PALIKUR NUMERALS Diana Green 1. Introduction.

This article contains a description of the rich numerical terminology of Palikur, a morphologically complex Maipuran Arawakan language of northern Bra il.! My data "ase is a large collection of texts and some elicited material o"tained during twel#e years of li#ing in the Palikur #illage of $umene, and another eighteen years of sporadic contact with Palikur #isitors in Bel%m, Par&, Bra il. ' The affixes on Palikur numerical terms make explicit many mathematical relationships that speakers of other languages may only assume or may not e#en "e aware of. These affixes re#eal mathematical concepts that are part of the e#eryday thought processes of people outside the influence of modern life, dispro#ing once again the idea of (primiti#e) minds una"le to think a"stractly or analytically, and pro#iding a reference outside our own culture "y which we can measure our own mathematical ideas. *n the one hand, Palikur numerical terms confirm the existence of many of our own mathematical concepts in the language of an unsophisticated society of +ungle,dwellers. *n the other hand, there are unusual differences, such as a special emphasis on the num"er se#en. Most important, the Palikur terms demonstrate the intricate relationship "etween linguistics and mathematics, which suggests a new framework on which to "ase the categori ation of numeral classifiers. -n the Palikur language most numerals from (one) to (one hundred) exhi"it a #ariety of classifiers, gender agreement markers, arithmetical suffixes, modifiers, and syntactical affixes.. -n this article - discuss all these affixes. - first present the "asic structure of the Palikur numerical system /20, and then analy e the twenty,one uni1ue numeral classifiers which are o"ligatorily attached to the root of the numerals / 30. /2ee Appendix for a listing of numerals !, !3 with all of the classifiers.0 The classifiers fall into fi#e ma+or semantic categories dealing with whole units, sets, fractions, a"stractions, and series4all mathematical concepts. 5ithin these categories, there are more mathematical ideas. 6or example, units which are inanimate are classified according to their geometrical form. The forms, in turn, are "ased on an intriguing #iew of the four Palikur dimensions7 length, width, depth, and perimeter /see Ta"le .0. After looking at the classifiers, - explain gender agreement, which, on numerals, occurs only with reference to animate units /40. - then descri"e the ten uni1ue ways in which the numerals are inflected to express mathematical concepts such as numerical order, addition, su"traction, numerical limits, multiplication, totality, and #arious kinds of sets / 50. This is followed "y examples of the numerical terms in their syntactic functions as ad+ecti#es, ad#er"s,
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Palikur is spoken "y a group of approximately two thousand indigenous people li#ing in the far north of Bra il near the Atlantic coast and also in 6rench Guiana. They li#e on scattered (islands) of +ungle in the flooded grasslands of the state of Amap&. 8esearch for this paper was done under the auspices of the 2ummer -nstitute of 9inguistics in contractual cooperation with the Museu :acional and the 6unda;<o :acional do =ndio /:ational -ndian 6oundation0. - would like to express my deep appreciation to my Palikur friends, >o<o 6el?cio, Paulo *rlando, 9eon, Afonso, :ilo, 8aymunda, 2usana, Da#?, Mois%s, -#anildo, @l#ira, and others for pro#iding the texts on which this study was "ased and for their patient answers to my many 1uestions. - owe much to all my colleagues of the 2ummer -nstitute of 9inguistics for technical and logistical help in Bra il. 2pecial thanks are due to 8. M. 5. Dixon and Alexandra Aikhen#ald, as well as to 2-9 linguists, Arthur and Aheryl >ensen, -saac Aosta de 2ou a, and Aarl Barrison, for their theoretical orientation and #alua"le comments and suggestions. Any errors are mine. A""re#iations used in morphological analyses are the following7 AB2T8 C a"stractD A:-M C animateD AEG C augmentati#eD BA2$ C "asketed setD AAE2 C causiti#eD A97 C classD A9E2 C clusterD A*MP9 C completi#e actionD A*:T C continuous actionD AF9 C cylindricalD D-M C diminuati#eD DE8 C durati#e stateD @MPB C emphasisD @GA9 C exclusi#eD 6 C feminineD 69ATD C flat,and,deepD 6*9- C foliformD G8EP C groupD -A C inchoati#e actionD -MP C imperati#eD -:2T8 C instrumentD -:T@88*G C interrogati#eD -88@G C irregularD 9-M C limitedD M C masculineD ME9T C multiplicationD : C neuterD :@G C negati#eD :*M C nominali erD PA22 C passi#eD P9 C pluralD P*T C potted setD 8@69G C reflexi#eD 8@9 C relationalD 8@M C remainderD 8:D C roundHs1uareD 2@I C se1uencialD 2@8 C seriesD 2-M C simultaneousD 2G C singularD 2T C stati#eD T-@ C tied setD T*TA9 C totalityD E: C unitary actionD J8B C #er"ali erD 58AP C wrapped setD JA97 C #er"al class.

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pronouns, #er"s, and nouns, noting a few of their more common inflections / 60. - close with a display of the relati#e order of the numeral affixes /70. 2. The tructure o! the P"#i$ur nu%eric"# & te%. The Palikur numerical system is "asically decimal. The term for numeral ten is madikawku /madik-awku0, which means (end KofL, hands). The numeral twenty is pina madikwa, (two tens), and the numeral forty is paxnika madikwa, (four tens). The term for (tens) is madik-wa /end,@MPB0. As is common in decimal systems, the numeral fi#e, pohowku, is a compound word made up of paha (one) and u-waku (our,hand). The most unusual feature is that the numerals eight and nine are "ased on the term for numeral se#en, ntewnenker. 6or example, the numeral eight is ntewnenker akak pahat arawna, (se#en and one more added). Ta"le ! gi#es enough samples of Palikur numerals to show the "asic structure of the system. The words used to form numerical phrases are (with) a-kak /.:,with0, (more) akiw, and (added) ar-awna /.:,addition0. The last word is used only in numerical phrases. TAB9@ ! 2tructure *f The Palikur :umerical 2ystem 4444444444444444444444444444444444444 1 paha-t 2 pi-ta-na 3 mpana 4 paxnika 5 poho-uku 6 pugunkuna 7 ntewnenker ( ntewnenker (Q M !) a-kak paha-t ar-awna ) ntewnenker (Q M ') a-kak pi-ta-na ar-awna 1' madik-awku (end KofL,hands) 11 madikawku (!3 M !) a-kak paha-t ar-awna 1) madikawku (!3 M Q M ') a-kak ntewnenker ar-awna a-kak pi-ta-na ar-awna akiw (!,hand) (!,A97AB2T8) (',A97AB2T8,') 2' 25 3' 4' 5' 6' 7' (' )' 1'' 1'1 1)) p-i-na madikwa (',A972@8 p-i-na madikwa a-kak pohowku ar-awna mpana madikwa paxnika madikwa pohowku madikwa pugunkuna madikwa ntewnenker madikwa ntewnenker madikwa a-kak madikawku ar-awna (' tens) (' tens M N) (. tens) (O tens) (N tens) (P tens) (Q tens) (Q tens M !3)

ntewnenker madikwa (Q tens M '3) a-kak p-i-na madikwa ar-awna madikawku madikwa madikawku madikwa a-kak paha-t ar-awna (!3 tens) (!3 tens M !)

