RAY OPTICS

A light ray is a line or curve that is perpendicular to the light's wavefronts (and is therefore collinear with the wave vector). Light rays bend at the interface between two dissimilar media and may be curved in a medium in which the refractive index changes. Geometric optics describes how rays propagate through an optical system. A slightly more rigorous definition of a light ray follows from Fermat's principle, which states that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. In optics, a ray is an idealized narrow beam of light. Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system, by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing. This allows even very complex optical systems to be analyzed mathematically or simulated by computer. Ray tracing uses approximate solutions to Maxwell's equations that are valid as long as the light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light's wavelength. Ray theory does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which require wave theory.

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE This principle of wave analysis, proposed by the physicist Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), basically states that: Every point of a wave front may be considered the source of secondary wavelets that spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of the waves. What does this mean is that when you have a wave, you can view the "edge" of the wave as actually creating a series of circular waves. These waves combine together in most cases to just continue the propagation, but in some cases there are significant observable effects. The wave front can be viewed as the line tangent to all of these circular waves. These results can be obtained separately from Maxwell's equations, though Huygens' principle (which came first) is a useful model and is often convenient for calculations of wave phenomena. It is intriguing that Huygens' work preceded Maxwell's by about two centuries, and yet seemed to anticipate it, without the solid theoretical basis that Maxwell provided. Ampere's law and Faraday's law predict that every point in an electromagnetic wave acts as a source of the continuing wave, which is perfectly in line with Huygens' analysis. REFERENCES: http://physics.about.com/od/mathematicsofwaves/a/huygensprincipl.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_(optics) http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Huygens%27+principle http://www.svi.nl/HuygensPrinciple

DIFFERENT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Diamagnetism Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties, the paramagnetic behavior dominates. Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field. This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field. Bismuth and carbon graphite are the strongest diamagnetic materials. They are about eight times stronger than mercury and silver. Other weaker diamagnetic materials include water, diamonds, wood and living tissue. Note that the last three items are carbon-based. The electrons in a diamagnetic material rearrange their orbits slightly creating small persistent currents, which oppose the external magnetic field. Paramagnetism Paramagnetic materials are metals that are weakly attracted to magnets. Aluminum and copper are such metals. These materials can become very weak magnets, but their attractive force can only be measured with sensitive instruments. Temperature can affect the magnetic properties of a material. Paramagnetic materials like aluminum, uranium and platinum become more magnetic when they are very cold. The force of a ferromagnetic magnet is about a million times that of a magnet made with a paramagnetic material. Since the attractive force is so small, paramagnetic materials are typically considered nonmagnetic. In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.

Ferromagnetism Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted by a magnetic force. The elements iron ( Fe), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and gadolinium (Gd) are such materials. The reasons these metals are strongly attracted are because their individual atoms have a slightly higher degree of magnetism due to their configuration of electrons, their atoms readily line up in the same magnetic direction and the magnetic domains or groups of atoms line up more readily. Iron is the most common element associated with being attracted to to a magnet. Steel is also a ferromagnetic material. It is an alloy or combination of iron and several other metals, giving it greater hardness than iron, as well as other specialized properties. Because of its hardness, steel retains magnetism longer than iron. Anti-ferromagnetism In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is 'anti-aligned', the substance is antiferromagnetic. Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferrimagnetic properties. In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a spin glass, and is an example of geometrical frustration.

Ferrimagnetism Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins like to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction. Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Nel disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism.

Superparamagnetism Superparamagnetism is a form of magnetism, which appears in small ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic nanoparticles. In sufficiently small nanoparticles, magnetization can randomly flip direction under the influence of temperature. The typical time between two flips is called the Nel relaxation time. In the absence of external magnetic field, when the time used to measure the magnetization of the

nanoparticles is much longer than the Nel relaxation time, their magnetization appears to be in average zero: they are said to be in the superparamagnetic state. In this state, an external magnetic field is able to magnetize the nanoparticles, similarly to a paramagnet. However, their magnetic susceptibility is much larger than the one of paramagnets. When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.

USES OF GENERATORS & TRANSFORMERS GENERATOR An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric charge (usually carried by electrons) to flow through an external electrical circuit. It is analogous to a water pump, which causes water to flow (but does not create water). The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, awind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to generate electricity, and frequently make acceptable generators.

