Present Ac I On Cap I Tulo 2 Angeles

Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical
Systems
Chapter 2: Mathematical Background
Jorge Angeles
Department of Mechanical Engineering &
Centre for Intelligent Machines
McGill University
2009
Jorge Angeles (McGill University ) Chapter 2: Mathematical Background 2009 1 / 122
Outline
1
Preambule
2
Linear Transformations
3
Rigid-Body Rotations
The Cross-Product Matrix
The Rotation Matrix
The Linear Invariants of a 3 3 Matrix
Linear Invariants of a Rotation
Examples
Euler-Rodrigues Parameters
4
Composition of Reections and Rotations
5
Coordinate Transformations and Homogeneous Coordinates
Preamble
Links are regarded as rigid bodies
General motion : rotation and translation
Invariant concepts : items that do not change upon a change of coordinate
frame
Examples : distances between points and angles between lines
Vectors vs. components
Tensors vs. matrices
We will use matrix whenever we mean tensor.
Linear Transformations
Vector space : Set of objects called vectors
that follow certain algebraic rules
The physical 3-dimensional space is a particular case of a vector space
vectors : in boldface lower case
tensors and matrices : in boldface upper case
Algebraic Rules for Vectors
Let v, v
1
, v
2
, v
3
and w be elements of a vector space V over the real eld
while and are real numbers :
(i) v
1
+v
2
= v
2
+v
1
(ii) v +0 = v where 0 : the zero vector
(iii) v
1
+ (v
2
+v
3
) = (v
1
+v
2
) +v
3
(iv) v +w = 0 w = v
(v) (v) = ()v
(vi) = 1 v = v
(vii) ( + )v = v + v
(v
1
+v
2
) = v
1
+ v
2
Linear Transformations (Contd)
L : linear transformation operator over the real eld
v = Lu
Properties of linear transformations :
(i) homogeneity : L(u) = v
(ii) additivity : L(u
1
+u
2
) = v
1
+v
2
Range of L : v = Lu for every u in U
Kernel of L : u
N
of U mapped by L into 0 V
Examples of transformations in 3-dimensional Euclidean space E
3
:
projections, reections, rotations, afne transformations
Orthogonal projection P of E
3
onto itself : linear transformation of E
3
onto a
plane passing through the origin with unit normal n. Properties :
P
2
= P : idempotent; Pn = 0 : singular (2.1a)
The projection p
of p onto a plane of unit vector n :

FIG.: Projection.
p
= p n(n
T
p) = (1 nn
T
)p = Pp (2.1b)
P = 1 nn
T
(2.4)
Reection Rof E
3
onto a plane passing through the origin with a unit
normal n :
FIG.: reection.
p
= p 2nn
T
p (1 2nn
T
)p = Rp
R = 1 2nn
T
(2.5)
Properties of reections : R
2
= 1, R
1
= R
Orthogonal decomposition
v = v
+v
axial component (v-par) :

v
ee
T
v (2.6a)
normal component (v-perp)
v
v v
(1 ee
T
)v (2.6b)
Vector space
Basis of a vector space V : set of linearly independent vectors {v
i
}
n
1
where n
is the dimension of V
v =
1
v
1
+
2
v
2
+ +
n
v
n
(2.7)
A linear transformation of U into V with bases B
U
= {u
j
}
m
1
and
B
V
= {v
i
}
n
1
:
Lu
j
= l
1j
v
1
+ l
2j
v
2
+ + l
nj
v
n
j = 1, . . . , m
[L]
B
V
B
U
_
l
11
l
12
l
1m
l
21
l
22
l
2m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
l
n1
l
n2
l
nm
_
_
(2.10)
Denition
The jth column of L with respect to B
U
and B
V
is composed of the n real
coefcients l
ij
of the representation of the image of the jth vector of B
U
in
terms of B
V
.
If Le = e,
then e : eigenvector of L,
: eigenvalue of L
Characteristic polynomial of L :
det(1 L) = 0 (2.11)
Example
Example
What is the representation of the reection Rof E
3
into itself, with respect to
the x-y plane, in terms of unit vectors parallel to the X, Y, Z axes that form
the coordinate frame F ?
Ri = i, Rj = j, Rk = k
[Ri]
F
=
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
, [Rj]
F
=
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
, [Rk]
F
=
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
[R]
F
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
Rigid-Body Rotations
Linear isomorphism : one-to-one linear transformation mapping space V onto
itself
Isometry : distance between any two points is preserved :
d
_
(u v)
T
(u v) (2.12)
where u and v are position vectors of two points.
Volume of tetrahedron formed by triad {u, v, w} :
V
1
6
|u v w| =
1
6
det
__
u v w
_
(2.13)
Rigid-Body Rotations (Contd)
Magnitudes of vectors {u, v, w} :
u
u
T
u, v
v
T
v, w
w
T
w (2.14)
Under isotropy mapping {u, v, w} into {u
, v
, w
} :
u
= u, v
= v, w
= w (2.15a)
det[u
] = det[u v w] (2.15b)
If +, then rotation ; otherwise, reection
A position vector p of a point in E
3
undergoes a rotation Q:
p
= Qp , p
T
p = p
T
p
Q
T
Q = 1 and Q is an orthogonal matrix.
Moreover, for T [u v w] and T
[u
],
T
= QT (2.20)
det(T) = det(T
) (2.21a)
det(Q) = +1 (2.21b)
Qis a proper orthogonal matrix.
Theorem
The eigenvalues of a proper orthogonal matrix Qlie on the unit circle
centered at the origin of the complex plane.
Proof :
Qe = e , e
= e
: eigenvalue of Q, e : eigenvector of Q
: complex conjugate of , e
: complex conjugate of e
For real Q : Q
= Q
T
, e
= e
T
e
T
Q
Qe = e
T
e e
T
Q
T
Qe = e
T
e (2.25)
Qis orthogonal e
T
e =| |
2
e
T
e | |
2
= 1 (2.27)
Corollary
A proper orthogonal 3 3 matrix has at least one eigenvalue that is +1.
Qe = e (2.28)
Theorem
(Euler, 1776)
A rigid-body motion about a point O leaves xed a set of points lying on a
line L that passes through O and is parallel to eigenvector e of Qassociated
with the eigenvalue +1.
Theorem
(Cayley-Hamilton) If P() is the characteristic polynomial of n n matrix
A, i.e.,
P() = det(1 A)
=
n
+ a
n1
n1
+ + a
1
+ a
0
(2.29)
then,
A
n
+ a
n1
A
n1
+ + a
1
A+ a
0
1 = O (2.30)
O: n n zero matrix
Any power p n of the n n matrix Acan be expressed as linear
combination of the rst n powers of A:
1, A, , A
n1
where 1 = A
0
The Cross-Product Matrix
If u = u(t) U and v = v(u(t)) V are m- and n-dimensional vectors,
respectively, while t is a real variable, and f = f(u, v) is a real-valued
function, then
u(t) =
_
_
u
1
(t)
u
2
(t)
.
.
.
u
m
(t)
_
_
, v(t) =
_
_
v
1
(t)
v
2
(t)
.
.
.
v
n
(t)
_
_
Cross-Product Matrix (Contd)
f
u