madikawku madikwa a-kak ntewnenker madikwa a-kak p-i-na madikwa ar-awna a-kak ntewnenker a-kak pi-ta-na ar-awna akiw (!3 tensMQ tensM' tensMQM')

1''' madikawku-put madikawku madikwa (!3 times !3 tens) 4444444444444444444444444444444 5hen counting a"stractly, without a particular o"+ect in #iew, the classifier -t is added to the root of the numerals one and two. The term for numeral one is paha-t /one, A97AB2T80. This classifier indicates that what is "eing counted is an a"stract idea "ut it also

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

could indicate a cylindrical shape. -n the case of counting without a specific o"+ect in mind, it is impossi"le to know if the classifier -t refers to the a"stract idea of num"ers or if it refers to fingers /which are cylindrical0. *nly in the case of the terms for numeral two / pi...na0 do the classifiers occur in the middle of the root. Thus, the term for numeral two used in Ta"le ! is pi-ta-na /two,A97AB2T8,two0. 6or morphophonemic reasons, the form of the classifier when it is infixed into the root is usually different from the form it has as a suffix.O The classifier that indicates a series of things, -i, is used to count groups of (tens). Thus the numeral twenty, (two tens), is p-i-na madikwa /two,A972@8,two tens0. 6or numerals higher than ninety,nine, numerical terms from the trade language are used a great deal more than those of Palikur. This language, a 6rench creole dialect, is the trade language used "y the Palikur men to speak with other indigenous people in the area as well as with the people of 6rench Guiana. Among themsel#es the Palikur speak their mother tongue exclusi#ely. They use "orrowed terms only for elements introduced from the outside culture. 2ometimes, for higher num"ers used when counting money, they com"ine "oth languages. 6or example, to say (three hundred) they say mpama-put sah. The term for (hundred), sah, is "orrowed from the creole dialectD the term for (three), mpana /or mpama word,medially0 is Palikur, with the addition of the Palikur morpheme -put which refers to multiplication /three, times sah0. 2ee example /.N0. -t would "e most interesting to know the history of the de#elopment of the Palikur system. The existence of the numerals four, six, and se#en is a mystery. -n Proto,Arawak it is possi"le only to reconstruct roots of three numerals7 (one) is more or less R pa or RbaD (two) is something like Rpi or RbiD (three) is something like Rmapa or Rmada /Payne, !SS!0. The Palikur language follows this pattern. 5here then did the other numerals come fromT And why are their roots made up of four sylla"les, a #ery rare phenomenon in PalikurT -n some other Arawak languages, the terms for (four) are deri#ed from a #er" /Aikhen#ald, to appear0. But there is no known etymology for the numerals four, six, and se#en in the Palikur language. There is also no known similarity to any other language presently spoken in the area. 2pecific one,word terms for the numerals six and se#en appear to "e #ery rare among Bra ilian indigenous languages. Esually, in decimal and #igesimal systems, numerals higher than fi#e are made up of a phrase like (fi#e plus one) and (fi#e plus two). -f a language does ha#e specific words for six and se#en, as the Iuechua language of Peru does, it also has specific words for eight and nine. Perhaps in the past the Palikur language had specific words for eight and nine "ut, through disuse, they were forgotten. Another possi"ility is that the idea of a decimal system was "orrowed from the trade language, and "efore that the people used only se#en numerals. There are a few indications that the numeral se#en has some importance in the Palikur culture. 6or example, until the !SQ3s, the Palikur fashioned a kind of com"ination in#itation, and,calendar called imti (cords) to count days. As far as - know, the imti ne#er had more than se#en cords. @ach cord had a decoration at the end of it made of cotton and the wing co#ers of certain iridescent "eetles. Among other things, the imti was distri"uted "y one clan to mem"ers of the other clans, in#iting them to come to a special ceremony to mourn and (forget) mem"ers who had died during the year. A person who accepted an in#itation took off one decoration each day. 5hen he came to the last one, he knew it was time to attend the ceremony.

Throughout the language, the phonological form of a morpheme in word,medial position usually differs a great deal from its form in word,initial or word,final position.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

6igure !. Palikur in#itation known as an (imti). Another indication of the importance of the numeral se#en is the existence of a Palikur term for a series of se#en days. The term is paka. They count this series of se#en in the same way they count series of tens, that is, "y using numerals with the classifier -i which indicates a series. At the present time the word is used to refer to weeks and is also used as the name for the first day of the week, 2unday. (*ne week) is paha-i paka /one,A972@8 week0. Terms for the other days of the week are "orrowed from the trade language, "ut this term appears to "e indigenous.N -t may ha#e to do with a period of se#en (dry days( "etween the (first rain) and the (second rain) which is an important annual e#ent on the Palikur calendar. P 3. The nu%er"# c#" i!ier . There are twenty,one uni1ue classifiers in Palikur which occur only on the root of cardinal and ordinal numerals. They do not occur with any other type of words, except for one interrogati#e word concerning 1uantity. Q -n this section - set forth a new way of categori ing the semantic parameters of these classifiers. -t is a system that has pro#en to "e efficient for the Palikur language, and it may "e for others, as well. then descri"e the classifiers themsel#es in more detail, noting that se#eral of those ha#ing to do with geometric forms are "ased on a fourth dimension. 3.1. *ener"# o+er+ie, o! e%"ntic c"te-orie . 5hen $eith Allan /!SQQ0 studied more than fifty (classifying languages) in Africa, Asia, Australia, :orth America, and Mexico he encountered classifiers on numerals, nouns, intra,locati#es and #er"s. Be noted (remarka"le similarities) "etween them and identified se#en ma+or categories which descri"ed the semantic "ases of all the classifiers he examined. These are7 !0 material, i. e. animate, inanimate, and a"stractD '0 shape, such as round, flat, and long, etc.D .0 consistency, i. e. flexi"le, hard, and indiscreteD O0 si e, i. e. large, medium, smallD N0 location, such as #illage, field, countryD P0 arrangement, such as position, "unches /like a pair or herd0, and o"+ects in a rowD Q0 1uanta, i. e. plural, collections, measurements of dimension, #olume /like "asketfuls0, partiti#es, and cycles of time. Be also spoke of U0 a (general) category that includes items that do not fit into any other class, and S0 classes that refer to one specific item, like (house). Palikur numerical terms ha#e classifiers with semantic parameters in all of these categories, except for consistency, si e, and location.U My study of the Palikur system led me to reali e that, for classifiers on numerals, the categories identified "y Allan could "e ordered in a logical way that would reduce o#erlap and clarify some concepts, especially in the areas of (arrangement) and (1uanta). - found that the semantic categories of Palikur could "e con#eniently organi ed according to mathematical
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The word paka has no resem"lance to the term for (2unday) in the trade language, which is is djimx. -t might seem that the period of se#en days could "e related to the phases of the moon, "ut that is dou"tful. To the Palikur, the phases of the moon are related to the le#el of water in the ri#er, not to the moon)s physical appearance. :one of the (phases) lasts se#en daysD some last more and some less. B. Green /!SQS0 descri"es six interrogati#e terms in Palikur concerning 1uantity7 aysaw (how much), aysaw akebi / gikebikis (how many), aysaw (kamukri) gaw (how much age), aysaw aripwi (how much time), aysawput (how many times), aysawmuk (how much does it cost). -n three other constructions, aysaw means (when). Palikur numerals ha#e suffixes indicating si e and 1uantity /plural0 "ut they are modifiers, not classifiers, since these suffixes may refer to any noun and they occur on many other parts of speech.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

