Chapter1.

Designofpumpsandmotors
Secticn1.6:MateriaIs
1.6.1 WhaIiscorrosion!
1.6.2 1ypesoIcorrosion
1.6.3 MeIalandmeIalalloys
1.6.4Ceramics
1.6.S PlasIics
1.6.6kubber
1.6.7 CoaIings
60
5ection1.6
MateriaIs
lnIhissecIionyoucanreadabouIdiIIerenImaIerialsIhaI
are used Ior pump consIrucIion. Our main Iocus will be
on Ihe IeaIures IhaI every single meIal and meIal alloy
have Io oIIer. 8uI beIore we dig any IurIher inIo Ihe
worldoImaIerials,wewillhaveacloserlookaIcorrosion.
8esidesexplainingwhaIcorrosionis,wewillexamineIhe
diIIerenI Iypes oI corrosion and whaI can be done Io
prevenIcorrosionIromoccurring.
1.6.1Whatiscorrosion?
Corrosion is usually reIerred Io as Ihe degradaIion oI Ihe
meIal by chemical or elecIrochemical reacIion wiIh iIs
environmenI, see Iigure 1.6.1. When considered broadly,
corrosion may be looked upon as Ihe Iendency oI Ihe
meIal Io reverI Io iIs naIural sIaIe similar Io Ihe oxide
IromwhichiIwasoriginallymelIed.OnlypreciousmeIals,
such as gold and plaIinum are Iound in naIure in Iheir
meIallicsIaIe.
SomemeIalsproduceaIighIproIecIiveoxidelayeronIhe
surIace, which hinders IurIher corrosion. lI Ihe surIace
layerisbrokeniIisselI-healing.1hesemeIalsarepassivaIed.
Under aImospheric condiIions Ihe corrosion producIs
oI zinc and aluminium Iorm a Iairly IighI layer and
IurIhercorrosionisprevenIed.
Likewise, on Ihe surIace oI sIainless sIeel a IighI layer oI
ironandchromiumoxideisIormedandonIhesurIaceoI
IiIaniumalayeroIIiIaniumoxideisIormed.1heproIecIive
layer oI Ihese meIals explains Iheir good corrosion
resisIance. kusI, on Ihe oIher hand, is a non-proIecIive
corrosionproducIonsIeel.
kusI is porous, noI Iirmly adherenI and does noI prevenI
conIinuedcorrosion,seeIigure1.6.2.
pH (acidity)
Oxidizing agents (such as oxygen)
Temperature
Concentration of solution constituents
(such as chlorides)
8iological activity
Operating conditions
(such as velocity, cleaning procedures and shutdowns)
nvironmentaI variabIes that affect the
corrosion resistance of metaIs and aIIoys
lig.1.6.1.LnvironmenIalvariablesIhaIaIIecIIhecorrosion
resisIanceoImeIalsandalloys
Ncn-prctectiveccrrcsicnprcduct
Prctectiveccrrcsicnprcduct
lig.1.6.2.LxamplesoIcorrosionproducIs
kustonsteeI
DxideIayeronstainIesssteeI
1.6.21ypesofcorrosion
Generally, meIallic corrosion involves Ihe loss oI meIal aI
a spoI on an exposed surIace. Corrosion occurs in various
Iorms ranging Irom uniIorm aIIacks over Ihe enIire surIace
IoseverelocalaIIacks.
1he environmenI's chemical and physical condiIions
deIermineboIhIheIypeandIheraIeoIcorrosionaIIacks.1he
condiIionsalsodeIermineIheIypeoIcorrosionproducIsIhaI
areIormedandIheconIrolmeasuresIhaIneedIobeIaken.ln
manycases,iIisimpossibleorraIherexpensiveIocompleIely
sIop Ihe corrosion process, however, iI is usually possible Io
conIrolIheprocessIoaccepIablelevels.
On Ihe Iollowing pages we will go Ihrough Ihe diIIerenI
Iorms oI corrosion in order Io give you an idea oI Iheir
characIerisIics.
Unifcrmccrrcsicn
UniIorm or general corrosion is characIerised by corrosive
aIIacks proceeding evenly over Ihe enIire surIace, or on a
largeparIoIIheIoIalarea.GeneralIhinningconIinuesunIil
Ihe meIal is broken down. UniIorm corrosion is Ihe Iype oI
corrosionwhereIhelargesIamounIoImeIaliswasIed.
LxamplesoImeIals,whicharesub|ecIIouniIorm
corrosion.
SIeelinaeraIedwaIer
SIainlesssIeelinreducingacids(suchasLN1.4301
(AlSl304)insulIuricacid)
Pittingccrrcsicn
PiIIing corrosion is a localised Iorm oI corrosive aIIacks.
PiIIingcorrosionIormsholesorpiIsonIhemeIalsurIace.
lIperIoraIesIhemeIalwhileIheIoIalcorrosion,measured
by weighI loss, mighI be raIher minimal. 1he raIe oI
peneIraIion may be 10 Io 100 Iimes IhaI oI general
corrosion depending on Ihe aggressiveness oI Ihe liquid.
PiIIingoccursmoreeasilyinasIagnanIenvironmenI.
LxampleoImeIalIhaIissub|ecIIopiIIingcorrosion.
SIainlesssIeelinseawaIer
lig.1.6.3.UniIormcorrosion
lig.1.6.4.PiIIingcorrosion
61
1.Designofpumpsandmotors
1.1Pumpconstruction,(10)
Creviceccrrcsicn
Crevice corrosion - like piIIing corrosion - is a localised
IormoIcorrosionaIIack.Rowever,crevicecorrosionsIarIs
moreeasilyIhanpiIIing.CrevicecorrosionoccursaInarrow
openingsorspacesbeIweenIwomeIalsurIacesorbeIween
meIals and non-meIal surIaces and is usually associaIed
wiIhasIagnaIecondiIioninIhecrevice.Crevices,suchas
Ihose Iound aI Ilange |oinIs or aI Ihreaded connecIions,
areIhusoIIenIhemosIcriIicalspoIsIorcorrosion.
LxampleoImeIalIhaIissub|ecIIocrevicecorrosion.
SIainlesssIeelinseawaIer
lntergranuIarccrrcsicn
As Ihe name implies, inIergranular corrosion occurs aI
grain boundaries. lnIergranular corrosion is also called
inIercrysIalline corrosion. 1ypically, Ihis Iype oI corrosion
occurs when chromium carbide precipiIaIes aI Ihe grain
boundaries during Ihe welding process or in connecIion
wiIh insuIIicienI heaI IreaImenI. A narrow region around
Ihe grain boundary may IhereIore depleIe in chromium
and become less corrosion resisIanI Ihan Ihe resI oI Ihe
maIerial. 1his is unIorIunaIe because chromium plays an
imporIanIroleincorrosionresisIance.
LxamplesoImeIalsIhaIaresub|ecIIoinIergranularcorrosion.
SIainlesssIeel-whichisinsuIIicienIlyweldedor
heaI-IreaIed
SIainlesssIeelLN1.4401(AlSl316)inconcenIraIed
niIricacid
SeIectiveccrrcsicn
SelecIive corrosion is a Iype oI corrosion which aIIacks
one single elemenI oI an alloy and dissolves Ihe elemenI
in Ihe alloy sIrucIure. ConsequenIly, Ihe alloy's sIrucIure
isweakened.
LxamplesoIselecIivecorrosion.
1hedezinciIicaIionoIunsIabilisedbrass,wherebya
weakened,porouscoppersIrucIureisproduced
GraphiIisaIionoIgraycasIiron,wherebyabriIIle
graphiIeskeleIonisleIIbecauseoIIhedissoluIion
oIiron
lig.1.6.S.Crevicecorrosion
lig.1.6.6.lnIergranularcorrosion
lig.1.6.7.SelecIivecorrosion
Copper
Zinccorrosionproducts
8rass
62
5ection1.6
MateriaIs
rcsicnccrrcsicn
Lrosion corrosion is a process IhaI involves corrosion
and erosion. 1he raIe oI corrosion aIIack is acceleraIed
by Ihe relaIive moIion oI a corrosive liquid and a
meIal surIace. 1he aIIack is localised in areas wiIh
high velociIy or IurbulenI Ilow. Lrosion corrosion
aIIacks are characIerised by grooves wiIh direcIional
paIIern.
LxamplesoImeIalswhicharesub|ecIIoerosioncorrosion.
8ronzeinseawaIer
CopperinwaIer
Cavitaticnccrrcsicn
A pumped liquid wiIh high velociIy reduces Ihe pressure.
When Ihe pressure drops below Ihe liquid vapour
pressure, vapour bubbles Iorm (Ihe liquid boils).
ln Ihe areas where Ihe vapour bubbles Iorm, Ihe
liquid is boiling. When Ihe pressure raises again, Ihe
vapour bubbles collapse and produce inIensive
shockwaves. ConsequenIly, Ihe collapse oI Ihe vapour
bubbles remove meIal or oxide Irom Ihe surIace.
LxamplesoImeIalsIhaIaresub|ecIIocaviIaIion.
CasIironinwaIeraIhighIemperaIure
8ronzeinseawaIer
Stressccrrcsicncracking{SCC}
SIress corrosion cracking (SCC) reIers Io Ihe combined
inIluence oI Iensile sIress (applied or inIernal) and
corrosive environmenI.1he maIerial can crack wiIhouI
any signiIicanI deIormaIion or obvious deIerioraIion oI
Ihe maIerial.OIIen, piIIing corrosion is associaIed wiIh
IhesIresscorrosioncrackingphenomena.
Lxamples oI meIals IhaI are sub|ecI Io sIress corrosion
cracking.
SIainlesssIeelLN1.4401(AlSl316)inchlorides
8rassinammonia
lig.1.6.8.Lrosioncorrosion
lig.1.6.9.CaviIaIioncorrosion
lig.1.6.10.SIresscorrosioncracking
fIow
63
1.Designofpumpsandmotors
1.1Pumpconstruction,(10)