TRANSFORMER A transformer is a power converter that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling. Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used in power stations, or to interconnect portions of power grids. All operate on the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which makes long-distance transmission economically practical.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation.[1] The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object has a different meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object.

DIFFERENT OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Interferometer for measuring the interference properties of light waves Photometer for measuring light intensity Polarimeter for measuring dispersion or rotation of polarized light Reflectometer for measuring the reflectivity of a surface or object Refractometer for measuring refractive index of various materials, invented by Ernst Abbe Spectrometer or monochromator for generating or measuring a portion of the optical spectrum, for the purpose of chemical or material analysis. Autocollimator which is used to measure angular deflections. Vertometer which is used to determine refractive power of lenses such as glasses, contact lenses and magnifier lens Microscope - is made up of two converging lenses. One reason for using two lenses rather than just

one is that it's easier to get higher magnification. If you want an overall magnification of 35, for instance, you can use one lens to magnify by a factor of 5, and the second by a factor of 7. This is generally easier to do than to get magnification by a factor of 35 out of a single lens. Telescope -A telescope needs at least two lenses. This is because you use a telescope to look at an object very far away, so the first lens creates a small image close to its focal point. The telescope is designed so the real, inverted image created by the first lens is just a little closer to the second lens than its focal length. Magnifier - Perhaps the simplest optical instrument is the lens magnifier. Without optical aid, we cannot see things close up. The eye will simply not focus closer than about 0.25 m.

References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetism http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/magnetic_materials.htm http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_different_types_of_magnetic_materials http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superparamagnetism http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_instrument http://physics.bu.edu/~duffy/py106/Instruments.html

RIPPLE TANK A ripple tank is a shallow tank of water that can be used to demonstrate the properties of waves. An oscillating paddle is lowered into the water and connected to a power supple, producing vibrations and generating waves that travel outward. Light usually illuminates the ripple tank so the waves can be seen. The water transmits the waves, allowing wave properties to be observed.

Close-up of oscillating paddle

Properties: Reflection The principle of reflection functions through angles to the normal, an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a surface. When a wave strikes a surface, it will reflect back at an angle to the normal equal to the angle to the normal at which it strikes (these are called the angle of reflection and the angle of incidence, respectively). By placing a barrier, such as a metal bar, in the ripple tank, the produced waves will reflect off of the bar accordingly.

Refraction Refraction is the instance in which waves change direction due to a change in speed. In water, waves travel faster in deeper water. Placing a sheet of water in the ripple tank will alter the depth of the water at certain spots. The produced waves, when traveling from the deeper part to the shallower part, will refract. Depending on the change in depth, the waves will either bend toward or away from the normal of the sheet of the glass.

Diffraction Diffraction is the result of waves hitting obstacles. For example, when a traveling wave hits an obstacle, the wave will bend around the obstacle after hitting it. The effects are more prominent when the size of the obstacle is comparable to that of the wavelength. In a ripple tank, placing an obstacle with a small gap (e.g. two walls with a hole in between) will produce diffraction. The waves will crowd through the opening and then spread outward, creating an arc effect.

Interference Interference is the result of two or more waves colliding. Waves oscillate between crests and troughs --- mathematically speaking, a wave can have positive or negative values. When two waves meet, they "add" together. If a wave with a negative value meets a wave of positive value, they cancel out. This is called destructive interference. If two oscillating paddles are placed in a ripple tank, the produced waves will crash into each other and add together or cancel each other out. This will produce an interference pattern composed of areas of activity and areas of nothing.

MECHANICAL WAVES Mechanical waves are energy impulses moving through a substance. The waves flex or compress an object momentarily as they pass through. Solids, liquids and gases carry mechanical waves, but a vacuum will stop them cold. Examples of mechanical waves include earthquake tremors, sound and ocean waves. Experiments can easily show how mechanical waves work, the difference between transverse and longitudinal waves and the effect tension has on them.