_
_
f/u
1
f/u
2
.
.
.
f/u
m
_
_
,
f
v

_
_
f/v
1
f/v
2
.
.
.
f/v
n
_
_
(2.31)
v
u

_
_
v
1
/u
1
v
1
/u
2
v
1
/u
m
v
2
/u
1
v
2
/u
2
v
2
/u
m
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
v
n
/u
1
v
n
/u
2
v
n
/u
m
_
_
(2.32)
df
du
=
f
u
+
_
v
u
_
T
f
v
(2.33)
If f = f(u, v, t) and v = v(u, t), then
df
dt
=
f
t
+
_
f
u
_
T
du
dt
+
_
f
v
_
T
v
t
+
_
f
v
_
T
v
u
du
dt
(2.34)
and
dv
dt
=
v
t
+
v
u
du
dt
(2.35)
Example
Example
Let the components of v and x in certain reference frame F be given as
[v]
F
=
_
_
v
1
v
2
v
3
_
_
, [x]
F
=
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
(2.36a)
what are the components of [v x] and
_
(vx)
x
_
in the same frame F ?
Solution :
[v x]
F
=
_
_
v
2
x
3
v
3
x
2
v
3
x
1
v
1
x
3
v
1
x
2
v
2
x
1
_
_
(2.36b)
_
(v x)
x
_
F
=
_
_
0 v
3
v
2
v
3
0 v
1
v
2
v
1
0
_
_
(2.36c)
v x = Vx (2.37)
Theorem
The cross-product matrix A of any 3-dimensional vector a is skew-symmetric,
i.e.,
A
T
= A a (a b) = A
2
b (2.38)
with
A
2
= a
2
1 +aa
T
(2.39)
and being the Euclidean norm of the vector.
The cross-product matrix (CPM) A of any 3-dimensional vector a is uniquely
dened.
The Rotation Matrix
FIG.: Rotation of a rigid body about a line.
p
OQ +
QP
(2.40)
OQ : the axial component of p along

e
QP : normal component of p with respect to e

Rotation Matrix (Contd)
OQ= ee
T
p (2.41)
QP
= (cos )

QP +(sin)
QP
(2.42)
QP= (1 ee
T
)p,
QP
= e p Ep
QP
= cos (1 ee
T
)p + sinEp (2.45)
p
= [ee
T
+ cos (1 ee
T
) + sinE]p (2.47)
p
is a linear transformation of p with a rotation matrix

Q = ee
T
+ cos (1 ee
T
) + sinE (2.48)
e, : The natural invariants of Q
Special cases :
= Q = 1 + 2ee
T
(2.49)
= 0 Q = 1
leading to a symmetric Q.
Under no circumstance does the rotation matrix become skew-symmetric, for
a 3 3 skew-symmetric matrix is by necessity singular.
The series expansion of Qfor a xed value of e :
Q() = Q(0) +Q
(0) +
1
2!
Q
(0)
2
+ +
1
k!
Q
(k)
(0)
k
+
where (k) is the kth derivative of Qwith respect to .
Since Q
(k)
(0) = E
k
, E
(2k+1)
= (1)
k
E,
E
2k
= (1)
k
(1 ee
T
),
Q() = 1 +E +
1
2!
E
2
2
+ +
1
k!
E
k
k
+
Q() = e
E
(2.53)
Q() = 1+
[
1
2!
2
+
1
4!
4
+
1
(2k)!
(1)
k
2k
+
. .
cos 1
](1 ee
T
)
+[
1
3!
3
+ +
1
(2k + 1)!
(1)
k
2k+1
+
. .
sin
]E
Q = 1 + sinE+ (1 cos )E
2
(2.54)
Canonical Forms of the Rotation Matrix
If X axis is parallel to the axis of rotation, i.e., to [e]
X
=
_
1 0 0

T
, then
[E]
X
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, [E
2
]
X
=
_
_
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
[Q]
X
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
_
_
(2.55a)
[Q]
Y
=
_
_
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos
_
_
(2.55b)
[ Q]
Z
=
_
_
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
_
_
(2.55c)
The Linear Invariants of a 3 3 Matrix
For any 3 3 matrix A:
Cartesian decomposition
A
S

