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Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education

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Improving engagement: the use of Authentic self-and peer-assessment for learning to enhance the student learning experience
Sean Kearney
a a

School of Education, University of Notre Dame Australia, Sydney, Australia. Published online: 24 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Sean Kearney (2013) Improving engagement: the use of Authentic self-and peer-assessment for learning to enhance the student learning experience, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38:7, 875-891, DOI: 10.1080/02602938.2012.751963 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2012.751963

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Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 2013 Vol. 38, No. 7, 875891, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2012.751963

Improving engagement: the use of Authentic self- and peerassessment for learning to enhance the student learning experience
Sean Kearney*
School of Education, University of Notre Dame Australia, Sydney, Australia

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Innovative assessment practices have the potential to shift the way universities function. By focusing on well-designed assessment tasks, where students are expected to work collegially and are actively involved in self- and peer-assessment, the opportunity to engage students in the assessment process is realised. This article contends that students are signicantly and detrimentally disengaged from the assessment process as a result of traditional assessments that do not address key issues of learning. Notable issues that arose from observations and questioning of students indicated that vast proportions of students were not proofreading their own work were not collaborating on tasks; had not been involved in the development of assessment tasks; and that students had insufcient skills in relation to their ability to evaluate their own efforts. These facts led the author to conceptualise new models of assessment focusing on authentic learning and the authentic assessment of that learning through self- and peer-assessment. Authentic assessment for sustainable learning (AASL) and Authentic self- and peer-assessment for learning (ASPAL) were trialled with approximately 300 undergraduate education students at the University of Notre Dame Australia. This article explains the conceptual development of the models and provides justication for their implementation. Keywords: self-assessment; peer-assessment; sustainable assessment; engagement

Introduction Assessment in higher education in Australia has undergone and is currently experiencing a period where traditional forms of assessment are being questioned (Boud and Associates 2010). There is a prevalent notion that although the foundations for reform in assessment are present (Boud and Associates 2010; James, McInnis, and Devlin 2002), time-honoured forms of assessment are too entrenched in long-established university courses to allow for genuine change (Shepherd 2000). There also seems to be a perpetuation of the dichotomy between traditional approaches of assessment and learning and the ideals of critical thinking, autonomy and thoughtfulness in education (Brint, Cantwell, and Hanneman 2008; Dochy, Segers, and Sluijsmans 1999). Assessment is a central component in the learning process, and most students focus more on assessment than any other aspect of their courses (Boud 1990;
*Email: sean.kearney@nd.edu.au
2013 Taylor & Francis

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James, McInnis, and Devlin 2002); consequently, assessment has the power to drive student learning. For most students, according to James, McInnis, and Devlin (2002), assessment requirements literally dene the curriculum (7); therefore, educators can use this element of student perception to maximise the learning potential that it harbours. Educators have the capacity to engage students through what they value most in their education by ensuring that assessments concentrate on the essential skills of the twenty-rst century workforce, such as critical thinking and autonomous learning, and inspire innovation and creativity (McGraw-Hill 2008; Singh and Terry 2008; Tait-McCutcheon and Sherley 2006). In early 2010, various forms of innovative assessment were trialled with undergraduate education students at the University of Notre Dame Australia. From those trials and a review of the literature, a new model of assessment was developed to try and engage students in their studies: Authentic assessment for sustainable learning (AASL). Sustainable learning, sometimes called life-long learning, is an essential graduate attribute in the twenty-rst century (Singh and Terry 2008) as it emphasises the ability to adapt to the changing nature of the workforce, regardless of industry. To make assessments more engaging and collaborative, which are both tenets of sustainable learning, the concept of Authentic self- and peer-assessment for learning (ASPAL) was developed as a delivery model for the implementation of AASL. In this article, some of the key ideas surrounding assessment in higher education in Australia are examined; an overview of burgeoning reforms in the tertiary sector is provided; and, the conceptual and theoretical development of the models is justied. Through a review of the relevant literature, we were able to develop our key questions that formed the basis of the research on which this article is based. Why do we assess? For whose benet do we assess? Are these achieved through current practices? Literature review Higher education in Australia The position of the Australian Government with regards to higher education aligns with the current international trends that focus on authentic and sustainable assessment that have relevance beyond the classroom (Boud and Falkichov 2005; Segers, Dochy, and Cascallar 2003), including:
Self-fullment, personal development and the pursuit of knowledge as an end in itself; the provision of skills of critical analysis and independent thought to support full participation in a civil society; the preparation of leaders for diverse, global environments; and support for a highly productive and professional labour force should be key features of Australian higher education. (Australian Government 2009, 7)

This contention, however, is dichotomous: on the one hand, the emphasis of the importance of knowledge as an end in itself , critical thinking and independent thought; however, it also emphasises that universities should instil the skills necessary for students to become members of a highly productive and professional labour force. While the two ideals are not mutually exclusive, they present a distinctive challenge to the higher education sector.

