Body Image of Pregnant Women

DAVIDS,

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A.., & D E VAULT, S . Use of the TAT and the human figure drawings in research in personality, pregnancy and perception. Journal of Projeclive Techniques, 1960, i?4. 362-36.5. GuRViTZ, M. The dynamics of psychological testing. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1951. HAMMER, E . F . DAP: Back again.st the wall? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, SS, 151-156. LEVY, S. Figure drawing as a projective test. In L. E. Abt & L. Bellak (Eds.), Projective psychology. New York: Knopf, 1950, pp. 257-297. MACHOVEK, K . Personality projedion in the drawing of the human figure. Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, 1949. MACHOVER, K . Drawings of the human figure: A method of pensonality investigation. In H. H. Anderson & G. Anderson (Eds.), An introduction to projective techniques. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1951, pp. 341-369. McCoNNELL, 0 . L., & DASTON, P . G . Body image changes in pregnancy. Journal of Projective Techniques, 1961, 25, 451-456. RoBACK, H. B. Human figure drawings: Their utility in the clinical psychologist's armamentarium for personality assessment. Psychological Bulletin, 1968, 70, 1-19. SDNDBERG, N . The practice of psychological testing in clinical services throughout the United States. American Psychologist, 1961, 16, 79-83. SwENsoN, C. H., JR. Empirical evaluations of human figure drawings. Psychological Bulletin, 1957, 64, 431-466. ViNEY, L. L., AiTKiN, M., & FLOYD, J. Self-regard and size of human figure drawings: An interactional analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1974, SO, 581-586. WANDERER, Z. W . Validity of clinical judgments based on human figure drawings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, SS, 143-150.

GROUP EMBEDDED FIGURES TEST PERFORMANCE IN DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTAL BEHAVIOR STYLES'

LEILA M. FOSTEK*

Veterans Administration West Side Hospital, Chicago Group Embedded Figure Test (GEFT) performance of male psychiatric clinic outpatients differed significantly between persons with active and those with passive styles of instrumental behavior as measured by the Millon-Illinois Self Report Inventory. Actives were able to identify the simple figure within a complex ground significantly better than passives and thus demonstrated an independence from field not found in pa^ives.

The variation in performance of Ss asked to identify a simple figure in a more complex one has attracted the interest of researchers for over 25 years (Witkin, 1950). Field independence, for which the embedded figures test is one measure, has been studied extensively (Witkin, Oltman, Cox, Ehrlichman, Hamm, & Ringler, 1973). Comparisons have been made of field independence and Eysenck's extraversion-introversion theory (Fine, 1972; Fine & Danforth, 1975; Mayo & Bell, 1972), Rotter's locus of control dimension (Chance & Goldstein, 1971; Strahan & Huth, 1975), Kassarjian's inner and other directedness (Vaught & Solomon, 1970), Voth's ego distance construct (Bogo, Winget, & Gleser, 1970), MMPI scores (Stansell, Beutler, Neville, & Johnson, 1975), and 16PF scores (Hayes & Carley, 1970). Witkin (1965) pointed to the utility of study of the field independence behavior in studying the symptoms of psychopathology in order to clarify nosological problems.
'This research was supported by Veterans Administration West Side Hospital, Chicago, Illinois under grant MRIS #2901-01. The author wishes to express appreciation to tne staff of the Mental Hygiene Clinic and Day Hospital for its assistance in collection of self-report inventories and to Stacia Super and Dainis Turaids for their assistance in the administration of the tests. 'Reprint requests should be sent to Leila M. Foster, Ph.D., Veterans Administration West Side HospitftT 116A1, P.O. Box 8195, Chicago, Illinois 60680.

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In this study, the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) was administered to male psychiatric clinic outpatients with active and passive instrumental behavior styles as determined by the profile scores on the Millon-Illinois Self Report Inventory, Form C (Millon, 1975). Millon's (1969) theory of the active instrumental behavior style is consistent with Witkin's (1950) description of a person who is perceptually field-independent, cognitively analytical, and more differentiated in psychological functioning. Millon's theory of the passive style corresponds to Witkin's analysis of the person who is perceptually field-dependent, cognitively global in approach, and less differentiated in psychological functioning. It was hypothesized that patients identified as having an active instrumental behavior style on the Millon-Illinois Self Report Inventory would do better than the pasaves in selecting the figure from the ground in the GEFT. Because the Millon theory involves a description and prediction of types of psychopathology in relationship to the ingrained coping strategies of patients, confirmation of the hypothesis would have important clinical and research implications.
METHOD

