Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Elevated
Residential
Structures
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Acknowledgments
Many people contributed valuable assistance to the prepara- Graphics and Book Design
tion of this manual. We wish to acknowlege especially the
guidance provided by Melita Rodeck and, later, John Gam- Assarsson Design Company
bel, the Federal Emergency Management Agency's technical Washington, D.C.
representatives in this work. John Gambel's advice was Allan G. Assarsson, President
particularly valuable in determining the final content and Mark P. Jarvinen, Layout and Graphic Design
form of this manual. In addition, this project would not Jeffery Banner, Graphic Design
have been possible without the help of Richard W. Krimm,
Photographs
Assistant Associate Director of the Federal Emergency
Management Agency's Office of Natural and Technological
Raymond R. Fox, Dames & Moore, pp. 64 and 124 and
Hazards, who saw the importance of increasing architects' Figures 4.23 and 4.26; Federal Emergency Management
involvement in flood damage mitigation efforts. Finally,
Agency, p. 1 and Figure 4.1; U.S. Geological Survey,
Ray Fox provided a wealth of useful advice in addition to pp. vi, 122, and 123; U.S. Department of Housing and
his technical services throughout the course of the project. Urban Development, p. 118 and Figure 2.3; Philip
Schmidt, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Devel-
Prepared by
opment, Figure 2.7; National Park Service, pp. iv and
112; Spencer Rogers, p. 18; Rosenthal Art Slides, Figures
The American Institute of Architects Foundation
3.1 and 3.2; AIA Library, Figures 3.3 and 3.4; U.S.
1735 New York Avenue, N.W.
Army Corps of Engineers, pp. 3 and 115;Davis and
Washington, D.C. 20006
Associates, Figure 4.49; Pittsburgh City Planning Depart-
ment, p. 4; PARNG Photo, p. 2; and James K. M. Cheng,
Charles R. Ince, Jr., President
p. 98.
Earle W. Kennett, Administrator, Research
Most of the photographs and design data in the Recent Design
Donald E. Geis, Program Director and Project Manager
Examples section were supplied by the designers of the
Karen N. Smith, Administrative Manager
buildings shown there. All other photographs were taken
Paul K. McClure, Editor
by Donald E. Geis of The American Institute of Architects
Foundation.
Technical Consultants
Disclaimer
Raymond R. Fox
Professor of Civil Engineering
The statements contained in this manual are those of The
The George Washington University
American Institute of Architects Foundation and do not
Washington, D.C. necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Government in
general or the Federal Emergency Management Agency
Mark Riebau in particular. The U.S. Government, FEMA, and The
Assistant Chief of Floodplain and Shoreland Management American Institute of Architects Foundation make no
Wisconsin Bureau of Water Regulation and Zoning warranty, express or implied, and assume no responsibility
Madison, Wisconsin for the accuracy or completeness of the information herein.
Cost Consultant This manual was prepared under Contract No. EMC-C-0579
with the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
Daniel Mann Johnson & Mendenhall, Architects-Engineers
Washington, D.C.
Paul Brott, Vice President
Ernest Posch, Estimator
.
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
PREFACE v
COST ANALYSIS 98
iii
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V
ENVIRONMENTAL AND REGULATORY FACTORS
I,
Flooding and the
Built Environment
Rivers and seacoasts have always been focal points
for development. Access to water has provided
drinking supplies and sanitation, an important
source of energy, and a valuable part of the trans-
portation system. Recreational opportunities and
aesthetic enjoyment further stimulate waterside
development.
1
RIVERINE FLOODING
COASTAL FLOODING
2
The velocity and range of coastal floods vary in
part with the severity of the storm that induces
them. The damaging effects of coastal flooding
are caused by a combination of the higher water
levels of the storm tide and the rain, winds, waves,
erosion, and battering by debris.
3
Floodplain Management
There have long been attempts to moderate the
impact of riverine flooding, with major federal
efforts in the United States since 1936. Until
recently, these efforts have been concentrated on
flood control measures devised to reduce or
eliminate flooding itself-chiefly dams, levees and
similar structural works. Despite a number of
positive results, these measures have not succeeded
in reducing flood damage significantly.
5
It is thus vital to be aware of the NFIP rate struc-
ture, as well as local regulations, when siting and
designing new development or substantial improve-
ments to existing construction. This information
can be obtained from local insurance agents, public
officials, and regional FEMA offices.
- All structural components must be adequately connected and anchored to prevent flotation, collapse, or permanent
lateral movement of the building during floods.
- Building materials and utility equipment must be resistant to flood damage. All machinery and equipment servicing
the building must be elevated to or above the Base Flood Elevation (BFE), including furnaces, heat pumps, hot water
heaters, air-conditioners, washers, dryers, refrigerators and similar appliances, elevator lift machinery, and electrical
junction and circuit breaker boxes.
- Any spacedesigned for human habitation must be elevated to or above the BFE, including bedroom; bathroom; kitch-
en; dining, living, family, and recreation room; and office, professional studio, and commercial occupancy.
- Uses permitted in spaces below the BFE are vehicular parking, limited storage, and building access (stairs, stairwells,
and elevator shafts only, subject to design requirements described below for walls).
A ZONES (A1-A30)
- Buildings must be elevated such that the lowest floor (including basement) is elevated to or above the BFE on fill,
posts, piers, columns, or extended walls.
- Where fully enclosed space exists below the BFE, walls must be designed to minimize buildup of flood loads by
allowing water to automatically enter, flow through (in higher velocity flooding), and drain from the enclosed area.
For low velocity conditions, vents, louvers, or valves can be used to equalize flood levels inside and outside enclosed
spaces. For high velocity conditions, breakaway walls (see below) or permanent openings should be used.
V ZONES (V1-V30)
- Buildings must be elevated on pilings or columns such that the bottom of the structural member supporting the lowest
floor is elevated to or above the BFE.
- Buildings must be certified by a registered professional architect or engineer to be securely fastened to adequately
anchored pilings or columns to withstand velocity flow and wave wash.
- Space below the lowest floor must be free of obstruction or enclosed with breakaway walls (i.e., walls designed and
constructed to collapse under velocity flow conditions without jeopardizing the building's structural support.
- Fill may not be used for structural support.
- No construction is allowed seaward of the mean high tide line.
Figure 1.4. Key Floodplain Requirements of the National Flood Insurance Program as of January 1984.
7
SITE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Site Selection and Analysis
SITE SELECTION
SITE ANALYSIS
10
- Rate of rise, which indicates how rapidly
water depth increases during flooding. This
determines warning time before a flood,
which will influence the need for access and
egress routes elevated above floodwaters and
whether valuable possessions can be kept
underneath the structure and moved only
when flooding is imminent. Flash flood areas
often receive little or no warning of flooding.
Soil Characteristics
11
Soil data can be obtained from soil survey reports
published by the Soil Conservation Service of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture. It may be
desirable to consult a qualified soils engineer
-1 S
familiar with the soils at the site.
I I
I I
Large-scale topographic maps of ground elevations
I I can be used to determine natural drainage patterns,
II It
mudslide- and erosion-prone areas, and the feasibi-
I lity of using fill. Local or state agencies or the U.S.
E!I
Geological Survey can often supply this informa-
tion. Detailed topographic maps (2-foot contour
intervals or less) must usually be developed as part
of the site-specific investigation and are necessary
for developing grading and landscaping plans.
Winds
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2..WndFre
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12
Site Design
Site design for elevated structures should follow
standard planning criteria applicable to any site
work. Typical factors to consider include slopes,
natural grades, drainage, vegetation, orientation,
zoning, and location of surrounding buildings, as
well as expected direction of flood flow.
13
ACCESS AND EGRESS
AWAMOSIWE74TE-17 BY ----------------- 7
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-TUEWLwa- , Aj4o
---------
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U-%rma1~ To KtOOP-
14
In new developments, roads should be located
to approach buildings from the direction away
from the floodplain, so that access roads will
be less likely to be blocked by flood waters and
debris (Figure 2.7). To reduce potential erosion,
siltation, and runoff problems, roads should not
disrupt drainage patterns, and road crossings
should have adequate bridge openings and culverts
to permit the unimpeded flow of water. If roads
are to be raised, the slope of embankments should
be minimized and open faces stabilized with
ground cover or terracing.