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There are currently 37 public universities, two private universities and approximately 150 other providers of higher education in Australia. In their reform of higher education, the government seeks to increase the number of people aged 2534 holding a bachelor-level qualication to 40% by 2020; this is an 11% increase over current attainment levels (Bradley et al. 2008). If this intended increase transpires, the higher education sector in Australia will see an additional 217,000 graduates by 2025; this will place an enormous amount of pressure on institutions that already struggle with retention rates in the present environment. Currently, the student attrition rate in the tertiary sector in Australia is approximately 28% (Australian Government 2009). To keep Australia competitive in the modern global market and meet government targets, the universities and other higher education institutions will need to address the high level of student attrition. The government recognizes this challenge and contends:
Although student satisfaction levels remain high, Australia has fallen behind its major competitor countries on key teaching and student experience indicators and drop-out rates remain high at 28 per cent in 2005. Similarly, the dramatic rise in student-to-staff ratios from about 15:1 in 1996 to over 20:1 in 2006 is probably a signicant contributor to the relatively low levels of student engagement. (Australian Government 2009, 14)

While the government argues that a highly productive and professional labour force should be key features of Australian higher education (Australian Government 2009, 7), a fast-changing, technologically driven twenty-rst century labour force is a by-product of an education that fosters the growth of the individual learner by encouraging the development of skills that are crucial to sustainable and autonomous learning. There have been numerous appeals for the reform of assessment practices in higher education from experts in the eld (Boud and Associates 2010) and the Commonwealth has called for reform in the higher education sector (Bradley et al. 2008). AASL and ASPAL proposed in this article are an answer to those calls. Sustainable assessment The literature is clear that assessment is a driving force of learning and (Boud 1990; Lamprianou and Athanasou 2009) there is simply nothing else in the learning continuum that garners as much student attention than what the student will be assessed on (Lamprianou and Athanasou 2009). Recognition of the importance of assessment for learning (formative assessment) and assessment of learning (summative assessment) has been central in research concerning recommendations for reform in higher education in recent years (Boud and Associates 2010; Elwood and Klenowski 2002; James, McInnis, and Devlin 2002; Lamprianou and Athanasou 2009). According to Bloxham and Boyd (2007), there are four purposes of assessment: certication, student learning, quality assurance and lifelong learning capacity. Certication and quality assurance can be seen as summative assessment practices, whereas student learning and lifelong learning capacity are formative. Sustainable assessment recognises the need for both formative and summative practices, as assessment is now considered to be an integral part of the teaching and learning cycle (Boud and Associates 2010; Elwood and Klenowski 2002; Graff 2009). In