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concepts, that is, in terms of tangi"le (whole units), (sets), and (fractions), as well as intangi"le (units) and (sets) /called (a"stractions) and (series)0. -n this way the twenty,one TA.LE 2 Se%"ntic /"te-orie o! the Nu%er"# /#" i!ier 44444444444444444444444V44444444444 TAN*I.LE UNITS TAN*I.LE SETS 0RA/TI1NS animate inherently unconnected side inanimate7 inherently connected /cluster0 part irregular non,inherently connected7 round connected "y a tie round M long /cylindrical0 connected "y a wrapping flat connected "y a "asket flat M deep /conca#e0 connected "y a pot extended /long0 extended M perimeter /"road0 plant and "ody parts7 stemHtrunk /foliform0 hand mouth INTAN*I.LE UNITS INTAN*I.LE SETS a"stractions series connected in time "y repetition 44444444444444444444444444V44444444 numerical classifiers of the Palikur language can "e summari ed as indicated in Ta"le '. 5hen the semantic parameters of numeral classifiers are categori ed according to mathematical concepts, the category of (sets) includes the parameters in Allen)s category of (arrangement) and also the parameters of (plural), (collections), and ("asketful) which he categori ed as (1uanta). They all fit into the category of (sets) "ecause all refer to collections, not 1uantities or measurements. :o Palikur classifier is a 1uantifier. All are 1ualifiers. S -n the case of (sets), the classifiers re#eal the way the units within the collections are +oined together. There remains only one parameter in Allen)s (1uanta) category that doesn)t fit into (sets). -t refers to (partiti#es), which - call (fractions). -n his discussion of the category of (1uanta), Allen mentions (cyclic time expressions). -n Palikur the classifier used with (time) words, like (day) and (night) is also used with any series of repeated actions, e#ents, or num"ers. They are not necessarily (cycles). 6or that reason, call them (series). (A"stractions) and (series) are separate from the other classifiers and related to one another, not only "ecause they are intangi"le, "ut for reasons of distri"ution and internal structure that will "e discussed later. 2ince these classifiers occur on numerals, it is natural and appropriate that semantic categories fit into a "asically mathematical framework. 3.1.1. Unit . -n Palikur when a numeral higher than (one) refers to a tangi"le or intangi"le unit, it is usually followed "y a term which means (units). 5hen referring to inanimate o"+ects or a"stract ideas, the term is a-kebi /.:,units0 which means (neuter,units). 6or example, (three houses) is mpana a-kebi payt /three .:,units house0. 5hen the term for (units) is used with animate "eings, and often with plants, it is inflected "y other pronominal affixes that agree with the noun in person, gender, and num"er. 6or example, (four children /girls0) is paxnika gu-kebi-kis bakimn-ayh /four .6,units,P9 child,P90, i. e. (four female units of children). (Two of us) is pi-ya-na u-kebi /two,
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Adams and Aonklin /!SQ.7'0 point out that (few analyses ha#e recogni ed that 1uantification phrases Kmeasurements, like (one liter of honey)L and 1ualification phrases Klike (a slice of "read) which is not a measurement, "ut decri"es the shape of the "readL are "ased on differing sets of semantic primes and ha#e radically differing relationships with the head nouns of the phrases.)

