owels ; >oles

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers )isalignment: !tructural )isalignment Indications: ; %ettling of str$ct$re. ; 0verheated bearings 4 g$ide shoes. ; +ire ; Gneven wears of liner. ; Iro$nding ; &iston slapping C &iston misalignment. ; #ollision ; E"cessive engine vibrations. ; %lack tie bolts ; E"cessive wears of st$ffing bo". ; -istortion in str$ct$re ; E"cessive wears of piston rod.

TIE -O.T!:
)aterial: >igh GT% %teel. ; ; ; ; ; Aarge slow speed engines are fitted with tie bolts. The tie bolts are placed between the cross girders of the bedplate 4 top of the cylinder block' on either side. Bolts are free thro$gh cylinder blocks' frames 4 bedplate. Tie bolts are as close as possible to engine center line to minimi6e bending moment. Tie bolts are always $nder tension.

unction: The f$nctions of tie bolts are to ; Bind the cylinder block' 5 frame 4 bedplate firmly together. ; Beep the str$ct$re $nder compression. ; Beep load on str$ct$re within admissible limits. ; &revent fretting between the components. ; Transfer firing load to Co,er !tuds C%linder -loc" Tie bolt Cross Girder !(i# !tructure. Effect of Running Engine &it( !lac" Tie -olts:2 ; #ylinder block fle" and lift. ; Aanding faces rest. ; Machine faces destroy. ; +itted bracing bolts slacken. ; Gneven fretting cylinder block landing res$lts in piston misalignment. ; Gneven fretting n$t landing face res$lts e"cessive bending stresses on tie bolts. ; -amage bed plate cross girder. ; Kigidity of str$ct$re destroys. ; I$ides C Bars possible slackening. C(ec"ing #retension of Tie -olts: The pretension of the tie bolts sho$ld be checked reg$larly according to engine man$al to check that tie bolts are not slack. ). Take the crankshaft deflection reading. *. Ens$re that the clamping screws are slack. <. Kemove the thread protecting hood from all the tie rods and clean the contact face of the intermediate ring. /. %crew both the pre tensioning jacks on the two rods opposite each other $ntil the lower part of the jack cylinder rests on the intermediate ring3 and the work sho$ld from the centre tie bolts in pair or as shown in fig$re. ;. #onnect the jacks to high press$re p$mp and vent the system. 2. 0perate the p$mp $ntil tension press$re is reached and maintained this press$re. D. Gsing a feeler ga$ge' check the clearance between the tie rod n$ts and intermediate ring. If clearance e"ists tighten the n$ts with tommy bar $ntil it rests firmly on the intermediate ring. 8. #heck the clearance again and then release the press$re. :. If no clearance e"ists the press$re can be released immediately and the pre tensioning jacks removed. )1. 5fter checking the pre tension' smear the threads with acid free grease and fit the protective cap. Tighten the clamp screws and take crankshaft deflection and compare with earlier reading. f d b a c e g

Tie -olts Pretension Procedure E'#lain &(% modern engines use UT! steel bolt$ Engineer M. A. Hamid 8

).

*. <. /.

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers In modern highly rated engines' the bolts are given high degree of pretension d$ring tightening to minimi6e the fl$ct$ation of stress. This minimi6es the possibilities of fatig$e fail$re. >igh GT% ,Gltimate Tensile %trength! alloy steel and long thin elastic bolts are $sed for higher fatig$e strength. 5ny material will fail at a m$ch fl$ct$ating load than a steady higher load. That=s why stress in modern engine bolts are high b$t engines designers have taken effort to keep fl$ct$ation of stress low. The GT% bolts have d$ctility property' which enable it to be drawn easily into wire form. The GT% bolts have to$ghness property to s$stain variable load condition witho$t fail$re. GT% alloy steel permits f$ll hardening and tempering3 th$s a wide range of property is available thereby.