Ccrrcsicnfatigue
Pure mechanical IaIigue is when a maIerial sub|ecIed
Io a cyclic load Iar below Ihe ulIimaIe Iensile sIrengIh
can Iail.lI Ihe meIal is simulIaneouslyexposed Io a
corrosive environmenI, Ihe Iailure can Iake place aI an
even lower sIress and aIIer a shorIer Iime. ConIrary Io
a pure mechanical IaIigue, Ihere is no IaIigue limiI in
corrosion-assisIedIaIigue.
LxampleoImeIalsIhaIaresub|ecIIocorrosionIaIigue.
AluminiumsIrucIuresincorrosiveaImosphere
CaIvanicccrrcsicn
When a corrosive elecIrolyIe and Iwo meIallic maIerials
are in conIacI (galvanic cell), corrosion increases on Ihe
leasI noble maIerial (Ihe anode) and decreases on Ihe
noblesI (Ihe caIhode). 1he increase in corrosion is called
galvanic corrosion. 1he Iendency oI a meIal or an alloy
Io corrode in a galvanic cell is deIermined by iIs posiIion
in Ihe galvanic series. 1he galvanic series indicaIes Ihe
relaIive nobiliIy oI diIIerenI meIals and alloys in a given
environmenI(e.g.seawaIer,seeIigure1.6.12).
1he IarIher aparI Ihe meIals are in Ihe galvanic series,
IhegreaIerIhegalvaniccorrosioneIIecIwillbe.MeIalsor
alloysaIIheupperendarenoble,whileIhoseaIIhelower
endareleasInoble.