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

A97A:-M,two !P9,units0, i. e. (two units of us). The numeral classifier doesn)t change with the use of this termD it still classifies the o"+ect !3 "eing counted. The term -kebi does not occur with sets, fractions, or seriesD it occurs only with units. 5hen a numeral refers to a tangi"le unit, the classifier always indicates whether the unit is animate or inanimate. 5ith animate units, the numeral one has the classifier -p /(animate)0 and also agrees in gender. 6or example, (one /male0 shaman) is paha-p-ri iham-ri /one,A97A:-M, M shaman,M0 and (one /female0 shaman) is paha-p-ru iham-ru /one,A97A:-M,6 shaman,60. 5ith inanimate units there is no specific (inanimate) classifierD instead the classifiers indicate the geometric shape of the unit. These shapes are7 irregular, roundHs1uare, round,and,long /cylindrical0, flat, flat,and,deep /conca#e0, extended, and extended,including,perimeter /highHdeepH"road0. :umerals referring to inanimate units do not show gender. An example is (one paper) paha-k kagta /one,A9769AT paper0. There are three classifiers that refer to items that seem to fall somewhere "etween "eing animate and inanimate. *ne indicates plants of all kindsD two indicate specific "ody parts7 handsHhandfuls and mouthfuls. All three classifiers are deri#ations of the nouns to which they refer. The classifier for plants is deri#ed from the term meaning (trunk or stem). The others are deri#ed from the words for (hand) ,wak and (mouth) -biy. 6or example, (his two hands) is piwok-na gi-wak /two,A97BA:D,two his,hand0. (A mouthful of water) is paha-biyu un /one, A97M*ETB water0. 3.1.2. Set . *n numerals referring to sets of tangi"le units, the classifiers indicate the manner in which the elements are +oined to one another. There is a classifier for a set of entities that are inherently separate, i. e. not physically +oined in any way /like a herd of pigs0. 6or example, (a group of people) is paha-bru hiyeg /one,A97G8EP person0. There is another classifier for a set of elements that are inherently +oined together /like a stalk of "ananas0. There are others that indicate sets that are +oined in other ways, i. e. "y "eing tied together, "y "eing wrapped up together in paper, cloth, or lea#es /like a package0, "y "eing W"asketedX together in a "asket, and "y "eing WpottedX together in a pot. 6or example, (fi#e "askets of manioc roots) is pohowku-psi kaneg /fi#e,A97BA2$ maniocYroot0. A "asketful or potful is treated as a set "ecause it is not used as a measurement of #olume or weight. Measurements of #olume are nouns that are classified according to the shape of the container. 6or example, (one liter of honey) is paha-t lit ahayak a-nunu /one,A97AF9 liter "ee its,honey0, "ecause liters are measured "y "ottles, which are cylindrical. -f the container were a large /!S,liter0 s1uare kerosene can, which is often used nowadays to measure manioc flour, the classifier would "e the one used for round or s1uare o"+ects, i. e. paho-u bom kuwak /one,A978:D can manioc,flour0. The different kinds of "askets are all considered "y the Palikur to "e of irregular shape and are referred to "y the use of the use of the classifier for irregularly,shaped items. 6or example, (one K"ack,packL "asket) is paha-a wasipna /one,A97-88@G "asket0. 2o the ("asket) classifier does not indicate a ("asket) shape or measurement "ut rather the manner in which the items in the set are +oined together. The same is true of a set of items collected in a pot. 2ee other measurements in examples /3U0 to /!P0. 3.1.3. 0r"ction . *n numerals referring to fractions, the classifiers refer to the parts into which a tangi"le o"+ect could "e di#ided. *ne classifier indicates the sides of an o"+ect. /All o"+ects ha#e at least two sides.0 The other has to do with a part remo#ed from a whole. 6or example, (one side of the island) is paha-bak kewrihgi /one,A972-D@ island0 and (one part of the island) is paha-uhri kewrihgi /one,A97PA8T island0. 3.1.4. Int"n-i2#e unit 3 "2 tr"ction . 6or a"stractions, there is only one classifier. -t refers to all intangi"le things like (sickness), (+o"), (custom) and any specific action. 2ince these items occur with the term for (units), akebi, it is pro"a"ly correct to think of the
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-n this article, the term (o"+ect) does not refer to a syntactic function, unless it is specifically called a (direct o"+ect).

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

classifier as indicating (intangi"le units). An example is the phrase (two words), which is pi-ta-na a-kebi yuwit /two,AB2T8,two .:,units word0. 3.1.5. Int"n-i2#e et 3 6or series, there is also only one classifier. -t mainly refers to time, such as day or night, "ut also to "reaths, heart "eats, frog +umps and other regularly repeated e#ents or actions. 6or example, (one "reath) is paha-i kahikanaw /one, A972@8 "reath0. 2ee example /3N0, as well, which refers to a series of misfortunes. :umerical terms with this classifier are often inflected in different ways than others are. 2ee examples /3P0 and /3Q0 for a few of these. *ne of these uni1ue inflections, -put, indicates repetition of actions or of any other items in the a"stract class. -t also refers to types of things. 2ee examples /..0 to /.N0 and /OO0 to /OP0. Besides this, the classifier for (series) also refers to a set of se#en days or a set of ten numerals. Therefore it could "e called a classifier of (intangi"le sets), sets which are connected "y repetition. 3.2. 4e cri5tion o! the c#" i!ier in e"ch c"te-or&. - will now descri"e each classifier in more detail. 2ee Ta"le O for a list of examples of all classifiers. 3.2.1. T"n-i2#e unit 3 "ni%"te entitie . To indicate an animate entity, the classifier is -p on the numeral one and -ya on the numeral two. The numeral one is paha-p-ri /one, A97A:-M,M0 or paha-p-ru /one,A97A:-M,60. The numeral two is pi-ya-na /two, A97A:-M,two0. :umerals higher than two ha#e no classifiers when they refer to animate creatures. The numeral one always agrees with the animate noun in gender /see section O.0 Animate "eings include people, spirits, animals, fish, "irds, snakes, turtles, and insects. 6or example, (one caterpillar) is pahapru itey. -n accordance with their myths, the Palikur also consider the moon, sun, and stars to "e animate. The phrase piyana kayg (two moons) also means (two months). 3.2.2. T"n-i2#e unit 3 In"ni%"te o26ect . 5hen inanimate o"+ects /except for plants and some "ody parts0 are "eing counted, the classifier on the numeral indicates the o"+ects) geometric form. 2e#en forms are distinguished. They fit into a logical and elegant pattern, which is shown in Ta"le .. The terms that Palikur speakers use to descri"e these forms in#ol#e the concept of a fourth physical dimension in addition to length /l0, width /w0, and depth /d0. - call this dimension the perimeter /p0. The term (perimeter) refers to the outer "oundary or periphery of a figure. -t denotes the whole of that "oundary, not the length of it. The well,known mathematician, >ames 2inger /!SS.0, came #ery close to descri"ing the Palikur (fourth dimension) when he stated, WAny point in the physical uni#erse can "e located "y reference to three gi#en axesD the physical uni#erse is said, therefore, to "e three, dimensional. The same space, howe#er, "ecomes four,dimensional if it is regarded as made up not of points "ut of an infinity of spheres, "ecause then four references must "e gi#en to determine or locate each indi#idual sphere7 the three coordinates of its center point and the length of its radius Kitalics mineL. 2imilarly a (three,dimensional) space that can "e drawn on a flat piece of paper can "e imagined, the space consisting of all the circles that can "e drawn on a plane surface. -n this case the three dimensions consist of the coordinates of the center of a circle and its radius. The use of geometrical concepts in#ol#ing more than three dimensions has had a num"er of important applications in the physical sciences, particularly in the de#elopment of the theory of relati#ity.X!! -n order to understand the Palikur (fourth dimension) it must "e kept in mind that all the points at the Wcoordinate of the radiusX are what make up the perimeter of an o"+ect. Alearly, this type of a (fourth dimension) is not a new concept. -t is studied in @uclidian geometry as #arious types of cur#es, and is recogni ed as "eing of extreme mathematical importance. -n the
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2inger was pro"a"ly referring in his last sentence to the idea that the fourth dimension is that of time. The Palikur language classifies expressions of time as "eing a series of repetitions without physical dimensions.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