1
2
(A+A
T
), A
SS

1
2
(AA
T
) (2.56)
A
S
: symmetric part, A
SS
: skew-symmetric part.
The axial vector is a vector a with the property
a v A
SS
v (2.57)
for any vector v.
The trace of Ais the sum of the eigenvalues of A
S
.
Linear Invariants of a 3 3 Matrix (Contd)
Let entries of matrix Abe a
ij
, for i, j = 1, 2, 3. Then,
vect(A) a
1
2
_
_
a
32
a
23
a
13
a
31
a
21
a
12
_
_
tr(A) a
11
+ a
22
+ a
33
(2.58)
Theorem
The vector of a 3 3 matrix vanishes if and only if it is symmetric, whereas
the trace of an n n matrix vanishes if the matrix is skew symmetric.
For 3-dimensional vectors a and b :
vect(ab
T
) =
1
2
a b (2.59)
tr(ab
T
) = a
T
b (2.60)
Proof of relation (2.59) :
Let w denote vect(ab
T
)
wv = Wv (2.61)
W : skew-symmetric component of ab
T
W
1
2
(ab
T
ba
T
) (2.62)
Wv = wv =
1
2
[(b
T
v)a (a
T
v)b] (2.63)
Compare relation (2.63) with the double-cross product :
(b a) v = (b
T
v)a (a
T
v)b (2.64)
w =
1
2
b a (2.65)
The trace of an n n matrix can vanish without the matrix necessarily
being skew-symmetric, while the trace of a skew-symmetric matrix
necessarily vanishes.
Matrices 1, ee
T
and cos (1 ee
T
) are symmetric ;
matrix sinE is skew-symmetric. Hence,
vect(Q) = vect(sinE) = sine (2.66)
tr(Q) = tr[ee
T
+ cos (1 ee
T
)]
e
T
e + cos (3 e
T
e)
= 1 + 2 cos (2.67)
cos =
tr(Q) 1
2
(2.68)
Linear Invariants of a Rotation (Contd)
vect(Q) q =
_
_
q
1
q
2
q
3
_
_
in a given frame.
Introducing q
0
cos as a linear invariant of the rotation matrix, the rotation
matrix can be fully dened by four scalar parameters :
[q
1
, q
2
, q
3
, q
0
]
T
(2.69)
These components of are not independent since
q
2
+ q
2
0
sin
2
+ cos
2
= 1 (2.70)
Linear Invariants of a Rotation (Contd)

2
q
2
1
+ q
2
2
+ q
2
3
+ q
2
0
= 1 (2.71)
sin = q, e = q/ sin (2.73)
Q =
qq
T
q
2
+ q
0
_
1
qq
T
q
2
_
+Q (2.74a)
Q
(q x)
x
Q = q
0
1 +Q+
qq
T
1 + q
0
(2.74b)
Linear invariants are not suitable to represent a rotation when is either
or close to it.
Changing the sign of e does not change the rotation matrix, provided that the
sign of is also changed.
Choose 0
sin = q, e =
q
q
Examples
Example
If [e]
F
= [
3/3,
3/3,
3/3 ]
T
in a given coordinate frame F and
= 120
, what is Q in F ?
Solution : From the data,
cos =
1
2
, sin =
3
2
[ee
T
]F =
1
3
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
_
1 1 1

=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
Examples (Contd)
[ 1 ee
T
]
F
=
1
3
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
, [ E]
F

3
3
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
[Q]
F
=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
1
6
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
+
3
6
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
[Q]
F
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
Examples (Contd)
Example
Is the linear transformation below a rotation ?
[ Q]
F
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
If so, nd its natural invariants.
Solution : Test for orthogonality :
[ Q]
F
[ Q
T
]
F
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
_
_
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
Examples (Contd)
det( Q) = +1 a rotation
Find e and : vect(Q) = (sin)e
[ q]
F
sin[e]
F
=
1
2
_
1 1 1

T
sin q =
3
2
= 60
or 120
[e]
F
=
[q]
F
q
=
3
3
_
1 1 1

T
1 + 2 cos tr(Q) = 0, cos =
1
2
= 120

Examples (Contd)
Example
A coordinate frame X
1
, Y
1
, Z
1
is rotated into a conguration X
2
, Y
2
, Z
2
in
such a way that
X
2
= Y
1
, Y
2
= Z
1
, Z
2
= X
1
Find the matrix representation of the rotation in X
1
, Y
1
, Z
1
coordinates.
Compute the direction of the axis and the angle of rotation.
Solution : Let i
1
, j
1
, k
1
be unit vectors parallel to X
1
, Y
1
, Z
1
, respectively,
i
2
, j
2
, k
2
being dened correspondingly.
i
2
= j
1
, j
2
= k
1
, k
2
= i
1
Examples (Contd)
[ Q]
1
=
_
_
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
[q]
1
[ vect(Q) ]
1
= sin[ e ]
1
=
1
2
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
cos =
1
2
[ tr(Q) 1 ] =
1
2
Assume sin 0 sin = q =
3
2
[ e ]
1
=
[q]
1
sin
=
3
3
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
= 120