Subjects Male patients of a psychiatric outpatient clinic of an urban Veterans Administration Hospital were selected on the basis of their profile scores on the MillonIllinois Self Report Inventory (Form C) (Millon, 1975). Nineteen patients with active instrumental behavior profiles of the avoidant and negativistic personality pattern and 17 patients with passive profiles of the asocial, submissive, and conforming personality patterns participated in the study. As a control for the verbal intelligence of the two groups, items 90 to 150 of the Peabody Picture Test were administered to be certain that there were no significant differences on that variable. Procedure The GEFT was presented in the standard booklet form with the instructions given in the manual modified for presentation to individuals rather than groups (Witkin, Oltman, Rasldn, & Karp, 1971). The group form of the test was used because of the greater simplicity and shorter length of the test than the Embedded Figures Test. All Embedded Figure Test scores, whether group or individual, have been found to be substantially intercorrelated (Jackson, Messick, & Myers, 1964). These factors made the GEFT more appropriate for the Sa of this study although the test was administered individually rather than in a group.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ss with active instrumental behavior styles were significantly better at detecting the embedded figures than passive Ss in a one-tailed comparison (jt = 1.732, p < .05). The mean score for actives was 126.1 and for passives, 83.8. Many theories are advanced for the difference found in performance on the embedded figures task. Witkin and others have related this task to the field independence-dependence construct (Gough & 01 ton, 1972; Witkin, Dyk, Fateraon, Goodenough, & Karp, 1962; Witkin, Lewis, Hertzman, Machover, Meissner, & Wapner, 1954). Research on this construct has assessed the effect of the s.nsitivity of the nervous system (Fine, 1973), levels of physiological arousal that affect breadth of attention (Oltman, 1964), and repression or emotional blocldng of some sort (Fitzgibbons, Goldberger, & Eagle, 1965; Goodenough, Witkin, Lewis, Koulack, & Cohen, 1974; Minard & Mooney, 1969; Witkin et al., 1962). The Millon theory of active and passive instrumental behavior styles provides a framework that describes both biogenic and psychogenic factors as responsible for the coping strategies of different personality patterns. Under the Millon theory, actives would be expected to differ from passives in perceptual performance, cognitive style, and personality pattern. Millon (1969, p. 298) describes the active avoidants as characterized by "perceptual hyperalertness" and the passive asocials

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as "insensitive." .Actives, because of constitutional and learning bia^ses, appear to be alert to stimuli, adept at processing perceptions, and quick to act in response. Passives, because of different threshold levels and perhaps a lifetime of less attention to stimuli, appear to perceive less and respond more slowly. In cognitive style, Millon's actives would be analytical, on guard for logical errors, and looking for hidden meanings. Passives, on the other hand would be more likely to adopt the global cognitive style, take the world at face value, and not dig into details. The instrumental behaviors carry over to the personality patterns, which causes a sharp differentiation in coping strategies. Millon's actives of the avoidant and negativistic patterns tend to be suspicious, mistrustful, and fearful. His passives of the asocial, submissive, and conforming patterns tend to be distant, compliant, and respectful. For example, Millon (1969, p. 298) describes the interpersonal behavior of the active avoidant as "Aversive: hyperalert to avoid censure, derision and humiliation," while the passive asocial is characterized as "Distant: insensitive, imperceptive, and indifferent." The significant difference in the Embedded Figures Test performance of the actives and passives selected through their profiles on the Millon-Illinois Self Report Inventory corresponds with the predicted differences in instrumental behavior postulated by Millon's theory. This theory merits further study for use in identifying instrumental behavior style and prediction of types of psychopathology.
REFERENCES Booo, N., WiNGET, C , A GLESEH, G. C. Ego defenaes and perceptual styles. Perceptual and Motor SkiOa, 1970, SO, 599-605. CBANCE. J., & GOLDSTEIN, A. Internal-external control of reinforcement and embedded-figures performance. Perception and Psychophysica, 1971, 9, 33-34. FINK, B. J. Field-dependent introvert and neuroticism: Eysenck and Witkin united. Psychological Rtports, 1972, SI, 939-956. FINE, B . J. Field-dependence-independence as "sensitivity" of the nervous system: Supportive evidence with color and weight discrimination. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1973, S7, 287-295. FINE, B . J., & DANFORTH, A. V. Field-dependence, extraversion and perception of the vertical: Empirical and theoretical perspectives of the rod-and frame teet. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1975, J^, 683-693. FiTEOiBBONS, D., GoLDBEROER, L., Sc EAGLE, M . Field dependence and memory for incidental material. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1965, XI, 743-749. GooDENouGH, D. R., WITKIN, H . A., LEWIS, H . B., KOULACK, D., & COHEN, H . Repression, interference and field dependence as factors in dream forgetting. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1974, 83, 32-44. GocGH, H. G., & OLTON, R. M . Field independence as related to nonverbal measures of perceptual performance and cognitive ability. Journal of ConsuUing and Clinical Psychology, 1972, S8, 338-342. HAYKS, J. R J & CARLEY, J. W . Relation of spatial abilities and selected personality traits. Psychological Reports, 1970, 6, 214. JACK8ON, D. N., MEBSICK, S.. & MYERS, C. T . Evaluation of group and individual forms of embedded figures measures of fiela-independence. EdiuxUional and Psychological Measurement, 1964, S4, 177-191. MAYO, P. R., & BELL, J. M. A note on the taxonomy of Witkin's Reid-independence measures. British Journal of Psychology, 1972, 6S, 255-256. MILLON, T. Modern psychopathology. Philadelphia: Sauders, 1969. MILLON, T . MiUonrlUinois Self Report Inventory: Manual, Part II: Form C. Chicago: University of Illinois, 1975. MINARD, J. G., & MOONEY, W . Psychological differentiation and perceptual defense: Studies of the separation of perception from emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1969, 74, 131-139. OLTMAN, P. K. Field dependence and arousal. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1964, 19, 441. STANBELL, V., BEUTLER, L. E., NEVILLK, C . W., JR., A, JOHNSON, D . T . MMPI correlates of extreme field independence and field dependence m a psychiatric population. Perceptual and Motor SkUU, 1975, 40, 539-544. STRAHAN R., & HvTH, H. Relations between embedded figures test performance and dimensions of the I-E Bcale. Journal of PersfmalUy Assessment, 1975, S9, 523-524.

