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Battery Solar Industry article 01/2011

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Solar Renewable Energy Battery System Design Requirements

Written for the February 2011 issue of: Solar Industry Magazine by: K. Fred Wehmeyer Vice President Product & Process Engineering

Solar energy, both photovoltaic and heat collection, based systems have existed in various forms for many years. The addition of renewable energy battery systems to solar photovoltaic sites has increased both the efficiency and the applicability of these systems. In order to optimize the efficiency and applicability of these systems even further, it is important to understand the system design requirements for renewable energy battery systems. This article will address the most important system design considerations for solar renewable energy battery systems. System Functional Requirements The first step in optimizing the system design is to identify the systems functional requirements. For example, is the system intended to be a renewable energy backup system for an existing grid connected site to increase power reliability or is it a standalone power system for a remote off-grid site such as a mountain home? The battery requirements for these two extremes can be vastly different. In reality, renewable energy battery systems are often intended to fulfill a wide range of needs. The functional requirements can be categorized as follows: Power backup system for a grid connected site (power outage backup) Standalone power system for a remote off-grid site Combined power backup / grid-tie site A power backup system for a site that normally obtains its power from the AC utility grid may only be required to provide power to a minimum number of emergency circuits such as lighting, communications, electrical requirements for heating and ventilation, cooking, preservation of refrigerated goods for a relatively short period of time. This type of system usually relies on a backup generator or some other energy source sufficient to support larger energy requirements such as heating and air conditioning and longer term backup power (more than a few hours). The battery energy requirements for this type of system are usually relatively small (5-10 kWh). A standalone power system for a remote site that does not or cannot obtain its power from the AC utility grid has to supply the total electrical power requirements for the site year-round and during all conditions of inclement weather. This may be a mountain, desert, or island site where obtaining power from the AC utility grid is difficult or simply cost prohibitive. In this case, the solar renewable energy battery system must supply all the electrical power requirements for the site; even though the energy source for larger energy requirements such as heating and air conditioning, water heating, etc. are more cost effectively supplied by other energy sources (propane, oil, wood, solar heat collection, etc.). The battery energy requirements for this type of system are usually much larger (50-100 kWh). Some solar renewable energy battery systems are designed with the intention of not only providing power for emergency backup in the event of a power outage but also to sell power back to the AC utility through a grid-tie system. A solar grid-tie system utilizes DC electrical energy from a solar panel to supply a DC-AC inverter and power conditioning/monitoring circuitry to sell power back to the AC utility. Even though a battery system is not required for a basic solar grid-tie system, the addition of a renewable energy battery system can improve the efficiency and functionality of the system and adds the capability for power backup. The battery energy requirements for this type of system can range from a relatively small battery (similar to the power backup system at 5-10 kWh) all the way up to the 50-100 kWh battery used in a standalone power system. The larger grid-tie battery system would be most practical in a remote area that has access to the AC electrical grid but the power may be unreliable or very expensive. Solar Panel Sizing In sizing and locating a solar panel site, the maximum and minimum output power of the solar array must be considered. Obviously, the output from the solar array depends on the available exposure to the sun. Not only is this output affected by variations in daytime versus nighttime hours based on the time of the year, but it is also affected by variations in solar intensity due to latitude, geography, topography (altitude and shading), climate, and weather conditions. There are many sources of data that can be used to determine the maximum and minimum output power levels for a given site location. These data can be used to calculate the minimum

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output energy of the solar array during periods of minimum solar intensity. This value must meet the maximum energy requirement of the site for a 24 hour period to prevent a cumulative net discharge condition of the battery. The data can also be used to calculate the maximum output energy of the solar array during periods of maximum solar intensity to prevent unnecessary over-sizing of the solar array. The average output energy of the solar array can also be used in sizing the renewable energy battery system. If the solar array/battery/charger system is properly designed, the battery should never be subjected to a net discharge during a given 48 hour period, even though there may be occasional instances of a net discharge during a given 24 hour period.