LxamplesoImeIalIhaIaresub|ecIIogalvaniccorrosion.
SIeelinconIacIwiIh1.4401
AluminiuminconIacIwiIhcopper
1he principles oI galvanic corrosion are used in caIhodic
proIecIion. CaIhodic proIecIion is a means oI reducing
or prevenIing Ihe corrosion oI a meIal surIace by Ihe
use oI sacriIicial anodes (zinc or aluminum) or impressed
currenIs.
lig.1.6.11.CorrosionIaIigue
lig.1.6.12.Galvaniccorrosion
lig.1.6.13.GalvanicseriesIormeIalsandalloysinseawaIer
AIuminium-IessnobIe Copper-mostnobIe
64
5ection1.6
MateriaIs
1.6.3MetaIandmetaIaIIoys
On Ihe Iollowing pages, you can read abouI Ihe IeaIures
oIdiIIerenImeIalsandmeIalalloys,usedIorconsIrucIion
oIpumps.
ferrousaIIoys
lerrousalloysarealloyswhereironisIheprimeconsIiIuenI.
lerrous alloys are Ihe mosI common oI all maIerials
becauseoIIheiravailabiliIy,lowcosI,andversaIiliIy.
SteeI
SIeel is a widely used maIerial primarily composed oI iron
alloyed wiIh carbon. 1he amounI oI carbon in sIeel varies
inIherangeIrom0.003Io1.SbyweighI.1heconIenIoI
carbonhasanimporIanIimpacIonIhemaIerial'ssIrengIh,
weldabiliIy, machinabiliIy, ducIiliIy, and hardness. As a
rule-oI-Ihumb, an increase in carbon conIenI will lead Io
an increase in sIrengIh and hardness buI Io a decrease in
ducIiliIyandweldabiliIy.1hemosIcommonIypeoIsIeelis
carbon sIeel. Carbon sIeel is grouped inIo Iour caIegories,
seeIigure1.6.14.
SIeel is available in wroughI as well as in casI condiIion.
1he general characIerisIics oI sIeel casIings are closely
comparable Io Ihose oI wroughI sIeels. 1he mosI obvious
advanIageoIsIeelisIhaIiIisrelaIivelyinexpensiveIomake,
Iorm and process. On Ihe oIher hand, Ihe disadvanIage
oI sIeel is IhaI iIs corrosion resisIance is low compared Io
alIernaIivemaIerials,suchassIainlesssIeel.
CaviIaIioncorrosionoIbronzeimpeller
LrosioncorrosionoIcasIironimpeller
PiIIingcorrosionoILN1.4401(AlSl316)
lnIergranularcorrosionoI
sIainlesssIeel
CrevicecorrosionoI
LN1.4462(SAl220S)
1mm
1ype of steeI Content of carbon
Low carbon or mild steel 0.003% to 0.30% of carbon
Medium carbon steel 0.30% to 0.45% of carbon
High carbon steel 0.45% to 0.75% of carbon
very high carbon steel 0.75% to l.50% of carbon
lig1.6.14.lourIypesoIcarbonsIeel
6S
NcduIar{ductiIe}ircn
Nodular iron conIains around 0.03-0.0S by weighI oI
magnesium. Magnesium causes Ihe Ilakes Io become
globular so Ihe graphiIe is dispersed IhroughouI a IerriIe
or pearliIe maIrix in Ihe Iorm oI spheres or nodules. 1he
graphiIe nodules have no sharp IeaIures. 1he round shape
oI nodular graphiIe reduces Ihe sIress concenIraIion and
consequenIly, Ihe maIerial is much more ducIile Ihan grey
iron. ligure 1.6.16 clearly shows IhaI Ihe Iensile sIrengIh is
higherIornodularironIhanisIhecaseIorgreyiron.Nodular
iron is normally used Ior pump parIs wiIh high sIrengIh
requiremenIs (high pressure or high IemperaIure
applicaIions).
StainIesssteeI
SIainless sIeel is chromium conIaining sIeel alloys. 1he
minimum chromium conIenI in sIandardised sIainless
sIeelis10.S.ChromiumimprovesIhecorrosionresisIance
oI sIainless sIeel. 1he higher corrosion resisIance is due
Io a chromium oxide Iilm IhaI is Iormed on Ihe meIal
surIace. 1his exIremely Ihin layer is selI-repairing under
IherighIcondiIions.
Molybdenum, nickel and niIrogen are oIher examples oI
Iypical alloying elemenIs. Alloying wiIh Ihese elemenIs
brings ouI diIIerenI crysIal sIrucIures,which enable
diIIerenIproperIiesinconnecIionwiIhmachining,Iorming,
welding, corrosion resisIance, eIc. ln general, sIainless
sIeel has a higher resisIance Io chemicals (i.e. acids) Ihan
sIeelandcasIironhave.
Castircn
CasI iron can be considered an alloy oI iron, silicon
and carbon. 1ypically, Ihe concenIraIion oI carbon is
beIween 3-4 by weighI, mosI oI which is presenI
in insoluble Iorm (e.g. graphiIe Ilakes or nodules).
1he Iwo main Iypes are grey casI iron and nodular
(ducIile) casI iron. 1he corrosion resisIance oI casI iron is
comparableIoIheoneIorsIeel,andsomeIimesevenbeIIer.
CasI iron can be alloyed wiIh 13-16 by weighI silicon or
1S-3S by weighI nickel (Ni-resisI) respecIively in order Io
improve corrosion resisIance. various Iypes oI casI irons are
widely used in indusIry, especially Ior valves, pumps, pipes
andauIomoIiveparIs.CasIironhasgoodcorrosionresisIance
IoneuIralandalkalineliquids(highpR).8uIiIsresisIanceIo
acids(lowpR)ispoor.
Creyircn
lngreyiron,IhegraphiIeisdispersedIhroughouIaIerriIe
or pearliIe maIrix in Ihe Iorm oI Ilakes. lracIure surIaces
Iakeonagreyappearance(henceIhename!).1hegraphiIe
Ilakes acI as sIress concenIraIors under Iensile loads,
making iI weak and briIIle in Iension, buI sIrong
and ducIile in compression. Grey iron is used Ior Ihe
consIrucIionoImoIorblocksbecauseoIiIshighvibraIion
damping abiliIy. Grey iron is an inexpensive maIerial and
is relaIively easy Io casI wiIh a minimal risk oI shrinkage.
1haI is why grey iron is oIIen used Ior pump parIs wiIh
moderaIesIrengIhrequiremenIs.
1.Designofpumpsandmotors
1.1Pumpconstruction,(10)