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& SOLOMON, W. Field dependence aad inner-other du'ectedness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1970, SI, 801-802. WITKIN, H . A. Individual differences in eae of perception of embedded figures. Journal of Personality, 1950, 19, 1-15. WITKIN, H . A. Psychological differentiation and forms of pathology. Journal of Abnormal Ptychology, 1965, 70, 317-336. WITKIN, H . A., DYK, R. B., FATERSON, H . F., GOODENOUOH, D . R., & KARP, S. A. Psychological differentiation. New York: John Wiley, 1962.
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sonalily through perception. New York: Harper, 1954.

WITKIN. H . A., OLTMAN, P. K., Cox, P. W., EHRLICHMAN, E., HAMM, R. M., & RINGLER, R. W.

Fieid-dependence-independence and psychological differentiation: a bibliography through 1972. Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service Research Bulletin No. 62, 1973. WITKIN, H . A., OLTMAN, P. K., RASKIN, E., A. KARP, S. A. Manual for the Embedded Figures Tests. Palo Alto, Calif.: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1971.

PHYSIOGNOMIC FORM PERCEPTION: A COMPARISON OF NORMAL AND SCHIZOPHRENIC SUBJECTS'

NETTA KOHN DOR-SHAV

Bar-Ilan University Ramat Gan, Israel The following reports the findings of a study that tested the hypothesis that schizophrenicscontrary to what has been suggested in the literatureare deficient, rather than superior, in perception of physiognomic properties. The Physiognomic Form Perception Test (PFPT), developed for the purpose and found reliable, was administered to 19 normal and 19 schizophrenic Ss. Results were in support of the hypothesis: normal Ss scored significantly higher than schizophrenics (t = 3.01, p < .01). In addition, a qualitative analysis of verbalizations showed, as predicted, that schizophrenics gave significantly fewer "physiognomic-expressive" responses and significantly more of those rated "associations-rationidizations," as well as more "personalized and selfreferent" responses.

This study deals with the problem of physiognomic perception in schizophrenia in an attempt to clarify the inconsistency between Werner's (1948) view that this kind of perception is particularly characteristic of children, primitives and schizophrenics, with that which enianates from Gestalt theory and holds that physiognomic properties are objective qualities inherent in percepts. For, if Asch is correct that we "perceive the expressive properties as directly as we perceive height or weight [1952, p. 185]", then it becomes most difficult to accept Werner a (1948, p. 81) contention that a pathological state known for its peceptual difficulties leads to a more "decided" physiognomic perception. In the present view, schizoplu-enics can be expected to be deficient, rather than superior, in what shall be called "objective physiognomic perception," as well as to distort objective expressive characteristics in accordance with their personalized frames of reference. Thus the patient, cited by Werner (1948, p. 81), who responded to swinging doors by saying "The doors are devouring me", would seem to have been reflecting not so much the objective expressiveness of that "yawning-Hilosmg^^ configuration, as his own anxiety that something was about to devour his me. It is suggested that, although schizophrenics indeed may be unusually sensitive
'This research was funded by the Committee on Research of Bar-Ilan University. The author gratefully acknowledges the support given. Requests for reprinta should be addressed to the auttior at the Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.