Palikur language the perimeter is so inextrica"ly in#ol#ed with the other three dimensions that it is treated as a fourth dimension. All four references must "e considered in order to determine the geometrical class to which a physical o"+ect "elongs. The Palikur language is replete with terms for dimensions and geometrical forms. - discuss here only those that are related to the numeral classifiers. 2e#eral terms that nati#e speakers use to descri"e shapes ha#e the root huwi-, which "asically means (round) "ut is also used to refer to s1uare items.!' The word huwi-patip (round,@IEA9) means (round with all sides e1ual). Geometers would call a round perimeter a set of points or a cur#e with only one center point, or (focus), and one radius. The term huwipatip is used to descri"e a sphere or cu"e, a circular o"+ect, or a painted design that is round or s1uare. The depth or solidity of the form is not an important component of the meaning of the term, "ut the single radius or e1ual perimeter is. Another word, huwi-bakup (round,E:@IEA9), descri"es a (round /or s1uare0 form whose sides are not of e1ual length). -t refers to an o#al or rectangular shape. Geometers would descri"e this as a cur#e with two foci and two radii. A third word, huwi-gakup, indicates a shape that is (round /or s1uare0 whose perimeter is in focus), for example, a ring, a wheel, a circle of people, a room or a corral. These examples indicate that the root huwi refers to a geometrical form we can call (saliently three,dimensional). Bowe#er, in this case, the three dimensions are not what we commonly call length, width, and depth. Depth is not taken into account. 5hat is taken into account is length, width, and perimeter. The importance of perimeter as a dimension will "ecome clear as the other dimensions are examined. Another "asic geometrical form in Palikur is called saba-bo-ye /flat,JA9769AT,DE8.M0 (flat). The morpheme ,bo is a #er"al classifier!. which also occurs on ad+ecti#es and refers to a flat shape. The morpheme -ye, which indicates a dura"le state, occurs on most ad+ecti#es. The term is used to descri"e a leaf or piece of paper. This geometrical form is saliently two, dimensional. *nly the surface, with its two dimensions of length and width, is taken into account. The perimeter is not considered. Another important term refers to a saliently one,dimensional form. This term is tara-n-ad /extend,A*:T,AEG0 (extended). -t is used to descri"e things that are extended or linear, without thinking of the "readth or the extremities, like a ri#er, a path, a cord or a row of things. Although for con#enience we call this one dimension (length), the concept of (extended) does not include a "eginning and ending point that the term (long)!O implies, and it can refer to height, depth, or "readth as well as length. These four primary geometrical forms on which Palikur classifiers are "ased can "e summari ed as follows7 The first and second forms are "oth saliently three,dimensional /length M width M perimeter0, the only difference "eing the e1uality of the perimeter. 6or example a speaker of Palikur descri"es an egg as "eing huwi-bakup, (round,une1ual) and an orange as "eing huwi-patip (round,e1ual). The classifiers /on the numeral one0 that refer to these forms are -a and -u, respecti#ely. - la"el the first class (irregular) "ecause the classifier is used on numerals that refer not only to o#al,shaped /huwibakup0 items "ut to all items with dimensions that do not fit in any of the other classes. That is, the classifier does not only indicate forms with two radii, like that of an eggD it also includes forms that ha#e perimeters produced "y many foci and radii, like those of a cloud or a house. Besides these two forms, there are two others of different dimensions. The third form is sababoye (flat), a form that is saliently two, dimensional /length M width0. The classifier that refers to this form is -k. The fourth form is taranad (extended long), a form that is saliently one,dimensional /length0. The classifier that
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!.

!O

To specify the idea of (s1uare) one can say, huwipatip ka-tusi-bet /round ha#ing,corner,JA97ME9T-P9@YPA8T20 /round with corners0, "ut the term huwipatip is freely used to descri"e "oth round and s1uare o"+ects. Besides the system of numeral classifiers, the Palikur language has a system of #er"al classifiers and a system of intra, locati#e classifiers, all with different markers and different semantic classes. The word (long) in Palikur is ki-yabwi-ye /ha#ing,length,DE80. *"+ects of se#eral shape classes can "e descri"ed as "eing kiyabwiyeD for example, arrows /cylindrical0, "oards /flat0, canoes /conca#e0, and ri#ers /extended long0.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

refers to this form is -tra. -t is the only classifier that appears phonologically related to the ad+ecti#e that descri"es the form. Alassifiers exist for three more geometric forms that are related to these three dimensions. The difference is that the idea of a further dimension is added to each of them. :ati#e terms for two of these shapes are made up of the root that refers to three,dimensional and two, dimensional forms with the addition of the morpheme -min, as in sababo-min (flat,min). This morpheme -min is not easy to explain. -t occurs on many roots with the idea of an added secondary dimension which may "e either physical or a"stract. The meaning of the "asic root is amplified with the sense of (something more) or (something "eyond).!N 6or want of a "etter term, it is la"eled (B@F*:D). 5hen

!N

6or example, the #er" (think) is formed "y adding -min to the #er" ipeg (look)D the phrase (-)m thinking) is literally (-)m looking,min in my thoughts)D ah ipeg-min-ne nu-hiyakemni /- look,B@F*:D,A*:T my,thoughts0. A ha"itual liar is descri"ed as ha#ing a (long,min tongue)D ki-yabu-min gi-nen /ha#ing,length,B@F*:D his,tongue0. 5hen -min is added to the postposition (on) a-pit /!:,on0, the resulting term a-pit-min refers to "eing higher than or surpassing other things. -t is used to speak of "irds flying (o#er) the trees "ut also to descri"e people in positions of leadership, the winners of a "attle, or God himself. Also when a deceased person is "eing spoken a"out, -min is always added to his nameD (the deceased Paul) is !ol-min /Paul,B@F*:D0. @xamples of the use of -min in this paper are /3N0, /.O0, /PN0, /PP0, and /QU0.