lig1.6.1S.ComparisonanddesignaIionsoIgreyiron
lig1.6.16.ComparisonanddesignaIionsoInodulariron
66
5ection1.6
MateriaIs
ln environmenIs conIaining chlorides, sIainless sIeel can
be aIIacked by localised corrosion, e.g. piIIing corrosion
and crevice corrosion. 1he resisIance oI sIainless sIeel Io
Ihese Iypes oI corrosion is highly dependenI on iIs
chemical composiIion. lI has become raIher common Io
use Ihe so-called PkL (PiIIing kesisIance LquivalenI)
values as a measure oI piIIing resisIance Ior sIainless
sIeel. PkL values are calculaIed by Iormulas in which Ihe
relaIive inIluence oI a Iew alloying elemenIs (chromium,
ChemicaI composition of stainIess steeI [wZ]
Microstructure Designation % % % % % PPL
5)
LN/A|S|/UNS Carbon max. Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Other
Perritic l.40l6/430/ S43000 0.08 l6-l8 l7
Martensitic l.4057/43l/ S43l00 0.l2-0.22 l5-l7 l.5-2.5 l6
Austenitic l.4305/303/ S30300 0.l l7-l9 8-l0 S 0.l5-0.35 l8
Austenitic l.430l/304/ S30400 0.07 l7-l9.5 8-l0.5 l8
Austenitic l.4306/304L/ S30403 0.03 l8-20 l0-l2 l8
Austenitic l.440l/3l6/ S3l600 0.07 l6.5-l8.5 l0-l3 2-2.5 24
Austenitic l.4404/3l6L/ S3l603 0.03 l6.5-l8.5 l0-l3 2-2.5 24
Austenitic l.457l/3l6Ti/ 0.08 l6.5-l8.5 l0.5-l3.5 2-2.5 Ti > 5 x carbon 24
S3l635 Ti < 0.70
Austenitic l.4539/904L/ N08904 0.02 l9-2l 24-26 4-5 Cu l.2-2 34
Austenitic l.4547/none / 0.02 20 l8 6.l N 0.l8-0.22 43
S 3l254
3)
Cu 0.5-l
Perritic/ l.4462/ none/ 0.03 2l-23 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 N 0.l0-0.22 34
austenitic S32205
2)

Perritic/ l.44l0/none/ 0.03 25 7 4 N 0.24-0.32 43
austenitic S 32750
4)
Microstructure Designation % % % % % PPL
LN/ASTM/UNS Carbon max. Chromium Nickel Molybdenum Other
Austenitic
l)
l.4308/CP8/ 192600 0.07 l8-20 8-ll l9
Austenitic
l)
l.4408/CP8M/ 192900 0.07 l8-20 9-l2 2-2.5 26
Austenitic
l)
l.4409/CP3M/ 192800 0.03 l8-20 9-l2 2-2.5 N max. 0.2 26
Austenitic l.4584/none/ none 0.025 l9-2l 24-26 4-5
N max. 0.2
35

Cu l-3
Perritic/
Austenitic l.4470/CD3MN/ 192205 0.03 2l-23 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 N 0.l2-0.2 35
Perritic/ l.45l7/CD4MCuN/ N 0.l2-0.22
Austenitic 193372 0.03 24.5-26.5 2.5-3.5 2.5-3.5 Cu 2.75-3.5 38

molybdenum and niIrogen) on Ihe piIIing resisIance is
Iaken inIo consideraIion. 1he higher Ihe PkL, Ihe higher
IheresisIanceIolocalisedcorrosion.8eawareIhaIIhePkL
valueisaveryroughesIimaIeoIIhepiIIingresisIanceoI
asIainlesssIeelandshouldonlybeusedIorcomparison]
classiIicaIionoIdiIIerenIIypesoIsIainlesssIeel.
ln Ihe Iollowing, we will presenI Ihe Iour ma|or Iypes oI
sIainlesssIeel.IerriIic,marIensiIic,ausIeniIicandduplex.
1)
ConIainssomeIerriIe
2)
AlsoknownasSAl220S,
3)
Alsoknownas2S4SMO,
4)
AlsoknownasSAl2S07
S)
PiIIingkesisIanceLquivalenI(PkL).Cr+3.3xMo+16xN.
lig1.6.17.ChemicalcomposiIionoIsIainlesssIeel
67
ferritic{magnetic}
lerriIic sIainless sIeel is characIerised by quiIe good
corrosion properIies, very good resisIance Io sIress
corrosion cracking and moderaIe Ioughness. Low alloyed
IerriIic sIainless sIeel is used in mild environmenIs
(Ieaspoons, kiIchen sinks, washing machine drums,
eIc.) where iI is a requiremenI IhaI Ihe componenI is
mainIenance-Ireeandnon-rusIing.
Martensitic{magnetic}
MarIensiIicsIainlesssIeelischaracIerisedbyhighsIrengIh
and limiIed corrosion resisIance. MarIensiIic sIeels are
used Ior springs, shaIIs, surgical insIrumenIs and Ior
sharp-edgedIools,suchasknivesandscissors.
Austenitic{ncn-magnetic}
AusIeniIic sIainless sIeel is Ihe mosI common Iype
oI sIainless sIeel and is characIerised by a high
corrosion resisIance, very good IormabiliIy, Ioughness
and weldabiliIy. AusIeniIic sIainless sIeel, especially
Ihe LN 1.4301 and LN 1.4401 are used Ior almosI any
Iype oI pump componenIs in Ihe indusIry. 1his kind oI
sIainlesssIeelcanbeeiIherwroughIorcasI.