VEGETATION
Figure 2.7. Improperly Sited Streets Can Block
Vegetation aids in slowing the rate of storm water
Emergency Egress and Access
runoff by holding water, thus allowing it to filter
into the ground or evaporate gradually. In
addition, vegetation helps prevent erosion and
sedimentation from flooding. Natural vegetation
should be retained wherever practical, and new
plantings should be introduced in locations that
will be most affected by runoff.
15
the amount of flood damage. Site development
that increases the volume of storm water runoff
can increase flooding levels. Ideally, runoff rates
after development should not exceed the rates
before development.
16
I
I
DUNE PROTECTION
17
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!Underestimations
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1
Many of the twentieth century's most important
buildings have been elevated residential structures.
The rise of modern architecture, inspired by the
raised houses of Le Corbusier in the 1920s, was
made possible by structural innovations. The Villa
Savoie at Poissy (1929), for example, is lifted
above the ground on pilotis, freeing the lower level
for parking and affording a spatial continuity with
the landscape (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). In his
Towards A New Architecture Le Corbusier was
exultant about the possibilities of elevated design:
10:! :: S ,, E 5 + 7
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K 0 S l i : : 0 f : St:: :
^|L f ' NENtoNS
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Figure 3.2
19
Since the Villa Savoie was centered on a dome-like
rise in a large pasture, Corbusier did not need to
concern himself with the problem of flooding.
Other masters of modern architecture, however,
have used the principles of elevated residential
design to create aesthetically satisfying and func-
tionally sound responses to hazardous flood condi-
tions.
Figure 3.3
20
exposures. Inventive landscaping also helps to
control erosion and protect the dwelling from the
impact of debris anrd high velocity flooding.
Effective use of terracing and level changes can
help achieve continuity with the surrounding areas
and, equally important, provide a sense of variety
by indicating the different functions that occur
simultaneously on a single site.
;S: ~:::~~~~~
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Figure 3.4
21
Design Studies
IThe ioiflming desigi studics xvvru dcvclopud b! a
numbe)r of' aruhlitcinAral fl'lrls and aruchitectural
SchlOOisIising" th ini'ormation presented in this
Figure 3.5
22
AccessRamp
Figure 3.6
Attirk Storage
04
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-e^ Concrete .E
PIej
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Figure 3.7
23
CHARLESTOWN AND NEWPORT, RHODE
ISLAND
Charlestown
24
BaseFlood Level
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
25
single-family scheme was chosen for visual con-
tinuity with earlier buildings (Figure 3.10). All
houses, a small amount of private space, and all
utilities are located on the common filled area.
Low intensity land uses such as parking, road and
driveways, playgrounds, etc., are located on the
lower surrounding areas. Ramps and steps are used
to accommodate the height differences from
parking to the finished first floor.
Figure 3.10
26
Newport
Base Flood
F igu re 3.1 1
< l~~~erm
Ing^ . ; Ecir
,: . ~~~~~~~~R~d
t .&, |i,.
Figure 3.12
27
t
Figure 3.13
28
In the area farthest from the water, earth fill offers
flood protection and a gradual level change from
that of the highway. A transitional middle section
could combine berming with raised structures.
Level changes can be integrated by linking
extended decks with ramps and stairs. In the area
closest to the water, raised structures would not
alter the water-to-land relationship or block views.
Commercial uses are most likely to locate in the
filled area, where first floor spaces are usable.
Residential, restaurant, and small office uses are
more suitable to the raised structures, which afford
increased privacy and better views.
29
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
Figure 3.14
30
Single-Family Residential Concept
Figure 3.15
31
Base Flood Level
Figure 3.16
32
Multi-Family Residential Concept
Figure 3.18
33
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
=71;
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Figure 3.20
34
Aesthetic Considerations
There is a common misconception than an elevated
residential structure will be inherently unattrac-
tive-a box on stilts (Figure 3.21). This is not true.
Elevated structures offer challenging design oppor-
tunities to be aesthetically appealing as well as
functionally sound.
Figure 3.21
35
SITE DESIGN
gA( H MYOUMPP f
9 -St AWP
MOVING16
ftioOW~fM-- -- tWOOPWAWrV~
qlqt6-1jo
Figure 3.23
36
BUILDING DESIGN
I~~~~~~~~
E
Figure 3.24
37
Figure 3.25. This wood structure successfully uses
the same material throughout the building- Figure 3.26. This is an example of integrating the
foundation, structure, treatment of railings, wall, site, the building, and the foundation so they relate
and roof material, as well as connection and well to each other. This foundation appears to be
anchorage details. The design honestly expresses part of the building rather than stilts holding it up.
the structure, foundations and other building It shows how a modest, simply designed building
elements. While it is obvious this is an elevated can also be very aesthetically appealing through the
structure, it still feels very much a part of the site. use of natural materials and interesting treat-
The foundation members are also integrated well ment of fenestration and lighting fixtures. Simple
with the building itself (see also Figures 3.54 to but well-thought-out landscaping ties the building
3.57). effectively to the site.
Figure 3.27. This is a good example of how the configuration of a cluster layout can contribute to
functional advantage as well as visual appeal. The sawtooth arrangement allows for two sides of each
unit to have access/view to the ocean. This form also breaks up the long, continuous (and often mono-
tonous) wall approach, thus adding variety and interest. With this configuration the materials, treatment
and form of the units can be simple but still attractive.
38
Figures 3.28 to 3.29. This is an excellent example of cluster-type elevated residential development.
The development is well-integrated with the site; the various levels seem to roll over and blend with the
dune. The vegetation and simple fencing add much to this marriage. The individual units also relate very
well to each other, providing a good example of an overall development's being "more than the sum of
its parts." The individual units provide the individual amenities-privacy, plan layout, etc.-while still
being a part of a comprehensive whole with a strong sense of community. The form, scale and character
of the development are also excellent. The sloped roofs, the balcony treatment, use of levels, and the
articulation of the other elements add variety and a character that complements the site and overall
development. The use of materials-color, texture, scale-also contributes to the design's appeal (see
also Figures 3.63 to 3.70).
39
Figure 3.31. This is a good example of how a simple structural grid infrastructure can be used as a basis
for a relatively modest, well-designed and visually appealing residence. The plan is simple, developed
around the columns, but provides a very livable, interesting and functional space. The cantilevered
balconies also add interest as well as defined exterior areas. The roof shape contributes to a spacious
interior that makes the house feel larger than it really is, allows in natural light through the transom
windows, and through its form adds much to the overall aesthetic appeal of the design (see also Fig-
ures 3.40 through 3.45).
40
Figure 3.32. The diagonal battens used to enclose Figure 3.33. Passersby have to look very carefully
the stairwells for protection provide an aestheti- to see that this development is actually elevated.
cally appealing screen-textural affect. The colored Good use of landscaping and building form
awnings also add a necessary highlight to an includes attached and detached units.
otherwise colorless exterior. Notice also the pole
light fixture.
:p:'S:
A:U
D XA E :0 ; : :A
Figure 3.34. This structure uses a mixture of materials, texture and color very successfully and provides
a variety of form for visual appeal. The space under the building remains open and light through a
combination of white unobstructed walls and piers, landscaping, and layout relative to other buildings.
A human scale is accomplished by breaking the building up into different heights and sections, rather
than an imposing three-story box, as is often done (see also Figures 3.58 through 3.62).
41
Figures 3.35 and 3.36. This is a good example of
using a variety of shapes and forms (wall surfaces,
planes, balconies, etc.) as well as wall treatments
(materials, texture, color) to create a sense of
variety essential for an aesthetically pleasing
development.
42
Figure 3.37. In the interior, color, scale, texture, and floor arrangement must be given careful attention
(see also Figures 3.40 through 3.45).
43
Figures 3.38 and 3.39. Well-designed elevated residential structures can take many forms and styles. The
principles in this manual are applicable to any style.
44
Recent Design Examples
The projects in this section are some of the best
design examples discovered in a state-of-the-art
survey conducted as part of the development of
this manual. While these examples range from a
single-family detached unit to a multi-family high
rise, there appears to be a clear trend toward higher
density, cluster-type development. This is
probably due to higher land values and the experi-
ence gained from major floods over the last couple
of decades. This is a promising trend that encour-
ages professional design involvement in residential
structures and leads to a more comprehensive
approach to elevated residential and other develop-
ment in flood-prone areas.