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TAB9@ . The Geometric Alasses *f The Palikur :umeral 2ystem "ased on the four dimensions of length /l0, width /w0, depth /d0, perimeter /p0 7777777777777777777777777787777 three une9u"# di%en ion huwibakup /l M w M p0 (o#alHretangularHirregular) @x7 egg, house, cloud classifier -a three e9u"# di%en ion huwipatip /l M w M p0 (roundHs1uare) @x7 orange, "ox, circle classifier -u t,o di%en ion sababoye /l M w0 (flat) @x7 sleeping mat, "oard classifier -k one di%en ion taranad /l0 (extended long) @x7 string, ri#er, path classifier -tra three di%en ion : one huwipti-min /l M w M p M d) (round and deep) /cylindrical0 @x7 arrow, "ranch, reed classifier -t t,o di%en ion : one sababo-min /l M w M d0 )flat and deep) /conca#e0 @x7 canoe, "owl classifier -mku one di%en ion : one mihadH imuwad/ huwigakup /l M p0 (extended "road) @x7 hole, waterfall, corral classifier -iku

4444444444444444444444444444444 the morpheme -min is used to descri"e different shapes, it indicates an additional secondary dimension that - call (depth,) though it includes what @nglish,speakers might refer to as "eing (length) in some situations. Thus, the terms "uwi-b-min /round,une1ual,B@F*:D0 and huwi-pti-min /round,e1ual,B@F*:D0 are used to descri"e a form that is (primarily round and secondarily deepHlong,) that is, a cylindrical o"+ect such as an arrow or a tree,"ranch!PD the term saba-bo-min /flat,A9769AT,B@F*:D0 is used to descri"e things that are (primarily flat and secondarily deep), that is, a conca#e o"+ect such as a canoe or a "owl!Q. The last classifier is associated with elements that are extended, "ut they ha#e a perimeter of some kind. There are two Palikur words that descri"e this form, "oth ending with the suffix -ad /AEGM@:TAT-J@0 or its allomorphs. These terms are mih-ad /deep,AEG0 (deep) and imu-wad /high,AEG0 (highHtall). The numeral classifier that has to do with these forms is the same that is used to refer to items descri"ed as huwi-gakup /(round or s1uare whose perimeter is in focus)0. 5e could say that all three of these terms indicate a shape that is (primarily extensi#e and secondarily with the perimeter or extremities included). This classifier is used with items such as a high "uilding, a hole, a room or a field /when attention is on its "readth or "oundaries, not its flatness0. Bere are some examples of the difference "etween the two (one,dimensional) classes. A rope used to take water out of a well is taranad (extended) while the well is mihad (deep) or (extended with a perimeter). The word yar, (fence), is classified as "eing taranad (extended)
!P

!Q

2ome younger Palikur speakers refer to the cylindrical shape as ki-yabu-min /ha#ing,length,B@F*:D0, i.e. (primarily long and secondarily round). 2ome younger Palikur speakers refer to the conca#e shape as dudu-rik /dented,in0.

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"y the speaker who is thinking of a "arrier, without attention to its limits, and as "eing huwigakup (circular) or (extended with a perimeter) "y the speaker who is thinking of a corral. These three forms can "e summari ed as follows. A cylindrical o"+ect such as a "anana is huwipti-min ("eyond round). (8ound) is length M width M perimeter. (Beyond round) is length M width M perimeter M depth, that is, it is saliently three,dimensional with an additional dimension of depth. The classifier that refers to this form is -t. The second geometrical form, used to descri"e conca#e o"+ects like "owls or canoes, is sababo-min ("eyond flat). -t is a form that is saliently two,dimensional with an additional dimension of depth /length M width M depth0. The classifier that refers to this shape is -mku. The final form is saliently one, dimensional with an additional dimension of a perimeter /length M perimeter0. Three terms are used to descri"e this form7 a wound is mih-ad (deep), a tall pile of sand is imu-wad (high), a room is huwi-gakup (ha#ing a perimeter all around). The numeral classifier that indicates this form is -iku. -n the following paragraphs, the numeral classifiers are descri"ed in detail along with examples of inanimate units that generally occur with them. @ach noun is followed "y its gender in parentheses. 2ee Ta"les O and N for examples of numerals used with some of these nouns. 6or items considered to "e of (irregular) shape, the numeral classifier is -a on the numeral one and -sa on the numeral two. The numeral one is paha-a. The numeral two is pi-sa-ya.!U The terms for numerals higher than two do not occur with a classifier. @xamples of nouns that occur with this classifier are7 payt (house) /n0, payt-weh-pu /house,wideYrange,P90 (#illage) /n0, antiyan (egg) /n0, epti ("ench) /n0, itewti (skull) /n0, ukuhne (cloud) /n0, tiket a-mey (fire .:,spark) /n0, etc. -t also refers to generalities like (a thing), arikna, (a container), atiy, (a light), abukri, i.e. a physical thing that pro#ides light, and e#en (a #oice), i-kupi-mna-t /literally(throat,sound)0. 6or items that are huwi-patip /roundHs1uare,e1ual0, the numeral classifier is -u on the numeral one and -so in the numeral two. The terms for numerals higher than two do not occur with a classifier. The numeral one is paho-u. The numeral two is pi-so-ya. @xamples of spherical or s1uare o"+ects are7 uwas (orange) /f0, apuk (a#ocado) /f0, kapunma (passion fruit) /f0, papay (papaya) /f0, tukugu (gourd) /f0, tumawri (cala"ash fruit) /f0, tip (stone) /f0, waw (rattle) /f0, bul ("all) /f0, gol (goal,posts) /f0, kiyes ("ox) /f0, malet (suitcase) /f0, etc. *"+ects whose principle part is circular also "elong to this class. 6or example7 heloj (clock) /f0, sabbug (drum) /n0, kasru (kettle) /f0, siyo ("ucket) /f0, suyeg (pan) /f0, buwet (can) /f0, lalamp (kerosene lamp) /f0, goble (drinking glass) /f0, hadyo (radio ) /f0 /possi"ly "ecause it has a circular dial0, etc. 6or cylindrical items, that is, those that are huwi-b-min /round,une1ual,B@F*:D0 or huwi-pti-min /round,e1ual,B@F*:D0, the numeral classifier is -t. The numeral one is paha-t. The numeral two is pi-ta-na. The numerals higher than two do not occur with a classifier. 2ome o"+ects classified as "eing cylindrical are7 gi-wak (.M,finger) /n0, gi-semnu (Kstrand ofL .M,hair) /n0, g-ib (.M,tail) /n0, gi-pita (.M,"one) /n0, a-tawni (.:,"ranch) /n0, alimet (match) /n0, ayg (cigarette) /n0, kurumri (lance) /n0, matap (manioc s1uee er) /n0, enne-tet /design,-:2T80 (pencil) /n0, kakus (needle) /f0, ugiyo a-kig /drill .:,point0 (drill "it) /f0, pudubdu (nail) /f0, pilatno ("anana) /f0, mayk (ear of corn) /f0, sipapa (reed) /f0, ah (stickHwood) /f0, butey ("ottle) /f0, aragbus (shotgun) /f0, katux (shotgun shell) /f0, etc. 6or flat items, descri"ed as saba-bo-ye /flat,JA9769AT,DE80, the numeral classifier is -k. *n numerals higher than two only the classifier -bu occurs. This o"#iously comes from the #er"al classifier -bo which also refers to flatness. -t has now "ecome firmly esta"lished as an o"ligatory numeral classifier, too. The numeral one is paha-k. The numeral two is pi-ka-na. The numeral three is mpana-bu. 2ome nouns classified as flat are7 parak ("oard) /f0, puwayt
!U

The classifiers for roundHs1uare o"+ects /of e1ual proportions0 and irregular o"+ects /of une1ual proportions0 are morphologically closer than the others. :umerals one and two with the former are pahaa and pisaya D with the latter they are pahow and pisoya. *ne wonders if these were the original two categories.