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their research, Lamprianou and Athanasou (2009) make the contention that according to student diaries, less than 10% of students time is spent on non-assessable activities. Curriculum, therefore, should be designed to maximise students potential on assessments that encourage the skills necessary for success at university and in their lives. As far back as 1999, the literature was promoting the development of professional skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, creativity, autonomy in learning and authenticity in learning through innovative forms of assessment (Dochy, Segers, and Sluijsmans 1999). If this new era started over a decade ago, we should be thoroughly entrenched in practices that promote authentic and sustainable learning and appropriate methods to assess that learning. Instead, according to Klenowski, there is only overall dissatisfaction with educational attainment (2006). One way to address the quality of education is to propose new methods of assessment that are authentic in nature and address the future needs of students. Boud argues that sustainable assessment draws attention to the knowledge, skills and predispositions that underpin lifelong learning activities (2000, 151). The idea of authentic, sustainable assessment is one that not only can meet the needs and skills required for success in the twenty-rst century, but also has the ability to engage interest and enhance student learning (Boud 2000; Vu and DallAlba 2008). Self-assessment In traditional forms of assessment, control rests with the lecturer; self- and peerassessment instead focuses upon the learning experience. Boud cautions us about this explaining that summative assessment, in its current condition, provides a mechanism of control exercised by those who are guardians of particular kinds of knowledge over those who are controlled by assessment (2000, 155). The notion of controlling learning or managing learning is antithetical to the ways that learning is understood (Siemens 2004). Control needs to be relinquished by the guardians of knowledge to allow authentic learning to occur. Situations whereby knowledge is attained through collaboration and mutual understanding of expectations and outcomes is a more desirable goal and can be accomplished in many ways, two of which are through self- and peer-assessment (Shepherd 2000). Self-assessment is considered to be a valuable learning activity (Andrade and Du 2007; Falchikov and Boud 1989; Hanrahan and Isaacs 2001) that encourages a deep approach to learning (Boud and McDonald 2003; Ozogul and Sullivan 2007; Rivers 2001). Boud denes self-assessment as involving students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgements about the extent to which they met these criteria and standards (2000, 5). Andrade and Valtcheva (2009), on the other hand, differentiate self-assessment and self-evaluation, the rst as a formative process involving reection and revision, and the latter as students grading their own work. While Andrade focuses more on self-assessment over self-evaluation because of the tendency for students to inate grades, other studies have found that high correlations exist between self- and teacher-ratings (Falchikov and Boud 1989; Hafner and Hafner 2003). As there is no standard denition of self-assessment in the literature, what is referred to in this article and in the conceptual development of the assessment models proposed is both self-assessment and self-evaluation, but is referred to as self-assessment. Self-assessment, as utilised in this model, is criterion referenced

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(Stiggins 2001; Wiggins 1998) and those criteria are co-dened by the lecturer and students (Dochy and McDowell 1997; Stallings and Tascione 1996). In promoting a model that is both summative and formative, in theory, it can assist students in establishing a base for lifelong learning and in developing the potential to engage as intrinsically motivated learners in reective practice. It also encourages autonomy and critical thinking by developing capacity, inuence and metacognition (Rivers 2001; Tait-McCutcheon 2006). Self-assessment has the capacity to promote autonomous learning, which is why it is a valuable aspect of sustainable learning. Peer-assessment Peer-learning and peer-assessment have also taken a central position in the literature regarding assessment and assessment reform (Boud, Cohen, and Sampson 1999; Thomas, Martin, and Pleasants 2011). Peer-assessment is dened by Topping (2007) as, an arrangement in which individuals consider the amount, level, value, worth, quality, or success of the products or outcomes of learning of peers of similar status (250). While Boud, Cohen and Sampson (1999) caution against students making judgements about each other s performance in working groups, they also acknowledge that the input of peers into assessment decisions is valuable and ways of using data of this kind must be found (421). In seminal research conducted by Falchikov (1986), students who participated in peer-assessment felt that it was challenging, but also helped to develop their critical thinking skills. This is further supported by research conducted by Bloxham and West (2004), who found that peer-assessment not only supported students own learning but also improved their understanding of the process of assessment. The pitfalls of peer-assessment with regard to concerns about efcacy, accuracy and size of classes have also been canvassed (see Boud, Cohen, and Sampson 1999; Ng and Earl 2008; Taylor 2008); however, in their study, Dochy, Segers, and Sluijsmans found that the use of the self-, peer- and co-assessments is effective, and their results with regard to accuracy indicated that, self- and peer-assessment can be used for summative purposes as a part of the co-assessment (1999, 344). Therefore, the use of self- and peer-assessment as a summative aspect of a formative process may have the capacity to benet students learning without sacricing the academic integrity of the course. This is conrmed by Topping (1998), who found that a majority of studies suggest that peer-assessment is of and only a minority found the reliability and validity of peer-assessment unacceptably low. The conceptual foundation of the AASL and ASPAL models of assessment incorporates the positive aspects of both self- and peer-assessment while adjusting and accounting for the concerns expressed in the literature with regard to peerassessment. The ASPAL model provides a means for using self-assessment to enhance metacognition (Ozogul and Sullivan 2007; Rivers 2001) and peer-assessment as a valuable tool for pre-service teachers to learn how to assess and judge their own work against that of other students (Topping 1998). Raban and Litcheld (2007) assert that the use of self- and peer-assessment creates a formative, diagnostic and summative assessment environment in which the students can learn the skills of peer-assessing their fellow students using quantitative rating and qualitative comments (35). The contention of Raban and Litcheld is particularly relevant in