45
THE LOGAN HOUSE
Tampa, Florida
Architects: Rowe Holmes Barnett
Architects, Inc., Tampa, Florida
Figure 3.40
46
be- m b o om l
T bedroom
I row
bedroo
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47
Figure 3.44
Figure 3.45
48
SUMMERWOOD ON THE SOUND
Old Saybrook, Connecticut
Architects: Zane Yost & Associates, Inc.,
Bridgeport, Connecticut
Figure 3.47
49
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SITE PLAN
0 25 50 100
Figure 3.48
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_ rm
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7-
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Front Elevation
Rear Elevation
Figure 3.49
50
Figure 3.50
51
THE BREAKERS CONDOMINIUM
Redington Beach, Florida
Architect: Rowe Holmes Barnett
Architects, Inc., Tampa, Florida
Figure 3.51
52
site and first floor plan z
Figure 3.52
longitudinal section
Figure 3.53
53
CAMPUS-BY-THE-SEA FACILITY
Catalina Island, California
Architect: Leonard E. Lincoln, AIA,
Palo Alto, California
f !!sThe
newly replaced key facilities of Campus-by-
the-Sea, a conference center, are no longer threat-
R ~~~~;UNW ~~~ened by such flooding. For example, the new
three-level dining complex makes use of poles that
serve as both foundation and roof support for the
7,000-square-foot structure. The structure is
supported by 55 poles, ranging from 25 to 40 feet
Figure 3.54 in length. These poles are set on concrete pads,
which were poured at the base of 10-foot-deep
caisson holes. The poles were specially pressure-
treated to resist decay and termite attack. A
preservative (pentachlorophenol) was carried by a
low-viscosity petroleum gas, allowing for deep
penetration through the sapwood into the
heartwood.
Figure 3.55
54
Figure 3.56
0 0
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KIT CH EN
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DISH W AS HIN G
0 0
0o 0 0
0 0 0,,. 0
1~ - 4
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B.:L - m
FLOOR PLAN
Figure 3.57
55
STARBOARD VILLAGE
Pensacola Beach, Florida
Architects: Davis & Associates,
Architects & Planners, PA,
Orlando, Florida
Figure 3.59
56
TYP. FLOOR PLAN
0 5 10 15
Figure 3.60
SECTION
Figure 3.61 0 5 10 15
57
-AI
, %j -040
IX000
;;k I'
f f006'l08 0 fC0i>E X^ A ~S - .N
* i
Figure 3.62
GULL POINT CONDOMINIUMS
Perdido Key, Florida
Architects: H. Shelby Dean-Richard H. Fox,
Architects, Anniston, Alabama
Figure j3.bJ
59
The buildings' exteriors are of cedar. The buildings
GULF OF MEXICO were configured to reduce the impact of hurricane
L winds while maximizing views and privacy. At the
! <t w
same time, fenestration was placed to maximize
__ado
cl I
7< 0, natural ventilation. This and the use of insulated
glass have reduced the need to use the units' air-
conditioning.
Z~ I
Z
9 10112
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SCALE
SITE PLAN %__
10 50 -
Figure 3.64
_. .
rl:: ~
SOUTH ELEVATION
Figure 3.65
60
z
-1z
U, 0
FLOOR PLAN B
* 1 5 10O
Figure 3.66
SECTION
0 5 10 15
Figure 3.67
61
Figure 3.68
Figure 3.68
Figure 3.69
62
*
4*- .4'
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.
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Figure 3.70
63
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES
Foundations
The common methods of elevating residential
structures are earth fill, elevated foundations,
shear walls, posts, piles, and piers. The selection
of an elevation technique depends on a number
of variables, including hydrologic factors, physi-
cal conditions at the site, and cost. The deter-
mination of the appropriate technique requires
analysis of these factors in the context of federal,
state, and local regulatory requirements. In some
cases it can be advantageous to use a combination
of elevation methods. For example, a building
raised on fill at one end and piers or posts at the
other coild provide ground floor access at the
end of the building away from the floodplain
while minimizing obstruction of flood waters
at the end nearer the stream channel.
65
FILL
66
ELEVATED FOUNDATIONS
SHEAR WALLS
67
POSTS
Post Embedment
68
Hole Depth and Post End Bearing. Wood posts are
generally embedded 4 to 8 feet. Hole excavations
beyond 8 feet become uneconomical, so piles are
used.
Co
If extremely poor soil conditions are encountered I-
69
Wood posts can also be supported entirely out of
the ground on concrete piers (Figure 4.9). More
thorough maintenance is possible with this ap-
proach, but additional bracing may be required
for lateral stability.
70
Anchorage
Figure 4.12. Metal Angle Anchorage Figure 4.13. Galvanized Strap Anchorage Detail
Detail
71
PILES
Pile Materials
72
Round timber piles are also frequently used.
Generally, round piles are available in longer
lengths than square timbers, and for lengths
greater than about 25 feet round piles are fre-
quently the only piles available. Round piles are
often preferred because they can provide greater
cross-sectional area, peripheral area, and stiffness
than square sections, particularly the 8 x 8 timbers.
A minimum tip diameter of about 8 inches, and a
butt or top diameter (at the floor beam level) of
about 11 inches or more are recommended for
round piles.
73
a hole in the sand into which the pile is continu-
ously pushed or dropped until the required depth
is reached. Sand is then tamped into the cavity
around the pile and the end of the pile pounded
with the heaviest sledge hammer or other weight
available. Unfortunately, jetting loosens not only
the soil around the pile but also the soil below the
tip. Therefore, only low end and side friction load
capacity is attained, and the piles must be inserted
deeper into the ground than if they were driven.
74
an underlying layer of several feet of clay. General-
ly, clay soils provide greater load-bearing capacity
with less penetration than sandy soils.
PIERS
75
Reinforced brick piers can be used to elevate
structures 1½/2to 6 feet off the ground. Concrete
masonry piers are effective for elevations of 11/2 to
4 GRAIN 8 feet. In general, the height of reinforced con-
crete masonry piers should be limited to a maxi-
mum of ten times their least dimension. Square
piers are preferable. If the piers are rectangular
4w~c IL the longer dimension should not exceed the
shorter dimension by more than 50 percent.
" it, According to the National Concrete Masonry
Ifc' X -Association,
the allowable working stresses for
41
/ilP <concrete
- 1\ masonry piers are the same as those for
11
A:Jo a \ the design of concrete masonry walls. The pier
masonry should be laid with type M or S mortar.
The association also recommends that the spacing
between piers supporting floor joists not exceed
8 feet in the direction perpendicular to the joists,
nor 12 feet in the direction parallel to joists.
Figure 4.18. Wall Foundation
These minimum requirements apply whether the
pier is free standing or laterally braced. In cases
where exceptionally large loading conditions may
exist, the pier cross-section should be increased
and/or additional reinforcement added. A larger
cross-section can be obtained by using piers several
feet in length. The long dimension should be
placed parallel to anticipated flood flow, as in
Figure 4.18. In coastal areas, however, flood
forces may come in at an angle, loading such a pier
adversely, so alternatives should be considered.
-76
Poured-in-Place Concrete Piers
77
Knee Braces and Diagonal Bracing
78
Shear Walls and Floor Diaphragms
79
Framing Construction and
Connections
The framing construction and framing connections
in an elevated home can be critical to its ability to
withstand flood forces with minimal damage.
Construction in most non-flood areas must support
loads imposed by the weight of the building
materials (dead load), weight of people and objects
(live load), and modest loads imposed by wind.
Under normal conditions and with typical methods
of framing construction and framing attachment,
these loads act downward through gravity to hold
the building's structure together.
FOUNDATION-TO-FLOOR-BEAM
CONNECTIONS
The connection of a post or pile foundation to Figure 4.27. Metal Framing Anchors
the framing system of a structure is influenced by
the method of framing used and the cross-sectional
shape of the post or pile.
81
In what is termed pole frame construction, the
posts or piles are extended up to or through the
roof, with beams framing around them as supports
for floor joists and roof rafters (Figure 4.29). This
method securely ties the entire structure together
and is excellent for sites where lateral forces may be
strong.
Figure 4.30. Exterior Pole Framing Figure 4.31. Bolted Connection to Round Pole
82
Another connection method is to eliminate the
curve of the post or pile by dapping and then con-
necting with bolts, gusset plates, or other devices. 00
As Figures 4.32 and 4.33 show, a dapped post will
form seats that assist the beams in carrying vertical
loads. Posts that are small in section, however,
should not be dapped or they will be weakened.