LN1.430SisoneoIIhemosIpopularsIainlesssIeelIypes
oI all Ihe Iree machining sIainless sIeel Iypes. Due Io iIs
highsulphurconIenI(0.1S-0.3Sw),IhemachinabiliIyhas
improved considerably buI unIorIunaIely aI Ihe expense
oI iIs corrosion resisIance and iIs weldabiliIy. Rowever,
over Ihe years Iree machining grades wiIh a low sulphur
conIenIandIhusahighercorrosionresisIancehavebeen
developed.
lI sIainless sIeel is heaIed up Io S00C - 800C Ior a
longer period oI Iime during welding, Ihe chromium
mighIIormchromiumcarbideswiIhIhecarbonpresenIin
Ihe sIeel.1his reduces chromium's capabiliIy Io mainIain
IhepassiveIilmandmighIleadIoinIergranularcorrosion
alsoreIerredIoassensiIisaIion(seesecIion1.6.2).
lIlowcarbongradesoIsIainlesssIeelareusedIheriskoI
sensiIisaIionisreduced.SIainlesssIeelwiIhalowconIenI
1.Designofpumpsandmotors
1.1Pumpconstruction,(10)
oI carbon is reIerred Io as LN 1.4306 (AlSl 304L) or LN
1.4404 (AlSl 316L). 8oIh grades conIain 0.03 oI carbon
compared Io 0.07 in Ihe regular Iype oI sIainless sIeel
LN 1.4301 (AlSl 304) and LN 1.4401 (AlSl 316), see
illusIraIion1.6.17.
1hesIabilisedgradesLN1.4S71(AlSl3161i)conIainasmall
amounIoIIiIanium.8ecauseIiIaniumhasahigheraIIiniIy
Ior carbon Ihan chromium, Ihe IormaIion oI chromium
carbides is minimised. 1he conIenI oI carbon is generally
lowinmodernsIainlesssIeel,andwiIhIheeasyavailabiliIy
oI 'L' grades Ihe use oI sIabilised grades has declined
markedly.
ferritic-austeniticcrdupIex{magnetic}
lerriIic-ausIeniIic (duplex) sIainless sIeel is characIerised
byhighsIrengIh,goodIoughness,highcorrosionresisIance
and excellenI resisIance Io sIress corrosion cracking and
corrosionIaIigueinparIicular.
lerriIic-ausIeniIic sIainless sIeel is Iypically used in
applicaIions IhaI require high sIrengIh, high corrosion
resisIance and low suscepIibiliIy Io sIress corrosion cracking
or a combinaIion oI Ihese properIies. SIainless sIeel
LN1.4462iswidelyusedIormakingpumpshaIIsandpump
housings.
68
5ection1.6
MateriaIs
NickeIaIIoys
Nickel base alloys are deIined as alloys in which nickel
is presenI in greaIer proporIion Ihan any oIher alloying
elemenI. 1he mosI imporIanI alloying consIiIuenIs are
iron, chromium, copper, and molybdenum. 1he alloying
consIiIuenIs make iI possible Io Iorm a wide range oI
alloy classes. Nickel and nickel alloys have Ihe abiliIy Io
wiIhsIand a wide varieIy oI severe operaIing condiIions,
Ior insIance corrosive environmenIs, high IemperaIures,
highsIressesoracombinaIionoIIheseIacIors.
RasIelloys
1M
alloysarealineoIcommercialalloysconIaining
Ni, Mo, Cr, and le. Nickel base alloys, such as lnconel
1M

Alloy62S,RasIelloys
1M
C-276andC-22arehighlycorrosion
resisIanIandnoIsub|ecIIopiIIingorcrevicecorrosionin
low velociIy seawaIer, and do noI suIIer Irom erosion aI
highvelociIy.

1he price oI nickel base alloy limiIs iIs use in cerIain

applicaIions. Nickel alloys are available in boIh wroughI
and casI grades. Rowever, nickel alloys are more diIIiculI
IocasIIhanIhecommoncarbonsIeelsandsIainlesssIeel
alloys. Nickel alloys are especially used Ior pump parIs in
IhechemicalprocessindusIry.
CopperaIIoys
PurecopperhasexcellenIIhermalandelecIricalproperIies,
buIisaverysoIIandducIilemaIerial.
Alloying addiIions resulI in diIIerenI casI and wroughI
maIerials, which are suiIable Ior use in Ihe producIion oI
pumps, pipelines, IiIIings, pressure vessels and Ior many
marine,elecIricalandgeneralengineeringapplicaIions.
8rasses are Ihe mosI widely used oI Ihe copper alloys
because oI Iheir low cosI, Iheir easy or inexpensive
IabricaIion and machining. Rowever, Ihey are inIerior in
sIrengIhIobronzesandmusInoIbeusedinenvironmenIs
IhaIcausedezinciIicaIion(seeselecIivecorrosion).
ked brass, bronze and copper nickels in parIicular have,
compared Io casI iron a high resisIance Io chlorides in
aggressiveliquids,suchasseawaIer.lnsuchenvironmenIs,
brassisunsuiIablebecauseoIiIsIendencyIodezinciIicaIe.
All copper alloys have poor resisIance Io alkaline liquids
(high pR), ammonia and sulIides and are sensiIive Io
erosion. 8rass, red brass and bronze are widely used Ior
makingbearings,impellersandpumphousings.