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(paddle) /f0, ax-tet /eat,-:2T80 (ta"le) /f0, miruk (plate) /n0, kuyeg (spoon) /n0, kagta (paper or "ook) /n0, sipapa (sleeping mat) /n0, gi-wak (.M,hand) /n0, gi-sipri (.M,feather) /n0, gihanpi (.M,wing) /n0, awagi (fan) /n0, kamis (cloth) /n0, ahap (patch) /n0, aka-butik-ti ("elt) /n0!S, pudig (hammock) /n0, huw (manioc sifter) /n0, awebru (manioc pancakes) /n0, waru (mirror) /n0, was (field) /n0, kasapat (sandal) /n0, etc. 6or flat,and,deep items, descri"ed as saba-bo-min /flat,JA9769AT,B@F*:D0, the numeral classifier is -mku. -t occurs on all the numerals referring to o"+ects of this shape. The numeral one is paha-mku. The numeral two is pi-muk-na. -tems that occur with this classifier are deeply conca#e7 tumawri (cala"ash "owl) /f0, umuh (canoe) /f0, nawiy ("oat) /f0, kutimna (ship) /f0, kud ("asin /made of the cur#ed "ract of the ina+& palm tree0) /f0, besin (metal "asin) /f0, etc.'3 This classifier also occurs with certain o"+ects that are not conca#e, such as iwan (knife) /f0, kasipag (machete) /f0, kirikri (saw) /f0, ipihgi (ra or "lade) /f0, akawakti (ring) /f0, ideptet (scissors) /f0, kirehka (coin) /f0, etc. -t seems that the sababo-min /flat,B@F*:D0 class has now "een amplified to include o"+ects that are (primarily flat and secondarily metallic).'! This classifier also occurs on the interrogati#e word which means (how much does it costT), aysaw-muk /1uantity,A9769ATD0. The morpheme -muk is pro"a"ly used "ecause of the association with coins or gold. 6or extended items, descri"ed as tara-n-ad /extend,A*:T,AEG0, the classifier is -tra. -t occurs on all the numerals referring to o"+ects of this dimension. The numeral one is paha-tra. The numeral two is pi-tahr-a. (@xtended) nouns are7 warik (ri#er) /f0, parewni (stream) /f0, ahin (path) /n0, kuwawta (corda) /n0, imedrit a-rim ("ow .:,string) /n0, akarti (string) /n0, iyuti (headdress) /made of tiny feathers wo#en into a long string0 /n0, yar (fence /thinking of its extension0) /n0, etc. The (long) classifier is used with any noun that refers to things in a row, including people. 6or example, (a parade of people) is hiyeg paha-tra-min-ne /people one,A97@GT@:,B@F*:D,A*:T0. -t is common to speak of rows of plants. 6or example7 /3!0 n-amutra pi-tahr-a gu-kebi-kis a-dahan paxka-pti-t !2G,plant two,A97@GT@:,two .6,units,P9 .:,"y four,A976*9-,2@T (My plants KareL two /extensi#e0 units "y sets of four /plants0) /i. e. My plants are in two rows of four each.0 6or items that are (extended with perimeter), the classifier is -iku. -t occurs on all the numerals. -t appears to "e related to the intra,locati#e classifier -iku which means (within spatial limits). The extension can refer to height, or depth, or "readth. - la"el the class ("road). The numeral one is paha-iku. The numeral two is pi-rik-na. -tems classified as (high), imuwad /high,AEG0, are7 tiket (fire) /f0, apetetni (waterfall) /f0, payt imuw-ad-ne-ne /house high, AEG,A*:T.M,A*:T.M0 ("uilding) /n0. @xamples of units classified as deep, mih-ad /deep, AEG0, are7 miyokwiye (hole) /n0, unihpna (well) /n0, imewti (gra#e) /n0, ahadru (root) /f0, busukne (wound) /n0, gi-biy (.M,mouth) /n0, gi-kig a-miyokni /.M,nose .:,hole0 (nostril) /n0, etc. @xamples of items classified as ("road) or (with a perimeter) huwi-gakup /roundHs1uare,perimeter0, are7 was (field) /when focusing on its "readth0 /n0, amutri-pwi /plant,P90 (plantation) /n0, iwetrit (place) /n0, xam (room) /n0, lappot (doorway) /n0, bisik-ket /flee,place0 (shelter) /n0, yar (fence) /n0, etc. The classifier for this shape occurs with any items that are high "ecause they is piled up. 6or example, (a pile of sand) is paha-iku kayh /one,A97B8*AD sand0 and (a pile of "ooks) is paha-iku kagta /one,A97B8*AD "ook0. 3.2.3. T"n-i2#e unit or et 3 5#"nt "nd 2od& 5"rt . The Palikur picture a plant as "eing a trunk or stem with offshoots. The term used to descri"e all types of plants is ka-kat-ye /(ha#ing,stem,DE8)0. - la"el the form (foliform) to follow con#ention, although
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aka-butik-ti /("elt)0 is a compound word that means (with,waist,AB2*9ET@.) To a#oid confusion, - will not segment other compound words. 6or the same reason, - also will not segment words with the discontinuous morpheme, i...ti /AB2*9ET@0, which is used on inaliena"ly possessed nouns when the owner is not known. The nouns (plate) and (spoon) do not occur with this classifier "ecause the original eating utensils that ser#ed as plates and spoons were not made of metal and, "eing only mildly conca#e o"+ects, they were classed as "eing (flat). Aould this "e a mo#e toward a category of (densityT)

