Value Engineering of Car Park Ventilation Systems

Ross Edward Bates Catherine Simpson Building Simulation Ltd

Summary The use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is becoming more widespread within the building services industry. This paper is about the use of CFD for car park ventilation design. Whilst it is important that the simulation engineer is able to use the CFD tool well, it is also important that the design team understand the sensitivity of input data. This paper explores the use of CFD to develop car park ventilation schemes and discusses the uncertainty of input data as well as acceptance criteria in order to demonstrate compliance with Building Regulations. A range of case study material is used to demonstrate the application of CFD and the issues that can be addressed. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Roberts & Partners, Lend Lease and The Berkeley Festival Waterfront Company Ltd for their kind permission to use the case study material within this paper. Introduction and Background Planning requirements often mean extensive car parks to proposed offices, residential and retail developments. The ventilation of these car parks can present a significant cost to the developer in terms of capital expenditure for plant, energy consumption and maintenance, as well as the implications for the programme if extensive ductwork and plant has to be installed. The use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is most effectively used at early design stage: prevention is better than cure, but can be used as a tool for solving existing problems. An excellent example of using CFD effectively at the design stage is the Bluewater Retail Development, detailed in the case studies section. The specific objectives of a project can vary considerably. The key objectives of the simulations are normally to ensure that the distribution and concentration of carbon monoxide (CO), is in accordance with Building Regulations. The Building Regulations comprise a number of Approved Documents. These Approved Documents contain design options which if adopted, the scheme is deemed to comply. These documents also contain provisions which enable alternative designs solutions to be considered, provided that it is demonstrated that the designs meet the Building Regulations. Compliance with Building Regulations can be demonstrated using computer simulation. The Building Regulations are produced centrally by Government, however their interpretation and enforcement by building control officers can vary from district to district.

Value Engineering can identify potential savings in capital, maintenance and energy costs without any adverse effect on performance. Computer simulation is therefore, becoming an essential value engineering design tool. For example, a designer may question why 6 air changes per hour (ACH) should be provided when 4 ACH will accomplish the desired result. The benefits of simulation are that the proposed designs can be tested against the acceptance criteria contained within the Building Regulations before any financial commitment is made. This is illustrated by the Three Waters car park in Madrid, which is discussed in the case studies section. The acceptance criteria within the Building Regulations adopt the Health and Safety Executive, EH40/2000 Occupational Exposure Limits 2000 1. The main two criteria are detailed below: 1. Long Term Exposure Limit (8 hour time weighted average (TWA) reference period) The long-term exposure limit states that over an 8-hour period a person can be exposed to no more than 30 parts per million (ppm) of carbon monoxide. This applies to both employees and members of the public. Peak Levels - Short Term Exposure Limit (15 minute reference period) For car parks the carbon monoxide levels are to remain below a designated peak value. At present the regulation is that For a 15 minute period the level of carbon monoxide is not to exceed the peak exposure of 200 ppm.. This peak figure includes the appropriate background or ambient carbon monoxide level.

2.

Modelling Parameters and Techniques The car park models are assessed using a three-dimensional, steady state simulation which calculates air movement in terms of mass, velocities, temperatures and carbon monoxide concentrations in all three dimensions (x, y, z). The input data for the model often necessitates a number of assumptions about key variables, particularly with innovative designs. It is important, therefore, that these assumptions are representative of the problem and this is usually based on experience from previous models. Sensitivity tests have shown that the following variables can significantly influence the simulation results:

Obstructions to Airflow This includes items such as, surrounding buildings, local topography, parked vehicles, pedestrian access cores, lifts and stairs. Depending on the design, these obstructions could influence the air movement patterns and hence the distribution of carbon monoxide.

Ambient conditions The simulations are usually run for what is considered to be a worst-case scenario. This could be a calm or a windy day depending on the car park design. The calm day scenario relies on stack effect for ventilation and is normally run for a summer design day. The high ambient temperature reduces the amount of buoyancy experienced by the hot exhaust gases, therefore minimising air movement and reducing carbon monoxide dilution.

If the effect of wind driven ventilation is to be considered, then wind pressure coefficient data from a wind tunnel test could be used or in the absence of this, generic wind pressure coefficients could be used with extreme caution. Generic wind pressure coefficients should only be used to compare options rather than to establish absolute values, as they do not take account of the site location or the building design.