Impulse Wave Tie a rope securely to a sturdy object fixed to a wall, such as a railing. Hold the rope and walk away from the wall until the rope has a little slack remaining. Jerk the rope sharply up and down, like cracking a whip. Observe that a wave travels along the rope from your hand to the wall and back again. The solid wall "reflects" the wave back to you. If you look closely, the wave moving back towards you is an inverted, or mirror-image, of the wave you sent. According to Newton's Third Law of Motion, when the wave reaches the wall, the wall must respond by pulling back in the opposite direction. This reaction produces the inverted return wave.

Standing Wave

Tie a rope between two sturdy objects and leave some slack in the rope. If you move the rope up and down repeatedly, waves will travel back and forth between the two objects. Try wiggling the rope faster and slower. At some point you will see a standing wave form, seeming as if the wave does not move. The length of the wave is a simple fraction of the distance between the two objects. For example, if you see a standing wave with one peak and one valley, the wave length is the same as the distance between the objects. If you see two peaks and valleys, the wave length is one-half the distance. The faster you move the rope, the more standing waves you will see.

Reference: http://www.ehow.com/info_8743892_ripple-tank-experiments.html http://www.ehow.com/info_8483483_mechanical-wave-experiments.html

ABSTRACT A magnetic field is an invisible physical phenomenon caused (induced) by an electric current. The current may be as small as an orbiting electron in an atom or as large as that in household wiring or the electric currents flowing in Earths core. A magnetic field is detected by the force it produces on a charged particle moving through it or on a magnetic dipole such as a permanent magnet. Magnetic and electric fields are highly interactive: A changing magnetic field induces an electric field and a changing electric field induces a magnetic field. When the two fields are directly coupled as perpendicular co-acting vertical waves oscillating and propagating together, they carry energy as electromagnetic radiation in its various forms, from visible light to X-rays and radio waves.

QUESTIONS AND APPLICATIONS Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents in wires, or microscopic currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits. The magnetic field B is defined in terms of force on moving charge in the Lorentz force law. The interaction of magnetic field with charge leads to many practical applications. Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature, having a north and south magnetic pole. The SI unit for magnetic field is the Tesla, which can be seen from the magnetic part of the Lorentz force law Fmagnetic = qvB to be composed of (Newton x second)/(Coulomb x meter). A smaller magnetic field unit is the Gauss (1 Tesla = 10,000 Gauss).

Solenoid A long straight coil of wire can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. Such coils, called solenoids, have an enormous number of practical applications. The field can be greatly strengthened by the addition of an iron core. Such cores are typical in electromagnets. In the above expression for the magnetic field B, n is the number of turns per unit length, sometimes called the "turns density". The expression is an idealization to an infinite length solenoid, but provides a good approximation to the field of a long solenoid.

Current-carrying wire Circular magnetic fields are generated around current carrying wires. The strength of these fields varies directly with the size of the current flowing through the wire and inversely to the distance from the wire.

In this diagram, the solid teal circle in the center represents a cross-section of a current-carrying wire in which the current is coming out of the plane of the paper. The concentric circles surrounding the wire's cross-section represent magnetic field lines. The rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field lines is called the right hand curl rule. In this rule, your (a) thumb points in the direction of the current and (b) fingers curl in the direction of B.

Circular Loop Electric current in a circular loop creates a magnetic field which is more concentrated in the center of the loop than outside the loop. Stacking multiple loops concentrates the field even more into what is called a solenoid.

References: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Magnetic_field http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBase/magnetic/magfie.html#c1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBase/magnetic/solenoid.html#c1 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/magnetic/curloo.html http://dev.physicslab.org/Document.aspx?doctype=3&filename=Magnetism_CurrentCarryingWires.xml

Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electric current across a conductor moving through a magnetic field. It underlies the operation ofgenerators, transformers, induction motors, electric motors, synchronous motors, and solenoids Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831 though it may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in 1829. Around 1830 to 1832 Joseph Henry made a similar discovery, but did not publish his findings until later. Michael Faraday formulated that electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic fluxthrough any surface bounded by that path. In practice, this means that an electric current will be induced in any closed circuit when the magnetic fluxthrough a surface bounded by the conductor changes. This applies whether the field itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it. In mathematical form, Faraday's law states that:

where is the electromotive force B is the magnetic flux. For the special case of a coil of wire, composed of N loops with the same area, the equation becomes

A corollary of Faraday's Law, together with Ampre's law and Ohm's law is Lenz's law: The EMF induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it drives around the circuit opposes

the change in magnetic flux which produces the EMF.