Generally, there should be a thickness of post or L A 1
pile for the bolts to bear on equal to the total
thickness of the floor beam. Two bolts should be
Figure 4.32. Dapped Gusset Plate Connection
used to connect beams to each post or pile.
.I11:4
mon in residential practice. A single curved grid
inserted between the post or pile and the beam
substantially increases the strength of the bolted
connection. With the curved side of the grid against
the pole and over predrilled holes, a high-strength
threaded rod is used to squeeze the two wood
surfaces together, forcing the tooth of the spike grid
into the grain of both members. The high-strength Figure 4.33. Dapped Pole Connection
rod is then replaced with a conventional bolt of the
proper size. A flat spiked grid is used to connect
two flat surfaces, and a double curved spiked grid to
connect two rounded surfaces.
11~_
_m
-
Figure 4.34. Spiked Grid
83
Pier Foundations
Figure 4.36. Masonry Pier- Strap Anchor Figure 4.37. Masonry Pier-Bolt Through Beam
84
The bolts should be at least 1 inch in diameter and
embedded at least 12 inches in concrete piers and 16
inches in masonry piers. If two floor beams abut on
a pier, each must be anchored separately (Figure
4.38).
85
FLOOR BEAMS
CANTILEVERS
86
The advantage of this method is that it can reduce
the number of piles, poles, or piers required for a
given area, as illustrated in Figure 4.40. Reducing
the number of piles can result in potentially lower
cost and fewer obstructions to the flow of flood-
water and debris. Residences supported in this
manner have the additional advantage of hav-
ing the first row of piles set back, reducing the
visual impact of elevating the structure. A canti-
lever design may use longer spans for the main
floor beam and thus may require larger beams.
40
0 0
AL - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -0--- -
r so~~~~~~4'
_ 1
~~~~~~~~~~~~f *
i1k.
MUC62
87
CONCRETE FLOORING SYSTEMS
FLOOR-BEAM-TO-FLOOR-JOIST CONNECTIONS
AFigJ4a5T5.- n Cs
88
FLOOR JOISTS
SUBFLOORING
PIER
Two methods are commonly used for subfloor
construction: nominal 1 x 4 or 1 x 6 boards placed
diagonally over the floor joists (either tongue-and- Figure 4.43. Metal Strapping
groove or square-edge with expansion space between
boards) and plywood subflooring used to create a
floor diaphragm. When a plywood subfloor is
planned, guidelines for thickness and methods of
attachment in relation to joist spacing can be
obtained from the Plywood Construction Guide
published annually by the American Plywood
Association. A well-constructed, firmly attached
subfloor can be an important asset in resisting lateral
forces.
89
FLOOR-JOIST-TO-WALL CONNECTIONS
90
Structures elevated more than 10 feet should be
sheathed with 3/4-inch exterior grade plywood,
nailed with eightpenny nails, spaced as before.
Deformed shank or annular ring nails and plywood
with exterior glue are recommended.
WALL-TO-ROOF CONNECTIONS
91
Related
Design Considerations
GLASS PROTECTION
Figure 4.48. Protective Utility Shaft Damage to utility lines can lead to contamination
of drinking water, discharge of effluent from sewer
lines, gas explosions, and fires and/or shock from
damaged electrical systems.
92
of flood water. This can minimize damage from
velocity water or floating debris. A more secure
method is to place all utility lines coming from
underground within a protective, floodproofed
shaft tinder the elevated first floor (Figure 4.48).
93
conditions, and will require special attention to
protecting building materials. The climate and the
desired appearance will determine whether the
exposed underside of a floor should be sealed.
Sealing exposed floors can protect subfloors and
joists from the elements, improve insulation, and
help conceal utilities.
Wood
Steel
94
nized after fabrication and coated with a protective
paint after installation. Standard galvanized sheet
metal joist hangers and other connecting devices
deteriorate rapidly despite their galvanized coating
and also require additional protective coatings.
Small anchoring devices, nails, spikes, bolts, and lag
screws should, whenever possible, be hot-dipped
galvanized. With sheet metal clips and hangers, the
special nails used should also be galvanized. Regular
inspection, maintenance, and replacement of
corroded metal parts is necessary when steel is used
in the coastal environment. Steel rods used to
reinforce concrete or masonry piles or piers require
special precautions to prevent saltwater from
reaching the steel through hairline cracks in concrete
or through masonry joints. This is discussed below.
INSULATION
95
freezing. In extremely cold climates, heating
cables may be necessary with the insulation.
Second, insulated floor decks may be subject to
floodwaters and should therefore have either
impermeable, closed-pore insulation able to with-
- IN5UIL):ON
- aY FopM lN6UiYWOOV / stand water submersion or insulation that can be
-WATV- d-ist~AKt (JYF-UMW. replaced economically (Figures 4.51 through 4.53).
SFFAY V-OA INSUfLAON -7 /
BREAKAWAY WALLS
96
be jacked with conventional house moving equip-
ment, 3) small enough that they can be raised
in one piece, and 4) strong enough to withstand
the stress of the raising process.
Utility equipment located in a basement can often Figure 4.53. Double-Insulated Floor
be moved to a higher room, such as an upstairs Plenum, Pier Foundation
closet, or an attic. It is important to ensure that
the closet or attic floor can support the weight of
the equipment. If necessary, an elevated addition
can be built to house a furnace, hot water heater,
and other equipment formerly housed in a
basement. Protecting utility equipment in this way
can be useful even if the house itself cannot or
need not be raised.
97
COST ANALYSIS
or
Once a community decides that the economic
risk and environmental impact of developing
floodplain land for residential use is acceptable,
the dollar cost of that development must be
evaluated. Two factors bear significantly on
any such evaluation: first, the net cost of con-
struction that meets the standards of the
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) in
light of the potential and unpredictable hazard of
flooding and the losses that may ensue; second,
the cost differentials between construction on
elevated foundations and conventional build-
ing methods. (Note that standards adapted by
local jurisdictions are often more stringent than the
NFIP's.)
99
.1 p11A-1-11dol / - 2.4 S01il 11F--- --- 4' Co S-e
--ede 1e M, _'-a>
ai I M-
.- 1a6Cs,, .1-
r, ''
-
~
I , ,
-im. )1 -, =,-~'=,I-
~ ~- tW
600011/
,I \ rCr-I tn
L1-
-. J
1L 26'-O"
EOF-O"
24-O" t
-
FOUNDATION PLAN
I
V ,.
4;_UX
FOUNDATIONSECTION
t61 2.__$_ 6 l ] t
Acgeot6,4
L O"0
24'
26' Y'_ 12-0
0'" -
i-
FOUNDATIONPLAN
CRAWL SPACE $5.13 per square foot
I 10 -0
tO'- 0-to
",
0
0
2et
3 d.10 Gidet
16 00.
*~
I
~
Etob~~~emhdded
2,E60
15" Min-~
Gr'to o'Ctoneh
O8el Drain
80,10)30000
Tot
8'0O
piet
Toe'
St-
-
777
C Me.
64
61
__
e
/
,
1O
T
#
T
<
e
er
Cru
m
hed
.1r4,
I
i
''
, /
El-
_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Dia.
ihildP.
,6,816 Cep 61-0k
co Weld
& Set
C9rLi;Loal tin
dO~~~~s
COFrr«
3Cotomn
oV6.6-6
_
~ i
~~~~~~3"
Mi
''t-*6"
3-2,10
4
Plywoo~dDe~k
C
2041,
O-C.
GiOto.
Di.. S-l
Welded
l- ttie OettttotOilO
Itt.I oleetis
O21.
CloorSc
6 r- - ~-4-
Ba~eenttt Attoco.
- 12-0t
iNt
6.e~32' SteelOseeleInt !'- COtioooo C dtoTe e dK
FOUNDATIONPLAN
BASEMENT $11.01 per square foot
100
I I0.0008..I, I 2-1-Joit. S6 O.C..
I~~~
,
WOOD POST $6.96 per square foot
(Figure 5.1). Detailed drawings were also pre-
pared for the three most typical elevation
foundation types. These are post, pile, and
Wood
Pol.. hj! f Jois
pier foundations (Figure 5.2). (Regarding
use of earth fill, see below.)
-' _ ' t 1. A 2
-~i 7 PLAN
8-0 8-0"/B' 8' 8-0" 8 '-0'" 8-0"
0,I O~~~~~ o~~ o s' ,'~~~~-
2.I O O. t. la " OCC. 2d'_0 ' 24'-0"
FCUNDATIONPLAN
, PIy2.