Vehicle Movements In order to determine the levels of carbon monoxide emissions it is necessary to determine the number of vehicles that are moving at any one time within the car park. This can be acquired from a vehicle movement profile if a traffic study has been undertaken or from a case study on a similar car park. The peak figure is usually 10% to 15% of the total capacity of the car park. Having established how many vehicles are moving at any one time, the type and duration of movements can be considered: for example are vehicles idling, stationary in a queue, manoeuvring into/out of parking bays or accelerating. The distribution of vehicles will determine the location of emissions; alternatively in the absence of sufficient information, a uniform distribution may be assumed. Vehicle Emissions 2 The type of fuel and the age of the vehicle will determine the composition of the emissions. The amount of carbon monoxide varies depending on whether an engine is warm or cold: for example the carbon monoxide from a warm petrol engine is in the region of 46.22 mg/s and for a cold engine 136.15 mg/s. The exhaust gas temperature affects the emissions from vehicles with catalytic converters that are only effective when the engine is warm.

The Duration of Occupants in the Car Park This can either be based on a study for an existing car park or on reasonable estimated figures specific to the site. For example; 5 minutes to drive in and park, 5 minutes to collect belongings and walk out of the car park, 5 minutes to walk back to the car and load shopping, 5 minutes to drive out of the car park and, say, 5 minutes spare. This gives a total time of 25 minutes exposure period. This figure would then be used to calculate the 8-hour TWA exposure limit. Other important variables amongst others to be considered include, all natural ventilation openings, the type of site and its geographical location and the appropriate background carbon monoxide level. The range of detail incorporated into the computer models depends on the time and fees allowed for analysis as well as the amount of information available. To avoid extensive costs of detailed models at the early design stage prior to design confirmation, simplifications to the model can be made. For example, generic models can be built to represent a number of different design proposals. These results are used to compare options but not to provide absolute values to assess compliance with Regulations. The design option selected will be developed in more detail to assess compliance with Building Regulations. An example of generic modelling is Heron City, Lisbon which is contained within the case studies.

Case Studies The CFD models, as well as allowing the effectiveness of the proposed design to be determined, can also be used to examine possible solutions to any problems identified in the analysis. The following case studies demonstrate how CFD was used to fine tune original design concepts.

Three Waters Madrid This project was for an underground car park beneath a new shopping centre in Madrid. A fully ducted ventilation system was the approved design contained with the Spanish Building Regulations. However, this would be costly to install and would impact on the development programme. Therefore, the purpose of the simulation was to demonstrate that a non-ducted, mechanical system would also meet the Spanish Building Regulations.

FIGURE 1
Fully-ducted scheme

Non-ducted scheme

Mechanical Supply Mechanical Extract Natural Make-up Air

Figure 1 above indicates the position of the ventilation components and their flow direction for the two schemes. The Fully ducted scheme had a uniformly distributed mechanical extract with make-up air drawn in via the entrances and exit points. The non-ducted scheme combines a central ducted supply, with extracts positioned at the perimeter, make-up air was again drawn in via the openings provided for the entrances and exits.

FIGURE 2
Fully-ducted scheme

Exhaust CO Concentration (ppm)

220 190 160 190 130 160 100 130 70 40 100 10 70 40 10

220

Non-ducted scheme

Figure 2 above shows a CFD plot for each of the schemes, it can clearly be seen that the proposed non-ducted scheme performs better that the alternative fully-ducted scheme.

Gunwharf Quays Portsmouth This was a naturally ventilated car park comprising two basement sections linked by a split subterranean level. This resourcefully utilised a number of different natural ventilation openings such as louvres, vehicle entrance and exit points, ventilated doors, roof seated vents and hit and miss boarding. For a naturally ventilated car park design, the requirements state that each level of the car park should have a ventilated free area not less than 2.5% of the floor area at that level, of which at least 1.25% should be equally provided between two opposing walls3. In this case the ventilation openings were not equally provided between two opposing walls, however, the simulation demonstrated that the alternative design comfortably satisfied Building Regulations.

Figure 3 overleaf illustrates the car park design and indicates the position and dimensions of the natural ventilation openings.