Examples (Contd)
Example
Show that the matrix P in eq. (2.4) satises (2.1a).
Solution : Is P idempotent ?
P
2
= (1 nn
T
)(1 nn
T
)
= 1 2nn
T
+nn
T
nn
T
= 1 nn
T
= P
Moreover,
Pn = (1 nn
T
)n = n nn
T
n = n n = 0
n is eigenvector of P with eigenvalue 0 and, hence, spans the nullspace
of P
Examples (Contd)
Example
The representations of three linear transformations in a given coordinate
frame F :
[A]
F
=
1
3
_
_
2 1 2
2 2 1
1 2 2
_
_
, [ B]
F
=
1
3
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
,
[ C]
F
=
1
3
_
_
1 2 2
2 1 2
2 2 1
_
_
Identify the orthogonal projection, the reection and the rotation and nd its
invariants.
Examples (Contd)
Solution : B and C are symmetric. Rotation matrix is symmetric if and only if
sin = 0 i.e., = 0 or , with trace 3 or 1. But
tr(B) = 2, tr(C) = 1
B and C are not rotations
[ AA
T
]
F
=
1
9
_
_
9 0 0
0 9 0
0 0 9
_
_
, det(A) = +1
Ais a rotation
Examples (Contd)
Natural invariants of A :
sin[e]
F
= [vect(A)]
F
=
1
2
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
cos =
1
2
[tr(A) 1] =
1
2
(2 1) =
1
2
For sin 0 sin = vect(A) =
3
2
= 60
[e]
F
=
[vect(A)]
F
vect(A)
=
3
3
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
Examples (Contd)
Test B and C for orthogonality :
[ BB
T
]
F
=
1
3
_
_
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
_
_
= [ B
2
]
F
= [ B]
F
B is not orthogonal but idempotent
[ CC
T
]
F
=
1
9
_
_
9 0 0
0 9 0
0 0 9
_
_
C is orthogonal
Examples (Contd)
det(C) = 1 C is a reection
det(B) = 0 B is singular : a projection
The unit vector [ n]
F
= [ n
1
, n
2
, n
3
]
T
spanning the nullspace of B can be
determined from :
Bn = 0 nn
T
= 1 B
Produces two solutions, one the negative of the other.
Examples (Contd)
nn
T
=
_
_
n
2
1
n
1
n
2
n
1
n
3
n
1
n
2
n
2
2
n
2
n
3
n
1
n
3
n
2
n
3
n
2
3
_
_
=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
n =
3
3
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
From C = 1 2nn
T
follows the same solution for n
Examples (Contd)
Example
The vector and the trace of a rotation matrix Q in a reference frame F are
[vect(Q)]
F
=
1
2
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
, tr(Q) = 2
Find the matrix representation of Q in the given coordinate frame and in a
frame with its Z-axis parallel to vect(Q).
Examples (Contd)
Solution :
Use eq.(2.74a) to determine rotation matrix Q
[ qq
T
]
F
=
1
4
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
, q
2
=
3
4
[ Q]
F
=
1
2
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
[ Q]
F
=
1
3
_
_
2 1 2
2 2 1
1 2 2
_
_
Examples (Contd)
Denote by Z a coordinate frame with Z axis parallel to q
[ q]
Z
=
3
2
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
, [ qq
T
]
Z
=
3
4
_
_
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
[ Q]
Z
=
3
2
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
_
_
[ Q]
Z
=
_
_
1/2
3/2 0
3/2 1/2 0
0 0 1
_
_
Examples (Contd)
Example
A procedure for trajectory planning produced a matrix
[ Q] =
_
_
0.433 0.500 z
x 0.866 0.433
0.866 y 0.500
_
_
representing a rotation for a certain pick-and-place operation where x, y, and
z are entries that are unrecognizable due to failures in the printing hardware.
Find the missing entries.
Examples (Contd)
Solution : Product Q
T
Qmust be 1 :
Q
T
Q =
_
_
0.437 + z
2
0.433(x z 1) 0.5(y + z) + 0.375
0.937 + x
2
0.866(x + y) 0.216
1 + y
2
_
_
Upon equating the diagonal elements to unity :
x = 0.250, y = 0, z = 0.750
while the vanishing of the off-diagonal entries leads to :
x = 0.250, y = 0, z = 0.750
det(Q) = +1
Euler-Rodrigues Parameters
r sin
_
2
_
e, r
0
= cos
_
2
_
(2.75)
Q = (r
0
2
r r)1 + 2rr
T
+ 2r
0
R (2.76)
where, for arbitrary x,
R
(r x)
x
= : r
0
=
_
1 + q
0
2
, r =
q
2r
0
(2.77)
= : r
0
= 0, r = e (2.78)
The Matrix Square Root
The square root for a 3 3 matrix is a linear combination of 1 (the identity
matrix), the matrix itself and its square, the coefcients being found using the
eigenvalues of the matrix (from Cayley-Hamil- tons Theorem).
Square root of a rotation matrix : a rotation through angle /2 about axis
parallel to e.
The Matrix Square Root (Contd)
A diagonalizable n n matrix admits as many square roots as there are
combinations of the two possible roots of individual eigenvalues. Example :
the eight square roots of the 3 3 identity matrix :
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
,
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
The Matrix Square Root (Contd)
Not all 2
3
= 8 square roots of a 3 3 proper orthogonal matrix are proper
orthogonal but there is one and only one that represents a rotation of /2
denoted
Q:
r = vect(
_
Q), r
0
=
tr(
Q) 1
2
(2.79)
Euler-Rodrigues Parameters (Contd)
Linear invariants can be derived from the rotation matrix by simple additions
and subtractions, but fail to produce information on the axis of rotation when
= .
Euler-Rodrigues parameters require square roots and entail sign ambiguities,
but produce information on the axis of rotation for any value of the rotation
angle .
Note : Not to be confused with Euler angles, which are not invariant and
admit multiple denitions.
No single set of Euler angles exists for a given rotation ; set depends on how
the rotation is decomposed into three simpler rotations.
Example
Example
Find the Euler-Rodrigues parameters of the proper orthogonal matrix
Q =
1
3
_
_
1 2 2
2 1 2
2 2 1
_
_
Solution :
Qis symmetric = . Impossible to determine the direction of the
axis of rotation from the linear invariants. However, note that
ee
T
=
1
2
(1 +Q)
Example (Contd)
_
_
e
2
1
e
1
e
2
e
1
e
3
e
1
e
2
e
2
2
e
2
e
3
e
1
e
3
e
2
e
3
e
2
3
_
_
=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
e =
3
3
_
1 1 1
T
r = e sin
_
2
_
=
3
3
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
, r
0
= cos
_
2
_
= 0
Composition of Reections and Rotations
Let R be a pure reection & Q a rotation
T = QRand T
= RQ
are neither symmetric nor self-inverse, yet both are reections !
An improper orthogonal transformation (not symmetric) can always be
decomposed into the product of a rotation and a pure reection. This
decomposition is not unique.
For arbitrary n : R 1 2nn
T
Q = TR
1
TR = T2(Tn)n
T
Example
Example
Place both palms in the diving position. Hold a sheet of paper between them. The
sheet denes a hand plane in each hand , its unit normal, hand normal, pointing
outside of the hand, n
R
and n
L
for the right and left hand, respectively.
o
R
and o
L
: unit vectors pointing in the direction of the nger axes of each of the
hands
n
L
= n
R
, o
L
= o
R
Now, without moving your right hand, let the left hand attain a position whereby the
left-hand normal lies at right angles with the right-hand normal, the palm pointing
downwards and the nger axes of the two hands remaining parallel.
Find the representation of the transformation carrying the right hand to the nal
conguration of the left hand, in terms of the unit vectors n
R
and o
R
.
Example (Contd)
Solution : Desired transformation :
T = QR
Reection mapping the right hand into the left hand :
R = 1 2n
R
n
T
R
Left hand rotates from diver position about an axis || o
R
through an angle of
90
cw. From eq.(2.48) and above information,