H., 00 k ,_ - X0-ot IB"O.C.
U ~
80~~~~~~,I ~'!~ ~ ' ~ ~ .,fi_ PI .
60I. Gtd 2"Bsv-0az"[§
nl.
GilhDdd
r~~~~~~~Sieldo
_f _1_- . ' 2x0ldr__T T' I
CONCRETE PIER $7.08 per square foot WOOD PILE $6.58 per square foot
1. 2
X __
_ B0'-°"
I DC.,ol T,..t.d
Doll 2 Wo. Pil,,
Gsd2s
t00 - I - 2
X)
IftF
r-TI ++<+|I IW I FI ,A;!,FJF
8~- !- -- ~I '~~
B-0" 8'01BK'-0j8'j 08
8 B'
!"r '-0 -
28-0
B0" B-0:Sq|d'O 24 t
2B'=" 24-0"
FOUNDATIONPLAN ~FOUNDATION
PLAN
101
Conventional Foundations 2. The estimates are summarized in Figure 5.3.
Slab-on-Grade $4.61 per sq. ft. They are based on the foundation and deck
Crawl Space $5.13 per sq. ft. of a 1,500-square-foot house, 28'x50', with
Basement $11.01 per sq. ft. a small offset. The total cost of this house
is approximately $60,000, excluding land.
Elevated Foundations All estimates were based on FHA construc-
Wood Post $6.96 per sq. ft. tion practices.
Wood Pile $6.58 per sq. ft.
Concrete Pier $7.08 per sq. ft. 3. Using data from this cost sampling, the
average cost of each conventional foundation
Estimates-Spring 1983
type is compared to the average cost of each
elevated foundation type. This comparison is
done in two ways: first, each foundation as a
Figure 5.3. Foundation Cost Estimates
percentage of the cost of the entire house
(conventional foundations were established as
base 100) and, second the dollar increase in
the cost of the foundation above.
Figure 5.4 Cost Differentials, Conventional Vs. Elevated Foundations, for House Costing $60,000,
Excluding Land.
102
4. Figure 5.5 graphically compares the cost of
constructing the different types of foun-
dations at various elevations. Note that
increasing the elevation increases costs at a
substantial rate only in the case of the fill
option (which is based on the availability of
usable fill material on the site).
15
14
13
* Conc. piers
12
. * Wood posts
1 1
* 0 Wood piles
C'
'a 10
0 9
co
'a 8
C
7
CO)
0 6
5
C
4
I-
CD) 3
0
0 2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415
ELEVATION (in feet)
Figure 5.5. Relative Costs of Foundations Elevated to Different Heights
103
Fill
Insurance Costs
Design Assumptions
Earthquakes
104
Stairs and Utilities
Cost Inflation
Non-Cost Considerations
ESTIMATING FORMS
105
SLAB-ON-G RADE ESTIMATING FORM
TO DETERMINE LOCAL COSTS
Place footings x LF =$
Grand Total $
106
CRAWL SPACE ESTIMATING FORM
TO DETERMINE LOCAL COSTS
Place footings x LF =$
Backfill x CY =$
Floor Girder x LF =$
Floor Framing x SF = $
Subfloor x SF = $
Grand Total $
107
BASEM ENT ESTIMATING FORM
TO DETERMINE LOCAL COSTS
Place footings x __ _ _ LF
Parge wall x __ _ _ SF
Backfill x __ _ _ CY
Place girder x LF
Frame Floor x SF
Place subfloor x SF
Grand Total $
WOOD POST ESTIMATING FORM
TO DETERMINE LOCAL COSTS
Placepoles x Qty
Frame floor x_ SF
Place subfloor x _ SF
Grand Total $
109
WOOD PILE ESTIMATING FORM
TO DETERMINE LOCAL COSTS
Set girder x LF
Framefloor x SF
Place subfloor x SF
Grand Total $
110
I
ESTIMATING FORM I
CONCRETE PIER
TO DETERMINE LOCAL COSTS i
I
Compute the following and enter: I
I
I
I
x Qty=$ I
Form & pour piers I
Backfill x Qty=$ I
I
Set girder x LF =$
Frame floor x SF =$ I
I
Place insulation I
and sealer x SF = $
I
Place subfloor x SF = $
I
I
I
Grand Total $
I
I
I
I
I
I
L
I
111
I
I
RESOURCE MATERIALS
Glossary
Base Flood Elevation (BFE) Flood or Flooding
The elevation for which there is a one-percent A general and temporary condition of partial or
chance in any given year that flood levels will equal complete inundation of normally dry land areas.
or exceed it (see Special Flood Hazard Areas). The Flooding results from the overflow of inland or
BFE is determined by statistical analysis of stream- tidal waters or the unusual and rapid accumula-
flow records for the watershed and rainfall and tion of surface water runoff from any source.
runoff characteristics in the general region of
the watershed. Flood Insurance Rate Map(FIRM)
Loads induced on a structure by solid objects Zones Al-A30 - special flood hazard area
carried by flood water. Debris can include trees, inundated by the 100-year flood; determined
lumber, displaced sections of structures, tanks, by detailed methods with base flood elevations
runaway boats, and chunks of ice. Debris impact shown.
loads are difficult to predict accurately, yet rea-
sonable allowances must be made for them in the Zone B - area between the limits of the 100-
design of potentially affected structures. year flood and the 500-year flood, or certain
areas subject to 100-year flooding with average
Encroachment depths less than 1 foot, or areas protected by
levees from the base flood.
Any physical object placed in a floodplain that
hinders the passage of water or otherwise affects Zone C - area of minimal flooding; located out-
flood flows. side the limits of the 500-year flood.
113
Floodplain floors, decks, and roofs, and can act laterally on
upright structural members such as walls, piers,
Any normally dry land area that is susceptible to and foundations.
being inundated by water from any natural source.
This area is usually low land adjacent to a river, Mean Sea Level
stream, watercourse, ocean, or lake.
The average height of the sea for all stages of the
Floodplain Management tide, usually determined from hourly height ob-
servations over a nineteen-year period on an open
The operation of a program of corrective and coast or in adjacent waters having free access to
preventive measures for reducing flood damage, the sea.
including but not limited to flood control pro-
jects, floodplain land-use regulations, flood- New Construction
proofing of buildings, and emergency prepared-
ness plans. Structures on which construction or substantial
improvement was started after the effective date
Floodway of a community's floodplain management regu-
lations.
The channel of a river or watercourse and the
adjacent land areas that must be reserved to One-Hundred Year Flood
discharge the one-percent-probability flood with-
out cumulatively increasing the water surface (See Special Flood Hazard Areas).
elevation more than a designated height, generally
one foot. Permeability
114
Watershed
Storm Surge
Storm Watershed
A rise above normal water level on the open coast An area from which water drains to a single point;
due to the action of wind stress and atmospheric in a natural basin, the watershed is the area contri-
pressure on reduction on the water surface. buting flow to a given place or stream.
Any repair, reconstruction, or improvement of a The vertical distance between a wave crest and the
structure, the cost of which equals or exceeds 50 preceding trough.
percent of the market value of the structure either
(a) before the improvement is started or (b) if the Wave Crest Elevation
structure has been damaged, and is being restored,
before the damage occurred. The elevation of the 100-year storm surge plus
wave height.
115
Sources of Design Information
Information Required Purpose or Implications of Data Possible Forms of Date Potential Sources of Data
* Local Government
Planning * Implements floodplainregulations * Planningand ZoningOrdinances * LocalGovernment Planning
Programs * Determnes ocalf oodplain * ZoningMaps Agency
regulationsbasedon NFIP * BuidingCodes * Local Government Engineer
guidelines(includeszoningand * BuildingCode Officials
subdivisionregulations,per-
formancestandards,Planned
UnitDevelopment ordinances.
buildingcodes etc.)