1} leoJ ron be oJJeJ os on ollcyinq element tc imprcve
the morhinobility.
2} 8rcnze ron be ollcyeJ with oluminium tc inrreose strenqth.
lig1.6.18.CommonIypesoIcopperalloys
69
1itanium
PureIiIaniumhasalowdensiIy,isquiIeducIileandhasa
relaIivelylowsIrengIh.Rowever,whenalimiIedamounI
oIoxygenisaddediIwillsIrengIhenIiIaniumandproduce
Iheso-calledcommercial-puregrades.AddiIionsoIvarious
alloying elemenIs, such as aluminium and vanadium
increase iIs sIrengIh signiIicanIly, aI Ihe expense oI
ducIiliIy. 1he aluminium and vanadium alloyed IiIanium
(1i-6Al-4v) is Ihe "workhorse" alloy oI Ihe IiIanium
indusIry.lIisusedinmanyaerospaceengineandairIrame
componenIs. 8ecause IiIanium is a high-price maIerial, iI
isnoIyeIamaIerialwhichisoIIenusedIormakingpump
componenIs.
1iIanium is a very reacIive maIerial. As iI is Ihe case Ior
sIainlesssIeel,IiIanium'scorrosionresisIancedependson
Ihe IormaIion oI an oxide Iilm. Rowever, Ihe oxide Iilm
is more proIecIive Ihan IhaI on sIainless sIeel. 1hereIore,
IiIanium perIorms much beIIer Ihan sIainless sIeel in
aggressive liquids, such as seawaIer, weI chlorine or
organicchlorides,IhaIcausepiIIingandcrevicecorrosion.
1.Designofpumpsandmotors
1.1Pumpconstruction,(10)
AIuminium

Pure aluminium is a lighI and soII meIal wiIh a densiIy

oI abouI a Ihird oI IhaI oI sIeel. Pure aluminium has a
high elecIrical and Ihermal conducIiviIy. 1he mosI common
alloying elemenIs are silicon (silumin), magnesium, iron and
copper. Silicon increases Ihe maIerial's casIabiliIy, copper
increases iIs machinabiliIy and magnesium increases iIs
corrosionresisIanceandsIrengIh.
1heobviousadvanIagesoIaluminiumareIhaIIhemaIerial
naIurally generaIes a proIecIive oxide Iilm and is highly
corrosion resisIanI iI iI is exposed Io Ihe aImosphere.
1reaImenI, such as anodising, can IurIher improve Ihis
properIy. Aluminium alloys are widely used in sIrucIures
where a high sIrengIh Io weighI raIio is imporIanI, such
as in Ihe IransporIaIion indusIry. lor example, Ihe use oI
aluminium in vehicles and aircraIIs reduces weighI and
energyconsumpIion.
On Ihe oIher hand, Ihe disadvanIage oI aluminium is IhaI
iI is noI sIable aI low or high pR and in chloride-conIaining
environmenIs.1hisproperIymakesaluminiumunsuiIableIor
exposure Io aqueous soluIions especially under condiIions
wiIh high Ilow. 1his is IurIher emphasised by Ihe IacI IhaI
aluminium is a reacIive meIal, i.e. has a low posiIion in Ihe
galvanic series (see galvanic corrosion) and may easily suIIer
Irom galvanic corrosion iI coupled Io nobler meIals and
alloys.
Designaticn Majcr aIIcying eIement
1000-series Unalloyed (pure) >99 Al
2000-series
Copper is Ihe principal alloying elemenI, Ihough oIher
elemenIs (magnesium) may be speciIied
3000-series Manganese is Ihe principal alloying elemenI
4000-series Silicon is Ihe principal alloying elemenI
S000-series Magnesium is Ihe principal alloying elemenI
6000-series
Magnesium and silicon are principal alloying elemenIs
7000-series
Zinc is Ihe principal alloying elemenI, buI oIher elemenIs,
such as copper, magnesium, chromium, and zirconium
may be speciIied
8000-series
OIher elemenIs (including Iin and some liIhium
composiIions)