CONNECTING ROD -O.T!:

Connecting rod bolt design features: ). >igh GT% alloy steel having higher fatig$e strength. *. Aong thin elastic bolts for higher percentage of elongation and fatig$e strength. <. >igh degree of s$rface finish bolts is $sed to red$ce stress concentration. /. Bolts are free with very little fitted portion' to red$ce the stress concentration. ;. %hank of bolts is less in diameter than the core diameter at the bottom of the thread by )1P' which increases e"tensibility. 2. Fell formed fillet at places of change of section and between the shank and bolt head to prevent stress concentration. D. Bolt has smooth change of section. 8. Bolt stiffness is less than component stiffness. :. Kolled thread and < or / additional threads and grad$al transition. )1. -owel pins are fitted to red$ce shear load on bolts and bolts are provided with interlocking arrangements.

+ree long bolt >igh GT% steel Eery little fitted portion

Tension

E"ha$st stroke +illet #ompression %maller shank dia.

&ower stroke actors contribute to connecting rod bolt failure: The connecting rod bolts are s$bjected to high fl$ct$ation of stress' which lead to fatig$e fail$re. The following factors contrib$te to the bolt fail$re: ). !tress concentration: -$e to damage of s$rface finish and fillets. *. O,er2tig(tening: 0ver tightening or over stretching of bolts res$lting in permanent damage ,plastic deformation! <. Inade/uate tig(tening: -$ring r$nning condition' inade.$ate tightening will ca$se high fl$ct$ation of stress leading to fatig$e fail$re. /. Une,en tig(tening: Gneven tightening res$lts some of the bolts being overloaded. ;. Im#ro#er seating: Improper seating of bolt head or n$t will ind$ce bending stress. 2. Corrosi,e attac": #orrosive attack will damage s$rface finish and loss of strength of material. E'#lain t(e difference bet&een t(e connecting rods of large slo& s#eed engines and medium s#eed trun" t%#e engines$ ). The loads come onto connecting rods are the res$lt of gas loads on the pistons and inertia loads from the piston' piston rod' " head and skirt. The inertia forces from the reciprocating parts are connecting to gas loads depending on their action. a! In 2-stroke engines: Ias load on piston is $nidirectional. In single acting * stroke cycle engine' the load from the end thr$st on the connecting rod is $s$ally p$rely compressive. b! In 4-stro"e engines: Aoad reversal takes place at the end of e"ha$st stroke. The end loading on the connecting rod may be Hp$sh p$llH. The connecting rod being s$bjected to high compressive loads in the Hp$shH stage of power stoke and low tensile loads in the Hp$llH stage of e"ha$st stroke. Engineer M. A. Hamid :

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers *. In service' swing movement of the connecting rod sets $p inertia loads on the connecting rod in a transverse direction and the inertia loads depends on mass and velocity. a! In 2-stroke engine: The transverse inertia loading is not so m$ch and the ro$nd section connecting rods of normal length are strong eno$gh to s$stain the connected gas loading in slow speed engines. b! In 4-stroke engine: The transverse inertia loading is of s$ch magnit$de that the weight of the connecting rod m$st be considered together with its strength to resist these loads. Kectang$lar and I section connecting rods f$lfill this satisfaction in the best manner. 5nd this is the reason for $sing I section connecting rod in spite of higher man$fact$ring cost. E'#lain &(% bottom end bolts< #articularl% in medium s#eed engine are #rone to failure under normal conditions$ #onnecting rod bottom end bolts keep the two halves of the bottom end bearing together. These bolts are s$bjected to comple" nat$re of stresses as follows: ,a! Tensile stress: Tightening of n$ts stretches the bolts and s$bject them tensile stresses' which helps the two components together and $nder compression. ,b! luctuating tensile stress: The tensile stress set in the bolt while tightening is of higher degree to red$ce fl$ct$ating stress in modern highly rated engines. In / stroke engine' at the end of e"ha$st stroke the inertia load is acting $pwards. 5s a res$lt' piston has a tendency to fly o$t. Therefore' momentary load reversal taking place in the bearings. 5t this period' the load is on top half at main bearing' bottom half at bottom end bearing and top half at top end bearing' which is j$st opposite to normal load condition. This load reversal contin$es at every cycle. This has a significant effect on bottom end bolts' beca$se the whole connecting rod is $nder tension at the stage of load reversal. Therefore' bottom end bolt is s$bjected to additional tensile stress at the end of e"ha$st stroke res$lting in severe stress fl$ct$ations d$ring the cycle. ,c! !(ear stress: The two halves of the bottom end of the connecting rod have a tendency to go apart. This res$lts in shear stress in way of the bolt' keeping the two parts together. ,d! -ending stress: Bending stress of fl$ct$ating nat$re also takes place while the bottom end is distorting. -$ring power stroke' the bolts bend o$tward and d$ring e"ha$st stroke the bolts tend to bend inwards. 5s these fl$ct$ation stresses lead to the fatig$e fail$re of bottom end bolts3 this is why the bottom end bolts are prone to fail$re $nder normal condition in medi$m speed engines. T-# T-# T-# T-# B-# B-#