Note Local regulations can be
set at a higher standard than
NFIP minimum standards de-
pendingon localneedsand
circumstances
* StateFloodplainand Coastal * Providesstatewidefloodpain * Stateprogramreguations * StateFloodplainManagement
ZonePrograms development reguationsand * Statedevelopmentguidelines CoordinatingAgency
'S guidelines * StateOfficeof CoastalZone
* Regulatesdevelopmentin Management
c1 coastal zones * State Off ce of Natural or Water
* Coordinates
implementation
of Resources
NFIP in ocal jurisdictions and in
areas where multiple state
agencies have an nterest n
f coding
* Clearinghouse
forFloodpain
Management Information
* Regional P anning Restrictions * Can provide additional regula- * Program regulat ons *Regiona Authorities (e g Ten
or Guidelines tionsand guidelinesfor regional a Development
guidelines nesseeValleyAuthorityAppa-
jurisdictions lachianRegionalCommission.etc
* Coordinates activitiesof differ- *Regional P anningCommissions
ent agenc es within the region * R ver Basin Commissions
* Source of nlormation and in
somecases technicalassstance
116
* Warning Time * Indicatesimportance
of * Hydrographs * Regiona Author ties
emergency evacuation as part Studies
* Foodpain Technical -Tennessee Valley Authority
of the design program * Historical Records -Appalachian Regiona Com-
* Influencesdesignof floodproofng * Flood Insurance Studies m ssion
techniques such as f ood shields -R ver Basin Comm ssions
designof drainage
* Influences
systems * Hydrologic Engineer ng Con-
designof wetf ood-
* Influences sultants
proof ng techniques
* Surveys by ProfessionalStaff
* Durationof Flooding * Affectsseepageintobuildings * FloodplainTechnicalStudies
and saturation of soils and * Historical Records
buildingmaterials * FloodInsuranceStudies * U.S Department of the Interior
* Affects the length of time facili- Water and Power Resources
ties might be inaccessible or Service (operates west of the
inoperable M sIissippi River)
* Affectsbuildingdesignrelative
to orientation, configuration and
choiceoffloodproofingtechniques.
* Frequencyof Flooding * Influencessitechoice. * FloodplainTechnicalStudies
* Affectschoiceoffloodproofing * HistoricalRecords
techniques,especiallythose
that require installation before
everyflood
* Indicatesneedfor specialaccess
* Climate and Weather * Indicates frequency and type of * Weather Service Records I
precipitationand in turn,the * HistoricalRecords
typeand magnitudeof flooding
that is likely
Required
Information of Data
PurposeorImplications PossibleFormsof Data Sourcesof Information
Potential
Features
* Physnogiaphic * Affectslocationand magnitude * TopographicMaps Planning
* LocalGovernment
of flooding on the site * Floodplain Technical Studies Agency :1
* Identifies areas of the site that * Site Surveys
shouldbe avoidedor protected Municipal
* LocalGovernment PU
* Affectsorientaton distribution Engineer a
and density of bur t elements on
the site * State Floodplain Coordinating
* Identifiesphysicalconstraints Agency
and advantages for sitedevel-
opment * State Office for Natural Re-
sources
* Topography * Influencessitingof buildings * TopographicMaps
* Indicateserosionpotential. * FloodplainTechnicalStudies Service.U S
* SoilConservation
* Indicatesneedfor and feasibi- * SiteSurveys Departmentof Agriculture
ty of using, fill material on the site.
* Indicatesappropriatesitede- * US GeologicSurvey
signtechniquesfor controlling
waterrunoff * RegionalAuthorities
* Soil Character st cs * Soil porosity influences the rate * Soil Maps * Hydrologic and Civil Engineer-
of water runoff and flooding po- * Soil Analysis Reports ing Consultants
tential * Site Surveys
the feasibilityand
* Determines Staff
* Surveysby Professional
design specifications for use of in1
fill material to elevate buildings * U S Department of the Inter or
the use of backfill around foun- Water and Power Resources
datons andconstructionof Service(operateswestof the
earthberms MississippiRiver)
* Indicatesrequireddepthfor
footings,pilings,or columns
* Water Storage * Aids in control of water runoff * Geologic, soil and hydrologic
and thus can be a factor in re- surveys
ducingfloodinglevels * SiteSurveys
* Recharges groundwatersupplies
117
FEMA Regional Offices
The Federal Emergency Man-
agement Agency (FEMA) was
created in 1978 to provide a
single point of accountability for
all federal activities related to q
disaster mitigation and emer-
gency preparedness and response.
It was established as an indepen-
dent agency in the executive
branch to consolidate a variety
of existing agencies and offices
performing related functions.
The Federal Insurance Adminis-
tration (FIA), formerly a part of , , , 1 1,
the Department of Housing and V I ;
Urban Development, is only %t -
responsible for administering the
National Flood Insurance
Program. This responsibility in-
cludes assisting state and local
governments in the implementa-
tion of flood-plain management
programs and providing informa-
tion on flooding to communities
and individuals. Regional offices
are the primary means by which
FEMA's programs are carried
out at the state and local level.
118
Region V Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Region VIII Colorado, Montana, North
Minnesota, Ohio & Dakota, South Dakota, Utah
Wisconsin & Wyoming
Region VII Iowa, Kansas, Missouri & Region X Alaska, Idaho, Oregon &
Nebraska Washington
119
State Coordinating
Offices for the NFIP
Each of the states, in cooperation with the Federal Arkansas Soil & Water
Emergency Management Agency, has designated a Conservation Commission
specific agency to coordinate implementation of #1 Capitol Mall
the National Flood Insurance Program. This Suite 2D
agency provides a link between federal, state, and Little Rock, Arkansas 72201
local levels of government and between different (501) 371-1611
state agencies with flood-related responsibilities.
The designated agency will typically be a depart-
California Department of Water
Resources
ment responsible for natural resources, emergency P.O. Box 388
services, or physical development, and is a focal Sacramento, California 95802
point for information relating to flood insurance (916) 445-6249
and floodplain management. It can be an
important source of physical data, information on Colorado Colorado Water
community eligibility for flood insurance, relevant Conservation Board
state regulations, references to other agencies, and, State Centennial Building,
in some instances, technical assistance. The Room 823
authority of each state's coordinating agency 1313 Sherman Street
varies, and can best be determined through direct Denver, Colorado 80202
contact. (303) 866-3441
120
Florida Department of Community Iowa Iowa Natural Resources
Affairs Council
Div. of Resource Planning Wallace State Office
and Management Building
2571 Executive Ctr. Circle Des Moines, Iowa 50319
East (515) 281-5029
Tallahassee, Florida 32301
(904) 488-9210 Kansas Kansas State Board of
Agriculture
Georgia Georgia Department of Division of Water Resources
Natural Resources, 109 Southwest Ninth Street
Environmental Protection Topeka, Kansas 66612
Division (913) 296-3717
19 Martin Luther King, Jr.
Dr., S.W., Room 400 Kentucky Department of Natural
Atlanta, Georgia 30334 Resources
(404) 656-3214 Division of Water
18 Reilly Road
Guam Office of Civil Defense Fort Boone Plaza
Post Office Box 2877 Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
Agana, Guam 96910 (502) 564-3410
011-671-477-9841
Louisiana Louisiana Department of
Hawaii Hawaii Board of Land and Urban & Community
Natural Resources Affairs
P.O. Box 373 P.O. Box 44455, Capitol
Honolulu, Hawaii 96809 Station
(808) 548-7539 Baton Rouge, Louisiana
70804
Idaho Department of Water (504) 925-3730
Resources
State House Maine Bureau of Civil Emergency
Boise, Idaho 83720 Preparedness
(208) 334-4470 State House
187 State Street
Illinois Illinois Department of Augusta, Maine 04330
Transportation (207) 289-3154
Division of Water
Resources Maryland Maryland Water Resources
Local Flood Plain Programs Administration
300 North State Street, Flood Management Section
Room 1010 Tawes State Office Building
Chicago, Illinois 60610 D-2
(312) 793-3864 Annapolis, Maryland 21401
(301) 269-3826
Indiana Department of Natural
Resources Massachusetts Massachusetts Water
608 State Office Building Resources Commission
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204 State Office Building
(317) 232-4160 100 Cambridge Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02202
(617) 727-3267
121
Michigan Michigan Department of
Natural Resources
Water Management Division
P.O. Box 30028
Lansing, Michigan 48909
(517) 373-3930
124
Performance Criteria
The following performance requirements and Design Loads
criteria identify a range of considerations that
should be addressed during the design of residential The design load is the minimum loading condition
structures for flood hazard areas. These that the building should be designed to resist.
performance criteria do not represent the entire Some loading conditions most likely will be
range of items applicable to each requirement. defined in the applicable codes while other load
Instead, a selective number of criteria have been- conditions (e.g., flood impact loads) will have to be
presented. determined. The following loads constitute the
design load and should be considered as minimum
The performance requirements and criteria are loading conditions as defined in Criterion A.1
applicable to all structural materials and all con- (see below):
struction methods used in flood hazard areas.