CP: commercial pure (titanium content above 99.5%)
lig1.6.19.Ma|oralloyingelemenIsoIaluminium
lig1.6.20.1iIaniumgradesandalloycharacIerisIics
70
5ection1.6
MateriaIs
1.6.4Ceramics
Ceramic maIerials are deIined as inorganic, non-meIallic
maIerials, which are Iypically crysIalline in naIure. 1hey
are composed oI meIallic and non-meIallic elemenIs.
CommonIechnicalceramicsarealuminiumoxide(alumina
- Al
2
O
3
), silicon carbide (SiC), IungsIen carbide (WC), and
siliconniIride(Si
3
N
4
).
Ceramics are suiIable Ior applicaIions which require high
IhermalsIabiliIy,highsIrengIh,highwearresisIance,and
highcorrosionresisIance.1hedisadvanIageoIceramicsis
Ihe low ducIiliIy and high Iendency Ior briIIle IracIures.
Ceramics are mainly used Ior making bearings and seal
IacesIorshaIIseals.
1.6.5PIastics
SomeplasIicsarederivedIromnaIuralsubsIances,suchas
planIs,buImosIIypesareman-made.1heseareknownas
synIheIicplasIics.MosIsynIheIicplasIicscomeIromcrude
oil,buIcoalandnaIuralgasarealsoused.
1here are Iwo main Iypes oI plasIics. 1hermoplasIics and
IhermoseIs (IhermoseIIing plasIics). 1he IhermoplasIics
areIhemosIcommonkindoIplasIicusedworldwide.
PlasIics oIIen conIain addiIives, which IransIer cerIain
addiIional properIies Io Ihe maIerial. lurIhermore,
plasIics can be reinIorced wiIh Iiberglass or oIher Iibres.
1hese plasIics IogeIher wiIh addiIives and hbres are also
reIerredIoascomposiIes.
LxamplesoIaddiIivesIoundinplasIics
lnorganicIillersIormechanicalreinIorcemenI
ChemicalsIabilisers,e.g.anIioxidanIs
PlasIicisers
llamereIardanIs
1hermopIastics
1hermoplasIicpolymersconsisIoIlongpolymermolecules
IhaI are noI linked Io each oIher, i.e. have no cross-links.
1heyareoIIensuppliedasgranulesandheaIedIopermiI
IabricaIionbymeIhods,suchasmouldingorexIrusion.
Awiderangeisavailable,Iromlow-cosIcommodiIyplasIics
(e.g. PL, PP, PvC) Io high cosI engineering IhermoplasIics
(e.g. PLLK) and chemical resisIanI Iluoropolymers (e.g.
P1lL,PvDl).P1lLisoneoIIheIewIhermoplasIics,which
is noI melI-processable. 1hermoplasIics are widely used
Ior making pump housings or Ior lining oI pipes and pump
housings.
1hermosets
1hermoseIs harden permanenIly when heaIed, as cross-
linking hinders bending and roIaIions. Cross-linking is
achieved during IabricaIion using chemicals, heaI, or
radiaIion, Ihis process is called curing or vulcanizaIion.
1hermoseIs are harder, more dimensionally sIable, and
morebriIIleIhanIhermoplasIicsandcannoIberemelIed.
lmporIanI IhermoseIs include epoxies, polyesIers,
and polyureIhanes. 1hermoseIs are among oIher Ihings
usedIorsurIacecoaIings.
PP
PL
PvC
PLLK
PvDP
PTPL`
Abbreiaticn PcIer nae
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Polyvinylchloride
Polyetheretherketone
Polyvinylidene fluoride
Polytetrafluoroethylene
`1rade name. 1eIlon
Linear polymer chains
ecIastics
Iastcmers
1hermcsets
8ranched polymer chains
weakly cross-linked polymer chains
Strongly cross-linked polymer chains
lig1.6.22.DiIIerenIIypesoIpolymers
lig1.6.21.OverviewoIpolymernames
71
1.Designofpumpsandmotors
1.1Pumpconstruction,(10)
1.6.6kubber
1he Ierm rubber includes boIh naIural rubber and
synIheIic rubber. kubbers (or elasIomers) are Ilexible long-
chainpolymersIhaIcanbesIreIchedeasilyIoseveralIimes
Iheir unsIreIched lengIh and which rapidly reIurn Io Iheir
original dimensions when Ihe applied sIress is released.
kubbers are cross-linked (vulcanized), buI have a low cross-
link densiIy, see Iigure 1.6.22. 1he cross-link is Ihe key Io
Ihe elasIic, or rubbery, properIies oI Ihese maIerials. 1he
elasIiciIyprovidesresiliencyinsealingapplicaIions.DiIIerenI
componenIs in a pump are made oI rubber, e.g. gaskeIs
andO-rings(seesecIion1.3onshaIIseals).lnIhissecIionwe
will presenI Ihe diIIerenI kinds oI rubber qualiIies and Iheir
main properIies as regards IemperaIure and resisIance Io
diIIerenIkindsoIliquidgroups.
AI IemperaIures up Io abouI 100C niIrile rubber is an
inexpensivemaIerialIhaIhasahighresisIanceIooiland
Iuel. DiIIerenI grades exisI - Ihe higher Ihe acryloniIrile
(ACN)conIenI,IhehigherIheoilresisIance,buIIhepoorer
isIhelowIemperaIureIlexibiliIy.NiIrilerubbershavehigh
resilience and high wear resisIance buI only moderaIe
sIrengIh. lurIher, Ihe rubber has limiIed weaIhering
resisIanceandpoorsolvenIresisIance.lIcangenerallybe
useddownIoabouI-30C,buIcerIaingradescanoperaIe
aIlowerIemperaIures.
LIhylene propylene has excellenI waIer resisIance which
is mainIained Io high IemperaIures approximaIely 120-
140C.1herubberIypehasgoodresisIanceIoacids,sIrong
alkalis and highly polar Iluids, such as meIhanol and
aceIone. Rowever, iI has very poor resisIance Io mineral
oilandIuel.
fIucrceIastcmers{fkM}
lluoroelasIomerscoverawholeIamilyoIrubbersdesigned
Io wiIhsIand oil, Iuel and a wide range oI chemicals
including non-polar solvenIs. oIIers excellenI
resisIance Io high IemperaIure operaIion (up Io 200C
depending on Ihe grade) in air and diIIerenI Iypes oI oil.
rubbers have limiIed resisIance Io sIeam, hoI waIer,
meIhanol,andoIherhighlypolarIluids.lurIher,IhisIype
oI rubber has poor resisIance Io amines, sIrong alkalis
and many Ireons. 1here are sIandard and special grades
-IhelaIIerhavespecialproperIies,suchasimprovedlow-
IemperaIureorchemicalresisIance.