Q = o
R
o
T
R
+O
R
where O
R
is the cross-product matrix of o
R
T = o
R
o
T
R
+ 2O
R
2(o
R
n
R
)n
T
R
Coordinate Transformations and
Homogeneous Coordinates
Coordinate Transformations Between Frames
with a Common Origin
A = {X, Y, Z} , B = {X, Y, Z},
Q: A B (2.80)
[ p]
A
=
_
x y z
T
(2.81)
Find [ p]
B
in terms of [ p]
A
and Q
Coordinate Transformations Between
Frames with a Common Origin
FIG.: Coordinate transformation : (a) coordinates of point P in the A-frame ; and (b)
relative orientation of frame B with respect to A.
Frames with a Common Origin (Contd)
Point P is attached to frame A, while frame A undergoes a rotation Qabout
its origin and is carried to frame B :
= Qp (2.82)
where is the position vector of point : rotated position of P
[ ]
B
=
_
x y z
T
(2.83)
[ ]
A
=
_

T
(2.84)
Theorem
The representations of the position vector of any point in two frames A and
B, denoted by [ ]
A
and [ ]
B
respectively, are related by
[ ]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ ]
B
(2.85)
Proof :
[ ]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ p]
A
(2.86)
[ ]
B
= [ p]
A
(2.87)
[ ]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ ]
B
(2.88)
Theorem
The representations of Q carrying A into B in these two frames are identical,
i.e.,
[ Q]
A
= [ Q]
B
(2.89)
Proof :
[ Qp]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ Qp]
B
, [ Q]
A
[ p]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ Qp]
B
[ p]
A
= [ Q]
B
[ p]
B
(2.90)
[ p]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ p]
B
(2.91)
Theorem
The inverse relation of Theorem 1 is given by
[ ]
B
= [ Q
T
]
B
[ ]
A
(2.92)
Example
Example
FIG.: Coordinate frames A and B with a common origin.
Find the representations of Qrotating A into B in these two frames and show
that they are identical. Moreover, if [ p]
A
= [ 1, 1, 1 ]
T
, nd [ p]
B
.
Example (Contd)
Solution : Let i, j, and k be unit vectors in the directions of the X-, Y -, and
Z-axes, respectively,
unit vectors , , and being dened likewise, as parallel to the X-, Y-, and
Z-axes of Fig. 2.2
Qi = k, Qj = i, Qk = j
[ Q]
A
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
Example (Contd)
Q =
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
_
_
0
0
1
_
_
=
_
_
0
1
0
_
_
= j =
Likewise,
Q = , Q =
From Denition 1
[ Q]
B
=
_
_
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
_
_
= [ Q]
A
Example (Contd)
If we represent this matrix in a frame whose X-axis is directed along the axis
of rotation of Q,
[ Q]
X
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
_
_
with = 120
[ Q]
X
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1/2
3/2
0

3/2 1/2
_
_
[ p]
B
=
_
_
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
Coordinate Transformation with Origin Shift
Theorem
The representations of the position vector p of a point P of the Euclidean
3-dimensional space in two frames A and B are related by
[ p]
A
= [ b]
A
+ [ Q]
A
[ ]
B
(2.93a)
[ ]
B
= [ Q
T
]
B
([ b]
A
+ [ p]
A
) (2.93b)
with b dened as the vector directed from the origin of A to that of B, and
the vector directed from the origin of B to P, as depicted in Fig. 2.3.
Coordinate Transformation with Origin Shift (Contd)
FIG.: Coordinate frames with different origins.
Coordinate Transformation with Origin Shift (Contd)
Proof :
p = b + (2.94)
[ p]
A
= [ b]
A
+ [ ]
A
is assumed to be readily available in B
[ p]
A
= [ b]
A
+ [ Q]
A
[ ]
B
To prove eq.(2.93b), we simply solve eq.(2.94) for and apply eq.(2.92) to
the equation thus resulting.
Example
Example
If [ b]
A
= [ 1, 1, 1 ]
T
and A & B have the relative orientations as in
Example 4, nd the position vector, in B, of a point P of position vector [ p]
A
given as in the same example.
Solution : Find [ ]
B
: [ b]
A
+ [ p]
A
=
_
2 2 2
T
By virtue of Theorem 2, Q]
B
= [ Q
T
]
A
:
[ Q]
B
=
_
_
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
[ ]
B
=
_
_
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
_
_
_
_
2
2
2
_
_
=
_
_
2
2
2
_
_
Homogeneous Coordinates
General coordinate transformation involving a shift of the origin is not linear,
e.g., the rst terms of the RHS of eq.(2.93a) is nonhomogeneous. It can be
represented in homogeneous form by introducing homogeneous coordinates :
{p}
M

_
[ p]
T
M
1
T
(2.95)
Then, the afne transformation of eq.(2.93a) becomes {p}
A
= {T}
A
{}
B
with :
{ T}
A

_
[ Q]
A
[ b]
A
0
T
1
_
, (2.97)
{ T
1
}
B
=
_
[ Q
T
]
B
[ b]
B
0
T
1
_
(2.98)
Homogeneous Coordinates (Contd)
F
k
, for k = i 1, i, i + 1 : coordinate frames with origins at O
k
Q
i1
: the rotation of F
i1
into F
i
Q
i
: the rotation of F
i
into F
i+1
If three origins coincide :
[ p]
i
= [ Q
T
i1
]
i1
[ p]
i1
[ p]
i+1
= [ Q
T
i
]
i
[ p]
i
= [ Q
T
i
]
i
[ Q
T
i1
]
i1
[ p]
i1
with inverse relation
[ p]
i1
= [ Q
i1
]
i1
[ Q
i
]
i
[ p]
i+1
If origins do not coincide, a
i1
=

O
i1
O
i
, a
i
=

O
i
O
i+1
{T
i1
}
i1
=
_
[ Q
i1
]
i1
[ a
i1
]
i1
0
T
1
_
,
{T
i
}
i
=
_
[ Q
i
]
i
[ a
i
]
i
0
T
1
_
Inverse transformation :
{T
i1
}
1
i
=
_
[ Q
T
i1
]
i
[ Q
T
i1
]
i
[ a
i1
]
i1
0
T
1
_
{T
i
}
1
i+1
=
_
[ Q
T
i
]
i+1
[Q
T
i
]
i+1
[ a
i
]
i
0
T
1
_
Therefore, the coordinate transformations are
{p
i1
}
i1
= {T
i1
}
i1
{p
i
}
i
(2.105)
{p
i1
}
i1
= {T
i1
}
i1
{T
i
}
i
{p
i+1
}
i+1
(2.106)
with the corresponding inverse transformations
{ p
i
}
i
= {T
i1
}
1
i1
{ p
i1
}
i1
(2.107)
{ p
i+1
}
i+1
= {T
i
}
1
i
{ p
i
}
i
= {T
i
}
1
i
{T
i1
}
1
i1
{ p
i1
}
i1
(2.108)
If P lies at innity :
{p}
M
p
_
[ e ]
M
1/p
_
lim
p
{p}
M
=
_
lim
p
p
__
lim
p
_
[ e ]
M
1/p
__
=
_
lim
p
p
__
[ e ]
M
0
_
We dene the homogeneous coordinates of a point P lying at innity as
{ p
}
M