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the context of pre-service teachers, where the capacity to assess accurately is an important professional skill needed in their career. The conceptual development of the AASL and ASPAL models In the development of these assessment models inspiration was drawn from the Australian Teaching and Learning Council (ALTC) and the paper: Assessment 2020: Seven propositions for assessment reform in higher education (Boud and Associates 2010), and the ideas of situated learning, legitimate peripheral participation (Lave and Wenger 1991) and communities of practice (Wenger 1998). Through the literature review, informal surveys of undergraduate education students at the University of Notre Dame Australia and the perception of limited levels of engagement among students, a model of assessment was sought that could have the potential to shift the ways in which students regard assessment and transform the manner in which assessment occurs. The initial informal surveys of approximately 200 undergraduate education students were conducted by their lecturer during the class and it was found: More than 80% of students were not reading their own assessments before submitting them. More than 85% of students had not seen another students assessment task. Almost 100% of students were working in isolation from their peers. More than 90% of students had not been given the opportunity to be actively involved in creating assessments or the marking criteria for those assessments. These were discouraging responses, which led to brainstorming sessions with students regarding better forms of assessment. These sessions led to trialling new and creative ways of engaging students through various forms of assessment. These trials resulted in the following contentions, which are also supported by the literature: Assessment should reect what is learnt and considered important throughout the course (Donald and Denison 2001). Students want feedback as soon as possible after an assignment is submitted. If too long a period of time passes without feedback, the feedback is not valued (Black and William 1998). Anonymity in peer-assessment is essential (Zariski 1996). Students do not like relying on peers for a mark they want their marks to be moderated by an expert (Boud, Cohen, and Sampson 1999). Students need practice in assessing and in the language of assessment before they take part in the process of peer- and/or self-assessment (De Grez, Valcke, and Roozen 2012). Students want to be part of the process of creating assessments, developing criteria and marking tasks, as long as they have been trained to do so (De Grez, Valcke, and Roozen 2012; Topping 1998). A signicant attribute of the ASPAL model is its integration of both formative and summative assessment features. The purpose of assessment is multifaceted; therefore, assessment models that can encompass the various aspects and purposes

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of assessment may be useful in reforming the current practice. The use of self- and peer-assessment as a summative judgement is the culminating aspect of the ASPAL model; however, the procedure of assessment is an ongoing process that occurs over weeks, which allows for the entire process to be formative. As a result, a conceptual framework for sustainable assessment was sought to establish justication for the use of the two models proposed. The models incorporate the best aspects of both formative and summative assessment by informing student learning throughout the assessment process and counting towards their nal mark. Authentic assessment for sustainable learning (AASL) In the AASL model, self-assessment, peer-assessment and lecturer assessment are combined to produce a summative grade for the student. In this model (see Figure 1): Lecturer assessment accounts for 40% of the overall mark allowing the lecturers mark to act as a moderator for the self- and peer-assessment marks. Two peers collaboratively mark another students anonymous task. While the peers must collaborate during the process, with verbal communication being an integral aspect, they do not have to agree on the mark given. Each peers mark will account for 15%, making the total peer-assessment account for 30% of the overall mark. Lastly, the student will mark their own task against the criteria, which they had a part in creating, with the perspective of having seen two of their peers assignments. The self-assessment accounts for the last 30% of the overall mark, thus giving them a signicant inuence on his/her own marks. This should empower students to critically reect on their work in relation to their peers. Authentic self- and peer-assessment for learning (ASPAL) The AASL is the model for assessment and ASPAL constitutes the delivery method for the AASL model (see Figure 2). In our research, the process was compartmenta-

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Figure 1. Authentic assessment for sustainable learning (AASL).

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Figure 2. Authentic self- and peer-assessment for learning (ASPAL).

lised into various stages and differentiated for individual assessment tasks and group assessment tasks: the ASPAL individual assessment model is illustrated in Figure 3 and the group assessment model in Figure 4. The premise of the model is similar to AASL but further delineates the process. For the purposes of the research regarding the effective implementation of the models, students were surveyed at the outset of their unit1 concerning their levels of engagement with their courses, their levels of satisfaction with regard to learning and assessment and their preliminary feelings about participating in the ASPAL process. The ASPAL process happened over the course of approximately ve weeks, which allowed the process to be formative, while still culminating in a summative grade. From the time the marking criteria were created and the pilot marking occurred, students were able to engage with each other and seek feedback on their works in progress. Keeping in mind that this task is authentic, this was an imperative aspect of the process. The next stage after the survey was to collaboratively develop marking criteria that addressed the predetermined outcomes of the unit in line with the backward mapping principles of Understanding by Design (Wiggins and McTighe 2005). The next stage in the ASPAL process is pilot marking. Pilot marking is the practice of marking sample pieces of work, similar to those which the students are required to complete, to understand how to mark and to gain consensus amongst all students

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Figure 3. ASPAL individual assessment model procedures.