FIGURE 3

Ke y Item Entrance Ramp Seat Vents Vented doors Hit & Miss Boarding Louvres - Type: 1 2 3 4 5

Size (Num be r) (m) % FA Actua l FA (m ) 6 x 2.5 100 15.00 0.9 x 0.9 x 16 80 10.37 2.1 x 0.9 x 8 40 6.05 1.4 x 136 40 76.16 3.253 x 1.06 x 31 50 53.45 4.038 x 1.06 x 6 50 12.84 3.420 x 1.06 x 3 50 5.44 4.360 x 1.06 x 15 50 34.66 1.660 x 1.06 x 1 50 0.88 TOTAL FA (m ) 214.84

FIGURE 4
Concentration CO (ppm)

158 141 132 97 88 70 53 35 17 0

Speed (m/s)

0.32 0.29 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.07 0.04 0.00

Figure 4 below illustrates two CFD plots from the simulation, taken 1m above the floor level. The upper plot shows the distribution of carbon monoxide and the lower plot shows air speed. These plots show that there is a greater concentration of carbon monoxide in the left hand side of the car park due to fewer ventilation openings in this location. The air movement is multi-directional, the speed is within a comfortable range for people using the car park.

Heron City Lisbon At early concept stage a series of generic models were tested to formulate an appropriate ventilation strategy. The following three strategies were compared; natural ventilation, central mechanical extract with natural ventilation intake, central mechanical supply with natural exfiltration. The generic model maintained the free areas of perimeter openings, floor areas, volumes and the aspect ratio of the car park whilst omitting unnecessary detail.

FIGURE 5
Natural Ventilation Scheme

Central Supply Scheme 2 ach

Concentration CO (ppm)

Central Extract Scheme 2 ach

210 187 163 140 117 93 70 47 23 0

Figure 5 above displays the carbon monoxide plots for the three strategies. The simulations show that the design with the central supply is most effective at removing the carbon monoxide. However, due to the intended construction of open recreation and eating areas above the car park perimeter, the central supply solution could create unpleasant odours. With this consideration, the central extract design was deemed the more appropriate scheme.

Bluewater Kent Bluewater is the largest and one of the most innovative designs of its kind in the United Kingdom, comprising 154,000m of shopping and leisure facilities. Lend Leases concept was to create a natural fresh environment throughout the complex, inclusive of the car parking facilities for over 13,000 cars. The original designs detailed mechanical systems, however a wind tunnel model supplying the external pressure coefficients was combined with a CFD model, which lead to a number of design modifications and demonstrated that the majority of the car parks could be naturally ventilated.

Localised CO detectors combined with fan-assisted ventilators were introduced to areas that the computer simulation showed could potentially exceed CO limits. This was an excellent example of Value Engineering of car park ventilation systems and provided considerable savings particularly in construction, operation, maintenance and programme as well as significant environmental benefits.

FIGURE 6

Figure 6 above is a site photo of Bluewater, illustrating the fan-assisted ventilators on the top deck, the CO sensors are positioned directly below the ventilators on the lower deck. Conclusion The use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) as a tool for value engineering can significantly benefit new and existing developments by avoiding unnecessary capital expenditure, reducing construction time, and providing reductions in energy consumption, CO2 emissions and maintenance. Many modern buildings are complex in shape and design and therefore they require an engineered solution. The majority of simulations undertaken for car parks are required to show that the proposed design complies with the appropriate part of the Building Regulations. However, it must be borne in mind that many of the key variables are approximations and therefore it is important that the sensitivity of the results to any assumptions made is fully appreciated. The case studies have helped highlight that substantial benefits can be obtained from CFD simulations of early design proposals. The benefits are greatest when designs are tested at an early stage which allow designs to be fine tuned as opposed to a late stage re-design which can be costly. It must be remembered, that simulation results, no matter how comprehensive, are not a guarantee of performance. However, used correctly, CFD is an invaluable tool for the professional engineer to realistically appraise design options. References
1 2 3 Health and Safety Executive, EH40/2000 Occupational Exposure Limits 2000. Figures from a client, based on data provided by the AA (Automobile Association) 1995. Taken from: Building Regulations, B3 Special Provision, Section 12, Naturally Ventilated 12.6.