LENZS LAW When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.
Lenz's law is a common way of understanding how electromagnetic circuits obey Newton's third law and the conservation of energy. Lenz's law is named after Heinrich Lenz, and it says: An induced electromotive force (emf) always gives rise to a current whose magnetic field opposes the original change in magnetic flux.
[1]

Lenz's law is shown with the minus sign in Faraday's law of induction, indicates that the induced emf ( ) and the change in flux ( ) have opposite signs.
[2]

which

Field energy
The electric field stores energy. The energy density of the electric field is given by:

In general the incremental amount of work per unit volume W needed to cause a small change of magnetic field B is:

REFERENCES: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz%27s_law http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBase/electric/farlaw.html#c1

The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be derived with the use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the current law.

You are now ready to calculate a value for the resistor used in series with an LED. Look at the circuit diagram:

A typical LED requires a current of 10 mA and has a voltage of 2 V across it when it is working. The power supply for the circuit is 9 V. What is the voltage across resistor R1? The answer is 9-2=7 V. (The voltages across components in series must add up to the power supply voltage.) You now have two bits of information about R1: the current flowing is 10 mA, and the voltage across R1 is 7 V. To calculate the resistance value, use the formula:

Substitute values for V and I:

Look out! The formula works with the fundamental units of resistance, voltage and current, that is, ohms, volts and amps. In this case, 10 mA had to be converted into amps, 0.01 A, before substitution. If a value for current in mA is substituted, the resistance value is given in :

The calculated value for R1 is 700

. What are the nearest E12/E24 values? Resistors of 680

750 and 820 are available. 680 is the obvious choice. This would allow a current slightly greater than 10 mA to flow. Most LEDs are undamaged by currents of up to 20 mA, so this is fine. What is the colour code for a 680 resistor?

1. The voltage across R1 is now 6-4=2 V

The closest E12 value is 390 W, colour code orange, white, brown. -Resistors in series and parallel In a series circuit, the current flowing is the same at all points. The circuit diagram shows two resistors connected in series with a 6 V battery:

Resistors in series It doesn't matter where in the circuit the current is measured; the result will be the same. The total resistance is given by:

In this circuit, Rtotal=1+1=2

. What will be the current flowing? The formula is:

Substituting:

Notice that the current value is in mA when the resistor value is substituted in

The same current, 3 mA, flows through each of the two resistors. What is the voltage across R1? The formula is:

Substituting:

What will be the voltage across R2? This will also be 3 V. It is important to point out that the sum of the voltages across the two resistors is equal to the power supply voltage. . In the circuit below:

what is (A) the total resistance in the circuit? (B) the current flowing at point A? 2. In the circuit below:

what is (A) the total resistance in the circuit? (B) the current flowing at points B, C, and D? ANSWER: 1. Resistors in series: (A) 3 kW (B) 2 mA 2. Resistors in parallel: (A) 0.67 kW (B) B=9 mA, C=6 mA, D=3 mA The resistors connected in parallel have different values and it follows that the currents flowing through them will be different. -The next circuit shows two resistors connected in parallel to a 6 V battery:

Resistors in parallel

Parallel circuits always provide alternative pathways for current flow. The total resistance is calculated from:

This is called the product over sum formula and works for any two resistors in parallel. An alternative formula is:

This formula can be extended to work for more than two resistors in parallel, but lends itself less easily to mental arithmetic. Both formulae are correct. What is the total resistance in this circuit?