_
[ e ]
M
0
_
(2.109)
Let Q =
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
and triad { e
k
}
3
1
be orthonormal
{T}
A
of eq.(2.97) becomes
{ T}
A
=
_
e
1
e
2
e
3
b
0 0 0 1
_
(2.110)
Example
Example
Find the equation of an ellipsoid in A with semiaxes of a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
and with its centre O
B
of position [ b]
A
= [ 1, 2, 3 ]
T
, its axes X, Y, Z
dening a coordinate frame B. The direction cosines of X are
(0.933, 0.067, 0.354), whereas Y b and Y u while u||X-axis.
u, v, w are unit vectors parallel to the X-, Y-, and Z-axes, respectively :
[ u]
A
=
_
_
0.933
0.067
0.354
_
_
, v =
u b
u b
, w = u v
Example (Contd)
[ v ]
A
=
_
_
0.243
0.843
0.481
_
_
, [ w]
A
=
_
_
0.266
0.535
0.803
_
_
[ Q]
A
= [ u, v, w]
A
=
_
_
0.933 0.243 0.266
0.067 0.843 0.535
0.354 0.481 0.803
_
_
Example (Contd)
If [ p]
A
= [ p
1
, p
2
, p
3
]
T
and [ ]
B
= [
1
,
2
,
3
]
T
,
B:

2
1
1
2
+

2
2
2
2
+

2
3
3
2
= 1
[ Q
T
]
B
= [ Q
T
]
A
=
_
_
0.933 0.067 0.354
0.243 0.843 0.481
0.266 0.535 0.803
_
_
[ ]
B
=
_
_
0.933 0.067 0.354
0.243 0.843 0.481
0.266 0.535 0.803
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
2
3
_
_
+
_
_
p
1
p
2
p
3
_
_
_
_
Example (Contd)
Therefore,
1
= 0.933p
1
+ 0.067p
2
0.354p
3
0.005
2
= 0.243p
1
0.843p
2
+ 0.481p
3
3
= 0.266p
1
0.535p
2
0.803p
3
+ 3.745
Upon substitution of the foregoing relations into the ellipsoid equation in B,
A: 32.1521p
1
2
+ 7.70235p
2
2
+ 9.17286p
3
2
8.30524p
1
16.0527p
2
23.9304p
3
+ 9.32655p
1
p
2
+ 9.02784p
2
p
3
19.9676p
1
p
3
+ 20.101 = 0
Similarity Transformations
v =
1
a
1
+
2
a
2
+ +
n
a
n
v =
1
b
1
+
2
b
2
+ +
n
b
n
[ v ]
A
=
_
2
.
.
.
n
_
_
, [ v ]
B
=
_
2
.
.
.
n
_
_
(2.113)
b
j
= a
1j
a
1
+ a
2j
a
2
+ + a
nj
a
n
, j = 1, . . . , n
Similarity Transformations (Contd)
v =
1
(a
11
a
1
+ a
21
a
2
+ + a
n1
a
n
)
+
2
(a
12
a
1
+ a
22
a
2
+ + a
n2
a
n
)
.
.
.
+
n
(a
1n
a
1
+ a
2n
a
2
+ + a
nn
a
n
)
v = (a
11
1
+ a
12
2
+ + a
1n
n
)a
1
+(a
21
1
+ a
22
2
+ + a
2n
n
)a
2
.
.
.
+(a
n1
1
+ a
n2
2
+ + a
nn
n
)a
n
[ v ]
A
= [ A]
A
[ v ]
B
(2.117)
where
[ A]
A

_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
a
nn
_
_
(2.118)
Inverse relationship :
[ v ]
B
= [ A
1
]
A
[ v ]
A
(2.119)
[ L]
A
=
_
_
l
11
l
12
l
1n
l
21
l
22
l
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
l
n1
l
n2
l
nn
_
_
(2.120)
We want to nd relation between [L]
A
and [L]
B
. To this end, let
Lv = w (2.121)
whose representations in A and B are
[ L]
A
[ v ]
A
= [ w]
A
(2.122)
[ L]
B
[ v ]
B
= [ w]
B
(2.123)
We assume that the image vector w is identical to vector v in the range of L
(not always the case).
[ w]
A
= [ A]
A
[ w]
B
(2.124)
Substitution of eq.(2.124) into eq.(2.122) yields
[ A]
A
[ w]
B
= [ L]
A
[ A]
A
[ v ]
B
(2.125)
[ w]
B
= [ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
[ v ]
B
(2.126)
Hence,
[ L]
B
= [ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
(2.127)
[ L]
A
= [ A]
A
[ L]
B
[ A
1
]
A
(2.128)
Equations (2.117), (2.119), (2.127) & (2.128) are the similarity
transformations sought. They preserve invariant quantities
Theorem
The characteristic polynomial of a given n n matrix remains unchanged
under a similarity transformation. Moreover, the eigenvalues of two matrix
representations of the same n n linear transformation are identical, and if
[ e ]
B
is an eigenvector of [ L]
B
, then under the similarity transformation
(2.128), the corresponding eigenvector of [ L]
A
is [ e ]
A
= [ A]
A
[ e ]
B
.
Proof : The characteristic polynomial of [ L]
B
is
P() = det([ 1]
B
[ L]
B
) (2.129)
P() det([ A
1
]
A
[ 1]
A
[ A]
A
[ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
)
= det([ A
1
]
A
([ 1]
A
[ L]
A
)[ A]
A
)
= det([ A
1
]
A
)det([ 1]
A
[ L]
A
)det([ A]
A
)
det([ A
1
]
A
)det([ A]
A
) = 1
The characteristic polynomials of [ L]
A
and [ L]
B
are identical [ L]
A
& [ L]
B
have same eigenvalues.
Let [ L]
B
[ e ]
B
= [ e ]
B
:
[ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
[ e ]
B
= [ e ]
B
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
[ e ]
B
= [ A]
A
[ e ]
B
(2.130)
Theorem
If [ L]
A
and [ L]
B
are related by the similarity transformation (2.127), then
[ L
k
]
B
= [ A
1
]
A
[ L
k
]
A
[ A]
A
(2.131)
for any integer k.
Proof : For k = 2
[ L
2
]
B
[ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
[ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
= [ A
1
]
A
[ L
2
]
A
[ A]
A
For k = n
[ L
n+1
]
B
[ A
1
]
A
[ L
n
]
A
[ A]
A
[ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
= [ A
1
]
A
[ L
n+1
]
A
[ A]
A
Theorem
The trace of an n n matrix does not change under a similarity
transformation.
Proof : Let [ A], [ B] and [ C] be three different n n matrix arrays, in a
given reference frame
Let a
ij
, b
ij
, and c
ij
be the components of the said arrays, with indices ranging
from 1 to n
tr([ A] [ B] [ C]) a
ij
b
jk
c
ki
= b
jk
c
ki
a
ij
tr([ B] [ C] [ A])
tr([ L]
B
) = tr([ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
[ A]
A
)
= tr([ A]
A
[ A
1
]
A
[ L]
A
) = tr([ L]
A
)
Example
Example
We consider the equilateral triangle Fig. 2.4 of side 2, with vertices
P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, and coordinate frames A(X, Y) and B(X
, Y
), both with origin