Silicone rubbers have ouIsIanding properIies, such as low

compression seI in a wide range oI IemperaIures (Irom
-60C Io 200C in air), excellenI elecIrical insulaIion and
are non-Ioxic. Silicone rubbers are resisIanI Io waIer,
some acids and oxidizing chemicals. ConcenIraIed acids,
alkalines, and solvenIs should noI be used wiIh silicone
rubbers. ln general, Ihese Iypes oI rubber have poor
resisIance Io oil and Iuel. Rowever, Ihe resisIance oI lMO
silicone rubber Io oil and Iuel is beIIer Ihan IhaI oI Ihe
siliconerubberIypesMO,vMO,andPMO.
PerIluoroelasIomers have very high chemical resisIance,
almosIcomparableIoIhaIoIP1lL(polyIeIraIluoreIhylene,
e.g. 1eIlon
k
). 1hey can be used up Io high IemperaIures,
buIIheirdisadvanIagesarediIIiculIprocessing,veryhigh
cosIandlimiIeduseaIlowIemperaIures.
Common types of copper aIIoys
N8k
Abbreviaticn
Nitrile rubber
PDM, PM Lthylene propylene rubber
fkM Pluoroelastomers viton
P
Siloprene
P
8una-N
P
ffkM Perfluoroelastomers
Chemraz
P
Kalrez
P
M0, VM0, PM0, fM0 Silicone rubber
Ccmmcn name
xampIes cf
trade name
Nordel
P
lig1.6.23.kubberIypes
72
5ection1.6
MateriaIs
1.6.7Coatings
ProIecIive coaIing - meIallic, non-meIallic (inorganic)
ororganic-isacommonmeIhodoIcorrosionconIrol.1he
mainIuncIionoIcoaIingsis(asideIromgalvaniccoaIings,
such as zinc) Io provide an eIIecIive barrier beIween Ihe
meIal(subsIraIe)andiIsenvironmenI.1heyallowIheuse
oI normal sIeel or aluminium insIead oI more expensive
maIerials. ln Ihe Iollowing secIion we will examine
Ihe possibiliIies oI prevenIing corrosion by means oI
diIIerenIcoaIings.
MeIallicandnon-meIallic(inorganic)coaIingsandorganic
coaIings.
MetaIIiccoatings
MetaIIicccatingsIessncbIethanthesubstrate
Zinc coaIings are commonly used Ior Ihe proIecIion oI
sIeel sIrucIures againsI aImospheric corrosion. Zinc has
Iwo IuncIions. iI acIs as a barrier coaIing and iI provides
galvanic proIecIion. Should an exposed area oI sIeel
occur, Ihe zinc surIace preIerenIially corrodes aI a slow
raIe and proIecIs Ihe sIeel. 1he preIerenIial proIecIion
is reIerred Io as caIhodic proIecIion. When damage is
small,IheproIecIivecorrosionproducIsoIzincwillIillIhe
exposedareaandsIopIheaIIack.
MetaIIicccatingsncbIerthanthesubstrate
LlecIroplaIing oI nickel and chromium coaIings on sIeel
are examples oI meIallic coaIings IhaI are nobler Ihan
IhesubsIraIe.UnlikegalvaniccoaIingswhereIhecoaIing
corrodes near areas where Ihe base meIal is exposed,
any void or damage in a barrier coaIing can lead Io an
immediaIebasemeIalaIIack.
To protect the base steel,
zinc coating sacrifices itself
slowly by galvanic action.
Steel coated with a more noble
metal, such as nickel, corrodes
more rapidly if the coating
is damaged.
lig1.6.24.Galvanicvs.barriercorrosionproIecIion
73
Paints
As menIioned above, painIs are an imporIanI class oI
organic coaIing. ligure 1.6.2S shows several Iypes oI
organic coaIings. A Iypical painI IormulaIion conIains
polymeric binders, solvenIs, pigmenIs and addiIives. lor
environmenIal reasons, organic solvenIs are increasingly
beingreplacedbywaIerorsimplyeliminaIed,e.gpowder
coaIing. PainIed meIal sIrucIures usually involve Iwo or
morelayersoIcoaIingappliedonaprimarycoaIing,which
isindirecIconIacIwiIhIhemeIal.
1.Designofpumpsandmotors
1.1Pumpconstruction,(10)

Non-metaIIiccoatings
(inorganiccoatings)
Conversion coaIings are an imporIanI caIegory oI non-
meIalliccoaIings(inorganic).
Ccnversicnccatings
Conversion coaIings are Iormed by a conIrolled corrosion
reacIion oI Ihe subsIraIe in an oxidised soluIion.
Well-knownexamplesoIconversioncoaIingsareanodising
orchromaIingoIaluminium,andphosphaIeIreaImenIoI
sIeel. Anodising is mainly used Ior surIace proIecIion oI
aluminium,whilechromaIingandphosphaIingareusually
used Ior pre-IreaImenI in connecIion wiIh painIing.
8esides improving painI adhesion, iI helps Io prevenI Ihe
spreadingoIrusIunderlayersoIpainI.
Drganiccoatings
Organic coaIings conIain organic compounds and are
availableinawiderangeoIdiIIerenIIypes.OrganiccoaIings
areappliedIoIhemeIalbymeIhodsoIspraying,dipping,
brushing,liningorelecIro-coaIing(painIappliedbymeans
oI elecIric currenI) and Ihey may or may noI require
heaI-curing. 8oIh IhermoplasIic coaIings, such as
polyamide, polypropylene, polyeIhylene, PvDl and P1lL and
elasIomer coaIings are applied Io meIal subsIraIes Io
combine Ihe mechanical properIies oI meIal wiIh Ihe
chemical resisIance oI plasIics buI painIs are by Iar Ihe
mosIwidelyusedorganiccoaIing.
PhysicaI states of common organic coatings
Pesin Solvent- water- Powder Two comp.
type based based coating liquid
Acrylic X X X
Alkyd X X
Lpoxy X X X X
Polyester X X X
Polyurethane X X X X
vinyl X X X
lig1.6.2S.PhysicalsIaIesoIcommonorganiccoaIings
74
5ection1.6
MateriaIs