Figure 4. ASPAL group assessment model procedures.

and the lecturer with regards to the level of work expected and required to gain a different grade.2

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By practising the marking process ahead of time, it was expected that the students would be able to grade with more condence than if it were their rst time. After the pilot marking session, the students are ready to participate in peer and then self-assessment, which would occur two weeks after the pilot marking. In the weeks in between, students were encouraged to conduct self- and peer-assessment, informally, prior to the ofcial marking taking place. Directly following the peer- and self-assessment papers are returned, students receive their feedback from their peers and the lecturer and then are debriefed by means of a reection session to discuss the outcomes of the process. Students were then surveyed again at the end of the semester where they were asked to reect on the positive and negative aspects of the AASL and ASPAL processes.
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ASPAL individual assessment model The rationale for this method of assessment is that the student becomes a vital part of the assessment process. Not only are they included in creating the marking criteria for their work, but they are actively involved in the marking processes and providing feedback to their peers. The process is as follows: students are randomly paired and given two anonymous assignments. They are given 20 min to complete the process, during which they are each to read the assignment and give it a tentative mark of between 1 and 5 (low to high). They then discuss and defend their mark with the other member of their pair, and award their nal mark. While collaboration is necessary, agreement is not. The same process is repeated for the second assignment. At the end of the peer-marking session, the students spend 20 min marking their own assignment, alone, against the marking criteria. This reective self-assessment of their own work against the criteria is imperative for the process, since students are evaluating themselves against the criteria but also in relation to their peers work, which they have just assessed. The pilot marking conducted earlier in the process; the marking criteria that was collaboratively developed; and reading and marking their peers work culminates in a comprehensive basis of comparison for their own performance. The APSAL model requires the assessment process to occur as soon as possible after students work has been submitted. The literature is clear about the necessity for such expeditious feedback (Hattie 2003; James, McInnis, and Devlin 2002; Zariski 1996), and this was conrmed by student views. Ideally, this process would take place within one week after the assignments were handed in, or during the next available lecture or tutorial. The lecturer s mark, worth 10% more than the selfassessment and the peer-assessment individually, works as a moderator for students marks. However, as it is less than the cumulative total of the self- and peer-marks, control of the overall mark is in the hands of the students, not the lecturer. This level of engagement with the critical success factors of the unit and the course is the basis of the implementation of this model. Collaborative processes both among students and between the students and the lecturer are deemed vital for sustainable learning practices. ASPAL group assessment model The rationale of this model is the same as that of the individual model, with one exception: the addition of the assessment of individuals performances within the

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group accounts for 15% of the individuals mark. In this model, the peer-assessment mark and the self-assessment mark account for 25% each, rather than the 30% in the individual model, and the lecturer s mark accounts for 35%, rather than 40%. Group- and self-assessment of individual performance is a necessary factor in ensuring that groups work collaboratively and that all members fully participate in the groups nal product. In the ASPAL group model, each group peer-marks other groups work, the rationale for this is twofold: rst, teamwork and collaboration are essential criteria for success in a group task; secondly, marking as a group against the criteria should give the group a more accurate basis for awarding their own self-assessed group mark during the next phase of the process. Although the group is awarded one mark for their task, each group member may receive a slightly different mark based on their individual contribution to the group work. This is completed through a group and self-assessment of individual performance, which is unique to the group model, and is a twofold process. Firstly, each group member prepares a short report detailing his or her contribution to the nal assignment. This is known as an Individual contribution report (ICR) (Clark, Davies, and Skeers 2005). Each group member reads the ICR before marking that individual on his or her performance. Individual performance is marked on a simple 15 scale (low to high). In addition to the numeric mark, each member of the group also indicates their agreement or disagreement with the each group member s ICR and makes a qualitative comment supporting the score awarded. The rationale for assigning group work and awarding a group-assessment mark should be based on those authentic skills that students will need in life outside the classroom: communication, cooperation, collaboration, sacrice and teamwork. As Stembourg remarks, we should assess what students need to become: active and engaged citizens of the world in which they will live in a sense, what it takes to be expert citizens (2008, 20). It is vital that the rationale for assigning any assessment task be authentic and valid: if a group task is assigned, it should be to benet the students, not to satisfy institutional needs. In this model, students are assigned, or choose, their groups according to the particular assessment requirements. All members of the group will get the same mark for the assignment, albeit moderated by the individual group mark given by the members of the group. Discussion The evolution from pre-service teacher to integrated member of the professional community of teachers can be better accomplished by preparing those pre-service teachers through the authentic undertaking of the skills and prociencies they will need when they enter the profession. Through the introduction of these models of assessment, it is anticipated that the learning community in which these pre-service teachers participate in as undergraduates will help to facilitate the implementation of learning communities in their classrooms. The premise of developing universities as learning communities is well established in the literature (see Caroll 2005; Fulton and Yoon 2005; OMalley 2010); consequently, a model of authentic learning that is focused on helping undergraduate students become full members of the community in which they are trained for seems consistent with the goals of pre-service teacher education. Legitimate peripheral participation in the professional activities of