Battery Capacity and Voltage Sizing In determining the optimum amp-hour capacity and battery voltage of a renewable energy battery system, the average and peak daily load and run-time requirements must be determined. Since these requirements may also vary with the time of the year, a worst case condition must be determined. This will assure the battery will not be over-discharged on a regular basis. For optimum battery performance and life, the battery should be designed to meet the worst case condition of peak daily load and run-time without discharging more than 50% of its rated capacity. This will also assure that the battery will have adequate reserve capacity for unforeseen emergencies. Use the following step-by-step procedure to determine the peak daily load and battery watt-hour and kWh capacity for the system. Determine the power requirement (in watts) for each load that will be supplied by the system. This can usually be found on the nameplate for each device or can often be found in the owners manual. (For example: 120volts x 10 amps = 1200 watts.) Multiply the load in watts for each device times the number of hours per 24 hour period the device will be used. This gives the energy requirement in watthours for each device. Add up all the watt-hour requirements for all the devices to be powered by the system in a worst case condition. This is the total amount of energy in watthours required by the system during a 24 hour period (worst case). Divide the energy in watt-hours from step #3 by 0.5 (or multiply by 2) to determine the battery energy required for a 50% depth of discharge (DOD). Divide the energy in watt-hours from step #4 by 1,000 to determine the energy in kilowatt-hours (kwh). (For example: 10,000 watt-hours divided by 1,000 = 10 kWh.) It is important to note that the life of a deep cycle battery is measured in cycle life or the number of discharges and recharges the battery can supply before it fails to deliver 50% of its rated capacity. The batterys expected cycle life is dependent upon the average depth of discharge over the life of the battery. Since this dependency is logarithmic, it can be very significant. For example, if a typical flooded lead-acid battery can deliver 500 cycles at 100% depth of discharge (DOD), it could deliver over 1,150 cycles if the average DOD is limited to 50%. The choice of the system DC operating voltage can have a significant effect on the choice of battery voltage and associated DC-DC converters, DC-AC inverters, and devices powered by the system. For low power (5-10 kWh power backup) systems, lower voltages in the 12-48 volt range are usually preferred to minimize cost. For higher power (50-100 kWh) systems, higher voltages in the 72-240 volt range are preferred to minimize the number of parallel strings of batteries to meet the energy requirement. It may also be possible to eliminate the DC-DC converter entirely if either 120 volts or 240 volts is used, resulting in an efficiency gain. Battery Charge Control The overall life of all renewable energy batteries is also affected by the charge control method used to control the way the battery is recharged between each discharge cycle and during maintenance charging or float charging. Since there is such a wide variety of methods used to recharge renewable energy batteries, it is always best to consult the battery manufacturers recommendations for proper charge control. Following is some of the basic terminology used to describe charge control methodology. It is important to understand these terms to be able to properly set-up or program a solar battery charge controller. Charger Algorithm Designed-in or programmed set-points used by a charger to control transition from one charge stage to another or to initiate and/or terminate charge. Charge Time The time required for the charger to complete all charge stages and reach the final charge termination criteria (not including float or maintenance charge stages). Bulk Charge High rate charge stage at the start of charge designed to quickly bring battery state of charge (SOC) to 75-90%; may be constant current, stepped current, constant power, taper charge or ferroresonant charge. Absorption Charge Secondary charge stage designed to bring battery SOC to 90-100% (usually controlled by charger algorithm). Finish Charge Final charge stage designed to return an additional 5-20% of battery capacity to fully charge battery, to offset charge inefficiency, and to mix battery electrolyte through gassing. Three-Stage Charger A charger algorithm using three distinct charge stages: bulk charge, absorption charge, and finish charge. Two-Stage Charger A charger algorithm using two distinct charge stages: bulk charge and absorption charge.

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Single-Stage Charger A charger algorithm using a single continuous charge stage with tapering voltage and current characteristics.

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Equalization Charge A periodic fixed overcharge designed to overcome the effects of progressive undercharge and to fully mix the electrolyte. Float or Maintenance Charge Optional charge phase after finish charge to maintain battery at 100% SOC and to offset self-discharge; may be a continuous charge at float voltage or programmed pulse charge. Note: Float charge is not considered a charge stage because the battery should be fully charged before float charge is initiated. Temperature Compensation Some charger algorithms require temperature compensation of charge voltage, typically: -0.0028 vpc per ?F above 80?F (+0.0028 vpc below 80?F) Battery Discharge Control There are several methods of controlling the depth of discharge (DOD) of renewable energy battery systems. Two of the most common are voltage based discharge cutoff or low voltage cutoff (LVCO) and amp-hour based discharge cutoff (Ah-In vs Ah-Out). The LVCO method uses a fixed voltage cutoff during discharge to estimate the depth of discharge at the desired level. Most battery manufacturers provide discharge curves from which to estimate the cutoff voltage vs depth of discharge. This information is often provided in volts per cell (vpc). To calculate the actual battery cutoff voltage, multiply the vpc value by the number of cells in each series string. Volts per cell values for various renewable energy batteries can be found in Table I Renewable Energy Battery Chemistry Choices below. A more accurate method for controlling the depth of discharge of renewable energy battery systems is the amp-hour based discharge cutoff. This method measures the number of amp-hours discharged (Ah-Out), compares this value with the rated capacity of the battery set, and stops the discharge at the programmed depth of discharge. An even more accurate method also measures the number of amp-hours recharged (Ah-In) vs the number of amp-hours discharged (Ah-Out) and tracks the battery state of charge on a continuous basis. This is particularly effective in applications where the battery is not fully charged on every charge cycle such as during a cloudy day or during periods that the solar panel is snow covered. System Output (AC vs DC) The design of solar renewable energy systems to be added to existing systems connected to the AC grid require a DC-AC inverter to convert the DC power from the solar panel and stored in the battery to AC power for use by existing AC powered devices or to sell back to the AC power utility. This DC-AC conversion process is less than 100% efficient (typically 90% or less) and results in significant energy loss. An alternative is to use DC powered devices whenever possible. This avoids the energy loss inherent with an inverter. In addition, newer lighting technologies using DC powered LEDs are also more energy efficient than conventional AC incandescent or fluorescent lighting resulting in an additional gain in efficiency. Most AC appliances can be replaced with DC powered counterparts as well. This is particularly practical for remote sites that will not be connected to the AC grid at all. Even if some AC power is needed for specific electronic equipment, the power requirements for the inverter are reduced along with the inverter costs. Obviously it is less practical for grid-tie sites that require high power DC-AC conversion. Battery Chemistry Choices There is an old saying that says Its good to have choices., and there are many choices to be made in selecting a renewable energy battery. However, the wide variety of choices in renewable energy battery systems can be daunting. Following is a chart showing some of the choices available along with nominal open circuit cell voltage and advantages and disadvantages of each. The system costs shown include all necessary charge control and safety protection circuits and any thermal management equipment that may be required. Thermal management is obviously required to maintain the high temperature batteries, but may also be required to prevent thermal runaway for safe operation of some of the other battery chemistries as well. The battery manufacturer should be consulted regarding these requirements.

The system costs do not include the costs of solar panels and site preparation, DC-DC converters, DC-AC inverters, grid-tie equipment, and any wiring modifications or installation costs. Consult a solar panel supplier and/or qualified solar electrical engineering professional for information on these costs and requirements.

Table I Solar Renewable Energy Battery Chemistry Choices

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