Traditional or conventional construction solutions, Dead Load (D)
as well as innovative techniques, are acceptable so
long as the performance requirements and criteria The weight of all permanent construction. The
are satisfied. dead load includes a) the weight of the structure
itself, b) the weight of all materials of construction
incorporated into the building that are to be
DEFINITIONS permanently supported by the structure, including
built-in partitions, c) the weight of permanent
Terms important to proper interpretation of the equipment, and d) forces due to prestressing.
performance requirements and criteria are defined
as follows: Gravity Live Load (L)
Applicable Codes Gravity live loads result from both the occupancy
(floor) and the environment (roof) of the building,
The system of legal regulations adopted by a as stipulated in the applicable code. These include,
community setting forth standards for the con- where applicable, loads caused by soil and hydro-
struction, addition, modification, and repair of static pressures.
buildings and other structures for the purpose of
protecting the health, safety and general welfare of Wind Loads (W)
the public.
Wind loads stipulated in the applicable code.
Community
Restraint Loads (R)
Any state or political subdivision thereof with
authority to adopt and enforce floodplain manage- Loads, forces, and effects due to contraction or
ment regulations for areas within its jurisdiction. expansion resulting from temperature changes,
shrinkage, moisture changes, creep in component
Design Flood (Base Flood) materials, movement due to differential settlement
or combinations thereof.
The design flood is the base or 100-year flood used
for purposes of compliance with the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
125
Flood Loads (F) Sec. 602.2.2 Lateral Loads
Loads caused by the design flood, which include: Lateral hydrostatic loads are those which act in a hori-
zontal direction, against vertical or inclined surfaces, both
above and below the ground surface and tend to cause
- Flood-induced dimensional changes such as lateral displacement and overturning of the building,
swelling of wood or heave of expansive founda- structure, or parts thereof.
tion soils
Sec. 602.2.3 1plift
- Water loads as defined in Section 602.0 of the
Uplift loads are those which act in a vertically upward
Corps of Engineers' publication, Flood- direction on the underside of horizontal or sloping surfaces
Proofing Regulations of buildings or structures, such as basement slabs, footings,
floors, decks, roofs and overhangs. Hydrostatic loads acting
- Soil loads as defined in Section 604.0 of the on inclined, rounded or irregular surfaces may be resolved
Corps of Engineers' publication, Flood- into vertical or uplift loads and lateral loads based on the
geometry of the surfaces and the distribution of hydro-
ProofingRegulations static pressures.
126
The equivalent surcharge depth, dh, shall be added to the Sec. 602.4.3 Uplift
depth measured between the design level and the RFD and
the resultant pressures applied to, and uniformly Full intensity of hydrostatic pressures caused by a depth
distributed across, the vertical projected area of the build- of water between the design level and the RFD acting on
ing or structure which is perpendicular to the flow. Sur- all surfaces involved ....
faces parallel to the flow or surfaces wetted by the tail-
water shall be considered subject to hydrostatic pressures Sec. 602.4.4 Hydrodynamic Loads
for depths to the RFD only.
Hydrodynamic loads, regardless of method of evaluation,
Sec. 602.4 Intensity of Loads shall be applied at full intensity over all above ground
surfaces between the ground level and the RFD.
Sec 602.4.1 Vertical Loads
Sec. 602.5 Applicability
Full intensity of hydrostatic pressure caused by a depth of
water between the design elevation(s) and the RFD applied Hydrostatic loads shall be used in the design of buildings
over all surfaces involved, both above and below ground. and structures exposed to water loads from stagnant
flood waters, for conditions when water velocities do
Sec. 602.4.2 Lateral Loads not exceed five (5) feet per second, and for buildings
and structures or parts thereof not exposed or subject to
Full intensity of hydrostatic pressure caused by a depth of flowing water. For buildings and structures, or parts
water between the design elevation(s) and the RFD applied thereof, which are exposed and subject to flowing water
over all surfaces involved, both above and below ground having velocities greater than five (5) feet per second,
level, except that for surfaces exposed to free water, the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads shall apply.
design depth shall be increased by one foot.
1I
127
SECTION 604.0 SOIL LOADS Sec. 603.1.2 Special Impact Loads
Sec. 604.1 Applicability Special impact loads are those which relate to large con-
glomerates of floatable objects, such as broken up ice
Full consideration shall be given in the design of buildings, floats and accumulation of floating debris, either striking
structures and parts thereof, to the loads or pressures or resting against a building, structure, or parts thereof.
resulting from the presence of soils against or over the
structure. Loads or pressures shall be computed in Sec. 603.1.3 Extreme Impact Loads
accordance with accepted engineering practice, giving full
consideration to the effects that the presence of flood Extreme impact loads are those which relate to large
water, above or within the soil, has on loads and pressures. floatable objects and masses such as runaway barges or
When expansive soils are present, the Building Official may collapsed buildings and structures, striking the building,
require that special provisions be made in foundation and structure or component under consideration.
wall design and construction to safeguard against damage
due to this expansiveness. He may require a special Sec. 603.2 Applicability
investigation and report to provide these design and
construction criteria. Impact loads should be considered in the design of build-
ings, structures and parts thereof as stipulated below:
Flood Impact Loads (Fl)
Sec. 603.2.1 Normal Impact Loads
The loads caused by the design flood as defined
A concentrated load acting horizontally at the RFD or at
in Section 603.0, "Impact Loads," and Section any point below it, equal to the impact force, produced by
605.0, "Hurricane and Tidal Wave Loads," of the a 1,000-pound mass traveling at the velocity of the flood
Corps of Engineers' publication, Flood-Proofing water and acting on a one (1) square foot surface of the
Regulations. In the case of Section 605.0, where structure.
no specific guidance is provided, design loads shall
Sec. 603.2.2 Special Impact Loads
be recommended by a professional engineer. (Also
refer to FIA-7, Design and Construction Manual Where special impact loads are likely to occur, such loads
for Residential Buildings in Coastal High Hazard shall be considered in the design of buildings, structures,
Areas, cited in this manual's preface.) or parts thereof. Unless a rational and detailed analysis is
made and submitted for approval by the Building Official,
Section 603.0 of Flood-Proofing Regulations is the intensity of load shall be taken as 100 pounds per foot
reproduced below: acting horizontally over a one-foot wide horizontal strip at
the RFD [use the level of the base or design flood], or at
any level below it. Where natural or artificial barriers exist
SECTION 603.0 IMPACT LOADS which would effectively prevent these special impact loads
from occurring, the loads may be ignored in the design.
Sec. 603.1 Types
Sec. 603.2.3 Extreme Impact Loads
Impact loads are those which result from floating debris,
ice and any floatable object or mass carried by flood It is considered impractical to design buildings having
waters striking against buildings and structures or parts adequate strength for resisting extreme impact loads.
thereof. These loads are of three basic types: normal, Accordingly, except for special cases when exposure to
special and extreme. these loads is highly probable and the resulting damages
are extremely severe, no allowances for these loads need
Sec. 603.1.1 Normal Impact Loads be made in the design.
Normal impact loads are those which relate to isolated Flood or Flooding
occurrences of logs, ice blocks or floatable objects of
normally encountered sizes striking buildings or parts
thereof. - A general and temporary condition of partial
or complete inundation of normally dry land
areas from:
128
the overflow of inland or tidal waters 1.5 D, R, W, F, and FL
- the unusual and rapid accumulation or run-
off of surface waters from any source Where the working stress method of design is used
- mudslides (i.e., mudflows) which are the following provisions apply:
proximately caused or precipitated by
accumulations of water on or under the 2.1 In load combinations 1.1 through 1.5 all loads
ground. are applied as listed or as required by the
applicable codes for the same load combina-
tions with loads F and Fl.