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teachers through a situated learning process that culminates in a community of practice (Lave 1991) is the foundation to the AASL and ASPAL models. The development, implementation and evaluation of pedagogical practices which engage students is a never-ending process that must be revisited in order to ensure that students are receiving a useful, authentic and sustainable education that has lasting value. The focus in the development of these models has been to engage students and the fundamental belief that education is about building relationships with students. Engagement however, is an often overused and misunderstood term because it can mean many different things depending on the context in which it is used. In this article, engagement refers to and used in line with motivational perspectives as put forth by Skinner, Kinderman and Furrer, who suggest that engagement refers to the quality of a students connection or involvement with the endeavour of schooling and hence with the people, activities, goals, values and place that compose it (2009, 494). At the heart of this conceptualisation of engagement is that it encourages and produces a dedication to deeper learning and understanding. The ASPAL attempts to engage students into this deeper learning and understanding through the development of learning communities in which pre-service teachers are invited into the world in which we, as their instructors, operate, and in which they will work upon completion of their degree. As educators, we are inducting our students into an understanding of the professional skills and attributes they will require in their careers, essentially a community of practice (Wenger 1998). The conceptual development of these two models occurred over the length of a semester and a trial of these models was undertaken with approximately 300 undergraduate primary education students in their second year of a four-year degree. There are considerable implications in the implementation of these models that could make it unsuitable for many university courses. The size of courses and the absence of tutorials in certain courses may not suit these models of assessment. Although developed for pre-service teacher education, it is believed that on a broader level, these models of assessment can be adapted to any course that seeks to engage students through assessment in which the models are suitable; however, the bias towards education students and the development of professional skills that are required for the teaching profession are acknowledged. A fundamental belief that engagement is the key to reform in the tertiary sector, not only to ameliorate attrition rates but also to enhance the development of the critical skills necessary for students to prosper in a technology driven, global world underpins the conceptual framework of these models of assessment. The development of skills such as: creativity, innovation, critical thinking and autonomous learning are recognised as universal graduate attributes needed in an unpredictable global market (McGrawHill 2008; Singh and Terry 2008; Tait-McCutcheon 2006). The disappointing level of engagement of students in higher education is a problem that may be able to be overcome by abandoning the traditional practices that ignore student needs. Students need to be engaged through a means in which they have an investment, one that they understand and respect; and assessment has that capacity (Lamprianou and Athanasou 2009). However, when the value of assessment is being discussed as the mechanism that drives student learning, it must be realised that only summative assessment has that capacity. Summative assessment can drive learning because students have a vested interest in passing their course and, therefore, value the importance of this kind of assessment; that is why this