The current can be calculated from:

How does this current compare with the current for the series circuit? It's more. This is sensible. Connecting resistors in parallel provides alternative pathways and makes it easier for current to flow. How much current flows through each resistor? Because they have equal values, the current divides, with 6 mA flowing through R1, and 6 mA through R2. To complete the picture, the voltage across R1 can be calculated as:

This is the same as the power supply voltage. The top end of R1 is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, while the bottom end of R1 is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. With no

other components in the way, it follows that the voltage across R1 must be 6 V. What is the voltage across R2? By the same reasoning, this is also 6 V. Here is a slightly more complex circuit, with both series and parallel parts:

Circuit with series and parallel resistors To find the overall resistance, the first step is to calculate the resistance of the parallel elements. You already know that the combined resistance of two 1 resistance in the circuit is 1+0.5=1.5 resistors in parallel is 0.5 , so the total . The power supply current is:

This is the current which flows through R1. How much current will flow through R2? Since there are two equally easy pathways, 2 mA will flow through R2, and 2 mA through R3. The voltage across R1 is given by:

This leaves 2 V across R2 and R3, as confirmed by the calculation for R2:

Again, the sum of the voltages around the circuit is equal to the power supply voltage. Whats inside a capacitor? (Draw).

electrolytic capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor or electrolytics condensator or we often call ELCO is a type of capacitor that uses an ionic conducting liquid as one of its plates. Typically with a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types, they are valuable in relatively high-current and low-frequency electrical circuits. This is especially the case in power-supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and current fluctuations, in rectifier output. They are also widely used as coupling capacitors in circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not. Electrolytic capacitors can have a very high capacitance, allowing filters made with them to have very low corner frequencies.

Whats inside a resistor? (Draw).

Carbon-film resistor

Composition A carbon film resistor is made by coating a small ceramic rod with a film of carbon. A machine removes some of the carbon film in a spiral pattern around the rod to reach a particular resistance level between the two ends of the rod. Metal leads and end caps are added, then the finished rod is coated with an insulated cover. Finally, four colored bands are painted onto the rod in a code that gives information on its resistive values. Uses Carbon film resistors are commonly used in audio equipment because they combine a low cost with performance that preserves high fidelity sound. Carbon composition resistors are very cheap, general use resistors, but have higher tolerances than can be allowed in producing sound and have problems with noise and stability when hot. Metal film resistors are high quality with low tolerances but get pricey. Carbon film resistors provide the stability needed for audio systems while keeping costs low.

References: http://freecircuits.org/2012/01/capacitors-basics-working/ http://electropart.info/components/electrolytic-capacitor.html http://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/17826/whats-inside-a-resistor http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carbon-film_Resistor_Construction.svg http://www.doctronics.co.uk/resistor.htm http://www.ehow.com/info_8751997_carbon-film-resistor.html

FAMILIARIZATION OF ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS ACTIVITY 2

1. Conductors: / 2. Conductors crossing with no connection: / 3. Conductors with connection: / 4. Switch: / 5. Cell: / 6. Capacitor: / 7. Earth/Ground: / 8. Fuse: / 9. Electrical load: / 10. Resistor: / 11. Ammeter: / 12. Voltmeter: / 13. Galvanometer: / 14. Transformer:/ 15. Loudspeaker: / 16. Diode: / 17. Power supply: /

Capacitor

A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals.

Diode

A device which only allows current to flow in one direction.

Loudspeaker

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Fuse A resistor restricts the flow of current, for example to limit the current passing through an LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a timing circuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor symbol:

Resistor

Voltmeter

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage. The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but most people prefer to say voltage! Supplies electrical energy. The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+). A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is two or more cells joined together.

Cell

Earth/Ground

Generator

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of the generator

Signal Lamp - is a visual signaling device for optical communication (typically using Morse code). Modern signal lamps are a focused lamp which can produce a pulse of light. A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less. An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most multimeters have an ohmmeter setting. An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of electrical signals and it can be used to measure their voltage and time period. A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to resistance (an electrical property). Two coils of wire linked by an iron core. Transformers are used to step up (increase) and step down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is transferred between the coils by the magnetic field in the core. There is no electrical connection between the coils.

Galvanometer

Ohmmeter

Oscilloscope

Thermistor

Transformer

Bell

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Buzzer

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Inductor (Coil, Solenoid)

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field when current passes through it. It may have an iron core inside the coil. It can be used as a transducer converting electrical energy to mechanical energy

by pulling on something. A transducer which converts electrical energy to kinetic energy (motion).

Motor

ABSTRACT: Symbols play a very important role in our everyday living. For example, you are hungry and very eager to eat. You saw McDonalds. You dont need to draw the whole thing just to express what you want to say. We use symbols so that it will be easier for us to be familiarized with the things that surround us. Symbols speak for everyone.