- The collapse or subsidence of land along the 2.2 Allowable (working) stresses cannot be
shore of a lake or other body of water as a exceeded for loading conditions 1.1 and 1.4.
result of erosion or undermining caused by For all other loading conditions the allowable
waves or currents of water exceeding antici- stresses can be increased by the amount per-
pated cyclical levels or suddenly caused by an mitted in applicable codes for design against
unusually high water level in a natural body of load combinations including wind or earth-
water, accompanied by a severe storm, or by quake load.
an unanticipated force of nature, such as a
flash flood or an abnormal tidal surge, or by Where ultimate-load design is used (such as
some similarly unusual and unforeseeable instances where the American Concrete Institute,
event which results in flooding as defined Building Code Requirementsfor Reinforced Con-
above. crete [AC1 378, ACI, Detroit, current edition], is
applicable) load factors are applied as recommend-
ed in the applicable standard, and F will be com-
bined with L, or factored as if it were a live load
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS AND
for loading conditions 1.1 and 1.4. For all other
CRITERIA FOR RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURES
loading conditions loads F + Fl will be combined
IN FLOOD HAZARD AREAS
with W, or considered to be equivalent to a wind
load.
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT A
Test
The building, its contiguous structure(s), and its
service systems shall be designed to withstand the Structural analysis and/or physical simulation.
design flood without causing unacceptable risks to
its occupants or to adjacent property owners. Commentary
The building complies with Performance Require- The criterion provides a suitable margin of safety
ment A if the following conditions are satisfied: against structural collapse when the building is
subjected to the base flood. The intent of the
Criterion A. 1: Strength criterion is that the margin of safety for these
buildings, when subjected to the base flood, be
The building is designed to resist the following no less than the margin required for other build-
loads, acting simultaneously: ings not subjected to flooding. It is assumed that
loads F may act on the building over a long period
1.1 D, L, R, and F of time, while loads Fl are short-term loads. Thus
1.2 D, L, R, F, and Fl the margin of safety against load combinations
1.3 D, L, R, W, F, and Fl containing Fl need not exceed that provided
1.4 D, R, and F against wind or seismic loads.
129
The combined load of earthquakes and floods is direction of flood flow shall not be less than eight (8)
not considered here because of the low probabi- feet apart at the closest point. The "stilts" shall, as far as
practicable, be compact and free from unnecessary appen-
lity of a flood and an earthquake occurring simul- dages which would tend to trap or restrict free passage of
taneously. Where tsunami flooding is the base debris during a flood. Solid walls, or walled in columns
flood, earthquake loading should perhaps be con- are permissible if oriented with the longest dimension of
sidered concurrently. the member parallel to the flow. "Stilts" shall be of a type
that causes the least obstruction to the flow and the least
Criterion A.2: Stability and Flotation potential for trapping floating debris. Foundation supports
for the "stilts" may be of any approved type capable of
resisting all applied loads, such as spread footings, mats,
There shall be a factor of safety of 1.5 against piles and similar types. In all cases, the effect of sub-
overturning, sliding, and flotation under the mergence of the soil and additional flood water related
following load: loads shall be recognized. The potential of surface scour
around the stilts shall be recognized and protective
measures provided, as required.
D + W + R + F + Fl
130
Criterion A.4: Disruption of Service Systems During the duration and at heights of the design
flood the building shall:
The service systems shall be designed to resist the
loads stipulated in Criterion A.1 with safety 1.1 Allow the safe evacuation of the occupants
margins as stipulated in A. 1 against disruptions out of the building
which may endanger human lives. 1.2 Allow the safe transfer of occupants from the
building to rescue vehicles
Test 1.3 Provide means of access or adjacency for
rescue vehicles.
Engineering analysis and/or physical simulation.
Evaluation of data and documentation for design, Test
tests, and installation; evaluation of plans and
specifications. Evaluation of data and documentation for design,
tests, and installation; evaluation of plans and
Commentary specifications.
1t-X A.:~~~I
,k
- ~'"';
f " IS ffX' I0
V\ f: i
131
I
I
I
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT B during the design flood without the release of I
deleterious substances are exempt from provisions
The building, its contiguous structure(s), and its 1.1 and 1.2.
i
service systems shall be designed to withstand the
design flood without causing unacceptable health Criterion B.2: Provision Against Drinking Water I
hazards to its occupants. Contamination
i
The building complies with Performance Require- There will be no contamination of drinking water
with sewer effluent or flood water. I
ment B if the following conditions are satisfied:
Criterion B.1: Disruption of Utility Connections Criterion B.2 and Performance Requirement B i
are deemed satisfied if the following provisions I
Building utility connections shall be designed to are met.
resist the following loads: i
1.1 Approved backflow preventers or devices are
At loading conditions: installed on main water service lines, at water I
wells and/or at suitable building locations to
1.1 1)+ L+ R+W+ F +Fl protect the system from backflow or back I
1.2 D+W+R+F+Fl siphonage of flood waters or other contami-
I
nants in the event of a line break or temporary
The building utility connections should not sus- disconnection.
tain: i
Devices are installed at accessible locations and I
2.1 Permanently disrupted and/or broken attach- maintained in good working order.
ment with their fixtures and/or supporting i
structural elements 1.2 Sanitary sewer and storm drainage system con-
nections are provided with approved backflow I
2.2 Leakage or escape of effluent that could preventers or devices installed at each
contaminate drinking water discharge point. i
I
2.3 Rupture of electrical service that could cause 1.3 No storm or flood waters are drained into
electrocution and/or fire. systems designed for sewage only, and vice
versa. i
Test I
Test
Evaluation of data and documentation for design, I
tests, and installations; evaluation of plans and Evaluation of data and documentation for design,
specifications. Inspection and/or testing of built tests, and installation; evaluation of plans and I
elements when deemed essential. Determination of specifications.
conformances to generally accepted codes, i
standards and engineering and trade practices, Commentary
I
where applicable.
Criterion B.2 is designed to prevent contamination
Commentary of drinking water with sewer effluent or flood i
waters. Also, the criterion is designed to prevent I
This criterion applies to all utility connections damage to fixtures and interior finishes (e.g., floor-
subject to the forces of the design flood. Utility ing, wall surfaces) from backflow or back i
connections which are designed to disconnect siphonage of flood waters.
I
132
i
I
Criterion B.3: Provision Against Contamination of Test
Potable Water Wells
Evaluation of data and documentation for design,
Private potable water wells shall not be contamina- tests, and installation; evaluation of plans and
ted by toxic substances or impurities caused by the specifications.
design flood.
Geological analysis of site.
Criterion B.3 is deemed satisfied if the following
provisions are satisfied.
Commentary
1.1 Private potable well water is not supplied from
a water table located less than 25 feet below Criterion B.3 is designed to prevent the contamina-
grade, nor from any deeper supply which may tion of water wells used as a source for potable
be polluted by contamination entering fissure water. Part of the provision provides against the
or crevice formations. contamination of the water supply source. The
other part provides against the contamination of
1.2 Each well is provided with a watertight casing the water removal system. In any case, local
to a distance of at least 25 feet below the health codes should be consulted.
ground surface that extends at least one
foot above the well platform.
! X- s~ r, ' * I, "^ D -- i
. e
. . X
'9 s i 46j i - . I #W§ X
133
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT C Criterion C.2: Provision Against Unnecessary
Damage
The building, its contiguous structure(s), and its
service systems shall be designed to withstand the All living areas, major utilities, furnaces, and air-
design flood without sustaining damage of un- conditioning units shall not be submerged by the
acceptable magnitude. design flood.
The building complies with Performance Require- 1.1 Living areas shall be considered habitable areas
ment C if the following conditions are satisfied: that provide for the essential needs of people:
living, sleeping, dining, cooking and sanitation.
Criterion C.1: Provision Against Permanent
Damage Recreation areas, libraries, and other speciality
areas are to be considered habitable areas and
tinder loading conditions 1.1 through 1.3 the therefore should not be submerged by the
building as a whole, or any element thereof, shall design flood.
not suffer permanent damage which would require
replacement or major repair, or which would 1.2 The electrical system complies with Criterion
extensively impair its intended function. C.2 if the following conditions are satisfied:
134
1.4.2 Plumbing below the design flood Conmmentary
level will not suffer loss of stability
or loss of tightness that will permit Criterion C.2 is designed to prevent unmcessary
leakage or physical damage to fix- damage of living areas, major utilities, furnaces,
tures and joints and connections that and air-conditioning units by the design flood.
will permanently impair functioning. Part of the provision is designed to elevate living
areas and equipment above the design flood. Other
1.4.3 Utility connections designed to dis- parts are designed to prevent the damage of utili-
connect during the design flood are ties and mechanical/electrical connections below
easily reconnected. (See Criterion the design flood.
B.1.)
Test
135
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