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model culminates in summative mark, rather than being purely formative. Formative assessment has its place and is embedded in the model; however, without a grade or a mark attached to the process, one would have to question whether it would have any real impact or power, or have the capacity to shift the control mechanisms that are entrenched in traditional assessment practices (Boud 2000; Siemens 2004). Students value summative assessment, because summative assessment affects the outcomes of their studies. Students who value learning and are engaged in their studies would see the benet of purely formative assessment; however, these models seek to engage all students in the process of assessment by ensuring that they are affected by the results of their engagement, therefore, increasing their learning potential. The value students place on assessment, if harnessed creatively, can positively affect learning; however, many forms of assessment which the students are exposed to are disengaging them from the critical success factors of their courses. By continuing to perpetuate inauthenticity in learning and assessment through engrained, traditional pedagogical methods we may be actively disengaging students in their studies. Conclusions The propositions put forth in this article are in line with current empirical research that contends that traditional assessment practices in the tertiary sector are not meeting the needs of twenty-rst century learners (Falchikov and Thomas 2008; James, McInnis, and Devlin 2002; Lamprianou and Athanasou 2009). The attempts and trials to implement new innovative forms of assessment into a pre-service teacher education course support these contentions and echoes the broader conclusions made by Boud and Associates who argued:
Universities face substantial change in a rapidly evolving global context. The challenges of meeting new expectations about academic standards in the next decade and beyond mean that assessment will need to be rethought and renewed. (2010, 1)

In specic relation to pre-service teacher education, it is imperative that we cultivate the educational and pedagogical environments that our students are accustomed to and will be working within, when they enter the profession. In reconceptualising assessment practices, it became apparent that in the pursuit of the objectives of authentic and sustainable assessment, the paramount focus must be on enhancing students capacity for learning and engagement with the curriculum. By facilitating a learning community where there is a shared understanding of the assessment process and the criteria for success, students were invited to be a part of the process rather than an observer on the periphery seemingly subject to arbitrary verdicts. Observations made throughout the implementation of this process led to the conclusion that when students become part of the assessment process, not only is autonomous learning encouraged, but the realm of the educative experience becomes apparent to the students and then educative transformation can occur. The most valuable outcome observed during this process was that students were engaging in discourse, both with their peers and with their lecturers, with regard to course outcomes. Anecdotal feedback in the form of student comments after the process, student emails and discussion board postings following the ASPAL process

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illustrated that students were not only reading their own work before handing it in but were also checking each others work and providing formative feedback to their peers. Students also reported being able to better gauge the quality of their work before submitting it, because they had seen others work and understood the assessment criteria. Based on my observations, students were fully engaged in the processes of creating criteria, and marking and providing feedback for the task, which seemed to enhance their ability to learn autonomously. The most signicant observation came from the anecdotal feedback, specically in discussion board postings, that students were able to successfully reect on the value and quality of the learning that took place, an indicator of the skills necessary for sustainable learning. In returning to the driving questions for this research: why do we assess? For whose benet do we assess and, are these achieved through current practices? The following answers, based on the implementation of AASL and ASPAL, are proposed: We assess rstly to inform student learning and secondly to evaluate that learning against a set of standards or outcomes. In ensuring that student learning is paramount and evaluation secondary, the traditional focal point of assessment is changed from assessment of learning (summative) to assessment for learning (formative). It is contended that assessment, and indeed all aspects of the teaching and learning continuum, should be directed towards engaging students in the professional discourse of the course they are undertaking. Therefore, we assess for the benet of the student and ourselves, not exclusively in an evaluative way, although this is one component of assessment, but rather to engage students in the authentic manifestation of their course with regards to the world outside of the classroom. Whether or not these outcomes are being achieved by current practice is open to conjecture. However, what is clear, both in experience and in the literature, is that while innovative forms of assessment have been gaining traction in recent years, there is still a signicant sector of the tertiary community that has not relinquished its hold on traditional assessment practices that have the potential to disengage students and have a negative impact on their learning (James, McInnis, and Devlin 2002). Implementing AASL through ASPAL requires what Singh and Terry (2008) call profound shifts in the conceptualisation of assessment at tertiary level (402). It is the contention of the author that those conceptual shifts are imperative for the tertiary sector to thrive in the twenty-rst century. Acknowledgement
Timothy Perkins, a lecturer in primary education at the University of Notre dame Australia was the co-developer of the AASL and ASPAL models and was instrumental in the development and application of the AASL and ASPAL processes.

Notes
1. Unit refers to the specic class they are enrolled in, in this case ED1724 Key Learning Area Mathematics 1.

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2. The University of Notre Dame Australia uses a ve-tier grading rubric ranging from High Distinction to Fail.

Notes on contributor
Sean Kearney is a lecturer in education at the University of Notre Dame Australia, Sydney. He has recently been awarded his PhD on induction programmes for beginning teachers in independent schools in NSW and has a MEd in Educational Leadership from the University of Wollongong. He has published and presented papers in international conferences and journals.

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