QUESTIONS AND APPLICATIONS: 1. What is the importance of symbols in electricity?

2. Give five more electrical symbols and identify their meanings.

3. Aside from electricity, what other fields/areas make use of symbols? Give examples of symbols being used in that particular field/area and identify their meanings.

REFERENCES: http://www.elec-toolbox.com/usefulinfo/elecsym2.htm http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/other.htm#loudspeaker http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/diode.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuse_(electrical) http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/resist.htm http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/meters.htm#voltmeters http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/symbol.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_(electricity) http://www.electricalsymbols.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/basic-electrical-symbols.jpg http://www.scribd.com/doc/13588966/Circuit-Symbols-1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_lamp (1)

References: (Greek Letters)

Alpha

Beta

Gamma

gh, g, y

Delta

d, dh

Epsilon

Zeta

Eta

e,

8 9

Theta

th

Iota

10

Kappa

20

Lambda

l 30

Mu

40 50

Nu

Xi

x, ks

60

Omicron

70

Pi

80

Rho

r, rh

100

Sigma

200

Tau

300

Upsilon

u, y

y, v, f

400

Phi

ph

500

Chi

ch

ch, kh

600

Psi

ps

700

Omega

List of Apparatus

1. Connectors - An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical

circuits as an interface using a mechanical assembly. The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices.

2. Dry Cells - A dry cells battery has its electrolytes that are contained in a low-moisture paste.
Electrolytes are minerals that carry electric charge.

3. Electroscope - It was the first electrical measuring instrument. It is an early scientific

instrument that is used to detect the presence and magnitude of electric charge on a body.

4. Glass Rod is made up of glass which is a straight round stick used for many purposes.

5. Magnetic Compass - is a navigational instrument that measures directions in a frame of

reference that is stationary relative to the surface of the earth. The frame of reference defines the four cardinal directions (or points) north, south, east, and west. Intermediate directions are also defined.

6. Magnets - are materials or objects that produce a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible
but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.

7. Milliameter an instrument for measuring electric currents; an ammeter whose scale is

calibrated to indicate current values in milliamperes.

8. Multitester a device used in diagnosing electrical problems. It can be used to test resistance
and to measure voltage.

9. Optics system - is a group of components designed to allow students conduct various optical
experiments such as Optics Track, Optics Light Source, Basic Optics Geometry Lens Set,

Accessory Lens Set, Concave/Convex Mirror, Adjustable Lens Holder , Ray Optics Kit, Optics Ray Table, Optics Viewing Screen, Expt. Manual and Storage Box.

10. Plastic rod a kind of rod which is made up of synthetic or organic materials that may be
shaped when soft and then hardened. 11. Power supply - a device that supplies electric power to one or more electric loads. The term is
most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another.

12. Resistance Box - a rheostat consisting of a box or case containing a number of resistance coils of
standard values so arranged that they can be combined in various ways to afford more or less resistance.

13. Resistor - a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals.

14. Voltmeter - is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit.

References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_connector http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-dry-cell-battery.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroscope http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rod http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet http://www.answers.com/topic/milliammeter-electricity http://www.acmehowto.com/electrical/multitesteruse.php http://www.pasco.com/family/basic-optics-systems/index.cfm http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/plastic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Resistance+box http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltmeter

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Loupe - important in research and work, for an accurate analysis of the subject studied, or for reading texts. Some models have adjustable rod or can be attached to a pale (sort of visor), which allows your hands remain free during use. Prices vary with the diameter of the lens, and the factor of magnification. Binocular - suitable for viewing land or sea, allows a large extent. The main difference between the models is the field of vision. The larger the scope, the product will be more expensive, therefore, look for models that meet your needs. Another feature is the type of lens used in the equipment. Red lenses tend to provide a more clear focus, as it reduces the effects of ultraviolet rays. Prism Spectroscope L205 Allows rapid visual determination of the approximate composition of materials, and is useful for observing the spectral character of light. Optical Extensometer Creep and thermal expansion measuring instruments employ micrometer slides and traveling microscopes to precisely measure length changes in samples. Relay lenses provide working distances of 10" and 16" for viewing objects in furnaces or other inaccessible places.

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