:1 %$ction

)81 *D1 <21 *D1 )81 :1 1 #ompression E"pansion E"ha$st

:1

)81

*D1

<21

=2stro"e engine 52stro"e engine Inertia > gas force during com#lete &or"ing c%cle E'#lain (o& tendenc% of failure of bottom end bolt can be minimi?ed b% #ro#er maintenance$ The connecting rod bolts are s$bjected to high fl$ct$ation of stresses' which lead to fatig$e fail$re. The following proper maintenance can minimi6e the bolt fail$re: ). Pro#er surface finis(: The bolt is given a good s$rface finish to red$ce stress raisers. Bolt s$rface and threads m$st not be damaged by ro$gh handling. =$ Pro#er tig(tening: a! Bolts sho$ld be tightened according to man$fact$rer=s instr$ction. 5 high degree of penetration is given d$ring tightening to keep the fl$ct$ation of stress low. b! Tightening m$st be done in stages. c! %ho$ld not flog the bolt with the hammer in the direction of tightening. d! The landing faces of the bolt head n$t sho$ld be cleaned. e! -$ring tightening' meas$rement of e"tension is essential for correct stretch. f! 5lways change the bolts in pair.

Engineer M. A. Hamid

)1

<.

Engine Classifications and Constructions Note Book for Marine Engineers +##l% #ro#er lubricant: %ho$ld apply proper grade of l$bricant on the head d$ring tightening according to man$fact$rer=s instr$ction. If the l$bricant $sed has lower viscosity than recommended and n$ts are tightened to recommended tor.$e' the bolts in fact left a little slack. 0n the other hand' $sing a higher viscosity l$bricant ind$ces additional bending stress. %ho$ld check the bolt for cracks' damage etc. %o$nding testing by hammer to identify internal flaws and cracks. It sho$ld be healthy noise. Aocking of the n$ts sho$ld be checked thoro$ghly.

/. ;. 2.

During ins#ection t(is is identified t(at t(e bolt loc"ing is intact but t(e bolt is loose$ !tate &it( reasons t(e actual #roblem associated &it( bolt$ The bolt locking intact indicates that the n$t is not displaced from the tightening position. 5s the bolt is loose' it indicates that the bolt has been permanently deformed ,plastic deformation!. This happens d$e to over tightening the bolt. In / stroke engine' the load reversal at the end of e"ha$st stroke has significant effect on connecting rod bolt. 5t this stage' the bolt is s$bjected to additional stress as beca$se the whole connecting rod is $nder tension. If the bolt is given a high pretension than recommended' then the additional tensile stress pl$s the pre stress may be high eno$gh to lead the bolt to plastic deformation. The bolt has stretched so m$ch that it looses its elasticity to its original form. E'#lain &(% connecting rod bolts re/uire s#ecial attention and rene&al if #articularl% 52stro"e engine inad,ertentl% o,er2s#eed$ In / stroke engine' at the end of e"ha$st stroke the inertia loading of piston acting $pwards overcome the e"ha$st gas load on piston acting downward. Therefore' the connecting rod is p$lled and it is $nder tension at this stage. This has a significant effect on the connecting rod bottom end bolt. Bottom end bolt is s$bjected to additional stress in severe stress fl$ct$ation. This contin$es in every cycle. B$t the inertia loading is dependent on mass and ang$lar velocity. %o' when a / stroke engine inadvertently over speeds the inertia loading will be higher imposing additional stress on the bolt. The fl$ct$ation of stress is also higher3 this high fl$ct$ation of stress can ca$se fatig$e fail$re. %o' connecting rod bolts re.$ire special attention if a / stroke engine inadvertently over speeds.

Engineer M. A. Hamid

))