at the centroid of the triangle. Let P be a 2 2 matrix :
P =
_
p
1
p
2
with p
i
being the position vector of P
i
in a given coordinate frame. Show that
matrix P does not obey a similarity transformation upon a change of frame,
and compute its trace in frames A and B to make it apparent that this matrix
does not comply with the conditions of Theorem 3.
Example (Contd)
FIG.: Two coordinate frames used to represent the position vectors of the corners of
an equilateral triangle.
Example (Contd)
[ P]
A
=
_
1 0
3/3 2
3/3
_
, [ P]
B
=
_
0 1
2
3/3

3/3
_
tr([ P]
A
) = 1 +
2
3
3
= tr([ P]
B
) =
3
3
[ p
i
]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ p
i
]
B
[ P]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ P]
B
Let R PP
T
then
[ R]
A
=
_
1
3/3
3/3 5/3
_
, [ R]
B
=
_
1

3/3
3/3 5/3
_
tr([ R]
B
) =
8
3
[ R]
A
= [ PP
T
]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ P]
B
([ Q]
A
[ P]
B
)
T
= [ Q]
A
[ PP]
T
B
[ Q
T
]
A
which is a similarity transformation
Invariance Concepts
The scalar function f( ) of the position vector p is
invariant if : f([p]
B
) = f([p]
A
)
vector f is invariant if : [f ]
A
= [Q]
A
[f ]
B
matrix F is invariant if : [F]
A
= [Q]
A
[F]
B
[Q
T
]
A
Moreover,
[ a]
T
A
[ b]
A
= [ a]
T
B
[ b]
B
[ a b]
A
= [ Q]
A
[ a b]
B
Invariance Concepts (Contd)
The kth moment of an n n matrix T :
I
k
tr(T
k
), k = 0, 1, . . .
with I
0
= tr(1) = n.
Theorem
The moments of a n n matrix are invariant under a similarity
transformation.
Proof :
[ T
k
]
B
= [ A
1
]
A
[ T
k
]
A
[ A]
A
(2.140)
[ I
k
]
B
= tr(
_
A
1
A
_
T
k
A
[ A]
A
) tr([ A]
A
_
A
1
A
_
T
k
A
)
= tr(
_
T
k
A
) [ I
k
]
A
Theorem
An n n matrix has only n linearly independent moments.
Proof : Let the characteristic polynomial of T be
P() = a
0
+ a
1
+ + a
n1
n1
+
n
= 0
Applying the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem :
a
0
1 + a
1
T+ + a
n1
T
n1
+T
n
= 0
Take the trace of both sides of the above equation :
a
0
I
0
+ a
1
I
1
+ + a
n1
I
n1
+I
n
= 0
The vector invariants of an n n matrix are its eigenvectors.
The eigenvectors of symmetric matrices are real and mutually orthogonal, its
eigenvalues being real as well.
This is not so for skew-symmetric matrices but for 3 3 skew-symmetric
matrices, one eigenvalue is real, namely, 0, and its associated vector is the
axial vector of this matrix.
Two n n matrices related by a similarity transformation have the same set
of moments. However, if two n n symmetric matrices share their rst n
moments { I
k
}
n1
0
, they are not necessarily related by a similarity
transformation.
For example :
A =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, B =
_
1 2
2 1
_
Both matrices share the two moments : I
0
= 2 & I
1
= 2. The second
moments are different :
tr(A
2
) = 2, tr(B
2
) = tr
_
5 4
4 5
_
= 10
To test whether two different matrices represent the same linear
transformation, we must verify that they share the same set of n
moments { I
k
}
n
1
since all n n matrices share the same I
0
= n.
The foregoing discussion does not apply, in general, to nonsymmetric
matrices : they are not fully characterized by their eigenvalues. For example :
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
Moments I
0
= 2, I
1
= tr(A) = 2 are equal to those of the 2 2 identity
matrix but the transformations are different.
If two symmetric matrices, Aand B, represent the same transformation, they
are related by a similarity transformation :
B = T
1
AT
Examples
Example
Find out whether two symmetric matrices
A =
_
_
1 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 2
_
_
, B =
_
_
1 0 0
0 2 1
0 1 1
_
_
are related by a similarity transformation.
tr(A) = tr(B) = 4. What about I
2
and I
3
?
Examples (Contd)
A
2
=
_
_
2 0 3
0 1 0
3 0 5
_
_
, B
2
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 5 3
0 3 2
_
_
tr(A
2
) = tr(B
2
) = 8
A
3
=
_
_
5 0 8
0 1 0
8 0 13
_
_
, B
3
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 13 8
0 8 5
_
_
tr(A
3
) = tr(B
3
) = 19
Examples (Contd)
Example
Same as the previous example, for :
A =
_
_
1 0 2
0 1 0
2 0 0
_
_
, B =
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 0
_
_
tr(A) = tr(B) = 2, but tr(A
2
) = 10 while tr(B
2
) = 6
Therefore, Aand B are not related by a similarity transformation
Applications to Redundant Sensing
If redundant sensors are introduced, and we attach frames A and B to each of
these, then each sensor can be used to determine the orientation of the
end-effect- or with respect to a reference conguration.
For this task it is needed to measure rotation R that each frame underwent
from the reference conguration.
Assume that the measurements produce the orthogonal matrices Aand B,
representing Rin A and B, respectively. Determine the relative orientation Q
of frame B with respect to frame A (instrument calibration).
Applications to Redundant Sensing (Contd)
We have : A [ R]
A
and B [ R]
B
Need to determine [ Q]
A
or [ Q]
B
, which can be obtained from
A = [ Q]
A
B[ Q
T
]
A
or A[ Q]
A
= [ Q]
A
B
This problem can be solved with three invariant vectors associated with Aand
B.
Since A and B are orthogonal, they admit one real invariant vector : their axial
vector.
To determine Q, we need two more invariant vectors, represented in A and B.
To this end, take two measurements of the orientation of A
0
and B
0
with
respect to A and B.
Let the matrices representing these orientations be given by A
i
and B
i
, with
a
i
and b
i
being the corresponding axial vectors, for i = 1, 2.
There are two possibilities :
(i) Neither of a
1
and a
2
and, consequently, neither of b
1
and b
2
, is zero ;
(ii) at least one of a
1
and a
2
, and consequently, the corresponding vector of
the { b
1
, b
2
} pair, vanishes.
In the rst case compute a 3rd vector for each set
a
3
= a
1
a
2
, b
3
= b
1
b
2
(2.143)
In the second case, two more possibilities : angle of rotation of orthogonal
matrix, A
1
or A
2
, whose axial vector vanishes, is either 0 or .
If angle is 0, then A, as well as B, underwent a pure translation from A
0
and
B
0
, correspondingly. Then, a new measurement is needed, involving a
rotation.
If the angle is , then associated rotation is symmetric and the unit vector e
parallel to its axis can be determined from eq.(2.49) in both A and B.
Then, we end up with two pairs of nonzero vectors {a
i
}
2
1
and {b
i
}
2
1
.
a
i
= [ Q]
A
b
i
, for i = 1, 2, 3 (2.144)
E = [ Q]
A
F (2.145)
E
_
a
1
a
2
a
3
, F
_
b
1
b
2
b
3
(2.146)
[ Q]
A
= EF
1
(2.147)
F
1
=
1
_
_
(b
2
b
3
)
T
(b
3
b
1
)
T
(b
1
b
2
)
T
_
_
, b
1
b
2
b
3
(2.148)
Therefore,
[ Q]
A
=
1
[a
1
(b
2
b
3
)
T
+a
2
(b
3
b
1
)
T
+a
3
(b
1
b
2
)
T
]
Example
Example (Hand-Eye Calibration)
Determine the relative orientation of a frame B attached to a camera mounted on a
robot end-effector, with respect to a frame A xed to the latter, as shown in Fig. 2.5.
It is assumed that two measurements of the orientation of the two frames with respect
to frames A
0
and B
0
in the reference conguration of the end-effector are available.
These measurements produce the orientation matrices A
i
of the frame xed to the
camera and B
i
of the frame xed to the end-effector, for i = 1, 2.
Example (Contd)
The numerical data :
A
1
=
_
_
0.92592593 0.37037037 0.07407407
0.28148148 0.80740741 0.51851852
0.25185185 0.45925926 0.85185185
_
_
A
2
=
_
_
0.83134406 0.02335236 0.55526725
0.52153607 0.31240270 0.79398028
0.19200830 0.94969269 0.24753503
_
_
B
1
=
_
_
0.90268482 0.10343126 0.41768659
0.38511568 0.62720266 0.67698060
0.19195318 0.77195777 0.60599932
_
_
B
2
=
_
_
0.73851280 0.54317226 0.39945305
0.45524951 0.83872293 0.29881721
0.49733966 0.03882952 0.86668653
_
_
Example (Contd)
FIG.: Measuring the orientation of a camera-xed coordinate frame with respect to a
frame xed to a robotic end-effector.
Example (Contd)
a
1
=
_
_
0.02962963
0.08888889
0.32592593
_
_
, b
1
=
_
_
0.04748859
0.30481989
0.14084221
_
_
,
a
2
=
_
_
0.07784121
0.37363778
0.27244422
_
_
, b
2
=
_
_
0.12999385
0.44869636
0.04396138
_
_
a
3
=
_
_
0.09756097
0.01730293
0.00415020
_
_
, b
3
=
_
_
0.07655343
0.01622096
0.06091842
_
_
= 0.00983460
Example (Contd)
a
1
(b
2
b
3
)
T
=
_
_
0.00078822 0.00033435 0.00107955
0.00236467 0.00100306 0.00323866
0.00867044 0.00367788 0.01187508
_
_
a
2
(b
3
b
1
)
T
=
_
_
0.00162359 0.00106467 0.00175680
0.00779175 0.00510945 0.00843102
0.00568148 0.00372564 0.00614762
_
_
a
3
(b
1
b
2
)
T
=
_
_
0.00746863 0.00158253 0.00594326
0.00132460 0.00028067 0.00105407
0.00031771 0.00006732 0.00025282
_
_
[ Q]
A
=
_
_
0.84436553 0.01865909 0.53545750
0.41714750 0.65007032 0.63514856
0.33622873 0.75964911 0.55667078
_
_

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Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical

of p onto a plane of unit vector n :

axial component (v-par) :

OQ : the axial component of p along

QP : normal component of p with respect to e

is a linear transformation of p with a rotation matrix

Jorge Angeles (McGill University ) Chapter 2: Mathematical Background 2009 42 / 122

Jorge Angeles (McGill University ) Chapter 2: Mathematical Background 2009 44 / 122

cw. From eq.(2.48) and above information,

), both with origin

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