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(stemmed) would pro"a"ly "e more correct. The numeral classifier for plants is -kti. -t is o"#iously deri#ed from the noun akati (trunkHstem). The numeral one is paha-kti. The numeral two is pi-kat-na. This classifier occurs on all the numerals that refer to plants.'' -t also is used with necklaces made of teeth, which are #iewed as "eing offshoots of a stem as plants are. @xamples are7 ah akat /wood trunk0 (tree) /f0, pilatno akat ("anana plant) /f0, uwas akat (orange tree) /f0, amutri (plant) /f0, ipuwiti (flower) /f0, akabdat (necklace /of teeth0) /f0, etc. To refer to hands or handfuls, the numeral classifier is -waku. -t occurs only on numerals one and two. -t is deri#ed from the inaliena"ly possessed noun (hand), u-waku /our,hand0. The numeral one is paha-uku. The numeral two is pi-wok-na. -t is principally used as an ad#er". 6or example7 /3'0 ig huwas-e kuwak pi-wok-na gi-wak. he stir,A*MP9 manioc flour two,A97BA:D,two .M,hand (Be stirred the manioc flour KwithL his two hands) /3'0 #ya iki nutuh paha-uku kahuw. please gi#e me,to one,A97BA:D peanut (Please gi#e me one handful of peanuts.) 6or mouth or mouthfuls, the numeral classifier is -biyu. -t occurs on all the numerals. -t is deri#ed of the noun (mouth), u-biy /our,mouth0. The numeral one is paha-biyu. The numeral two is pi-biy-na. 6or example7 /3.0 ig higa paha-biyu he drink one,A97M*ETB (Be drank a mouthful) 3.2.4. T"n-i2#e et . There are fi#e classifiers that refer to sets of tangi"le units, either animate or inanimate. 6or a set of entities that is inherently unconnected, the numeral classifier is -bru. -t occurs on all the numerals referring to unconnected sets. The numeral one is paha-bru. The numeral two is pi-bohr-a. This classifier is used when speaking of groups of indi#idual items such as a crowd of people / hiyeg0, a herd or "and of animals /puwikne0, a flock of "irds /kuhipra0, a swarm of "ees /ahayak0, a soccer team /arehwa-keputne (play,er)0, etc. -t is also used with a pair of shoes /kasapat0 or any other small group of o"+ects, such as a "unch of "ananas / pilatno0. 6or a set of o"+ects inherently connected, such as clusters, the numeral classifier is -twi. -t occurs on all the numerals that refer to this kind of set. The numeral one is paha-twi. The numeral two is pi-tiw-na. This classifier is used to refer to groups of items that are firmly connected, such as a stalk of "ananas or palm fruits, or a "ead necklace, etc. -ts use has "een expanded to refer also to people connected "y "eing in the same canoe together. 2ee example /NS0. 6or a set of items tied together /wanaka0, the numeral classifier is -ki. /2ome speakers say -kih.0 -t occurs on all the numerals. The numeral one is paha-ki. The numeral two is pi-kina.This classifier is used when speaking of "undles of items like arrows, lea#es, or sugar cane. -t also is used with a "room or a string of fish. 6or a set of items wrapped up together / awastaka0, the numeral classifier is -imku. The numeral one is paha-imku. This classifier refers to items that are wrapped together in lea#es, paper, or cloth. The speaker may indicate the kind of wrapping that is "eing used. 6or example, Zone "unch of rice +oined "y "eing wrapped in a "andanaZ is paha-imku musweg dug /one,A9758AP "andana rice0. -t appears to "e disappearing, since only the older people use it. -t occurs only on the numeral one. The numeral two has the (irregular) classifier, -sa.
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*n numerals higher than three, it is pronounced -pti , which is a spin,off from its allomorph on the numeral four. 2ee Appendix.

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6or items +oined "y a "asket /only large "askets0, the numeral classifier is -ih or -psi. The classifier -psi occurs on all the numerals higher than one. The numeral one is paha-ih. The numeral two is pi-si-na. The numeral three is mpama-psi. 6or example, (one "asketful of sweet potatoes) is paha-ih kayg /one,A97BA2$ sweet potato0. 6or items +oined "y a pot /only large pots0, the numeral classifier is -ap or -yap. The classifier -yap occurs on all the numerals higher than one. The numeral one is paha-ap. The numeral two is pi-yap-na. The numeral three is mpama-yap. 6or example, (one potful of manioc meal) is paha-ap kuwak /one,A97P*T manioc meal0. 3.2.5. 0r"ction . To indicate (one side) of an o"+ect, the numeral classifier is -bak on the numeral one and -bk on the numeral two. -t occurs only on these two terms. The numeral one is paha-bak. The numeral two is pe-bk-ak.'. This classifier is used with all kinds of tangi"le units, "ecause all o"+ects ha#e at least two sides. 6or example, )two sides of the paper) is pe-bk-ak kagta /two,A972-D@,8@A-P paper0. @xample /3O0 is a "it more complicated7 /3O0 ig biyuks-e gi-wak paha-bak-ye.....pe-bk-ak-te gi-kugku he lose,A*MP9 .M,hand one,side,DE8....two,side,8@A-P,T*TA9 .M,foot (Be lost a hand on one side....KandL his feet on "oth sides) To indicate a (part) of an o"+ect, the numeral classifier is -uhri. -t occurs only on the numeral one. The numeral one is paha-uhri. This classifier is used in relation to the parts of a region, city, or island. -t is also used when speaking of pieces of meat or manioc "read. 6or example, (one piece of alligator meat) is paha-uhri pareyne a-rih /one,A97PA8T alligator .M,meat0. Any other numeral can represent (one part) of a unit or group when it is followed "y the word (from), ar-ay-tak /.:,part of,from0. 6or example, (three slices of "read) is mpana-bu ar-ay-tak bugut /three,JA9769AT .:,part of,from "read0. 6or animate units, the word (from) is g-ay-tak-kis /.M,part of,from,P90. The phrase (one of them) /speaking of men0 is paha-p-ri g-ay-tak-kis /one,A97A:-M,M .M,part of,from,P90. Palikur has other terms for fractions that are not related to numerals, "ut they show that the concept of fractions is not a strange notion to them. 6or example, (a portion) is abuskuD (a half) is abuskuh-wa /portion,@MPB0D (one third) is kab$ abuskuh-wa /almost portion,@MPB0 i. e. (almost a half)D and (one fourth) is abusku a-tusi /portion .:,corner0 i. e. (a portion e1ual to one corner). 3.2.6. Int"n-i2#e unit 3 "2 tr"ction . The numeral classifier that occurs on numerals referring to any a"stract noun is -t. As was noted "efore, this classifier also indicates a cylindrical o"+ect. -t is difficult to see any semantic relationship "etween the cylindrical shape and a"stract ideas. The morpheme -t is pro"a"ly homophonous. The nouns it refers to are the same ones that are classed as intangi"le setsD these nouns are ne#er classed as tangi"le sets, as cylindrical o"+ects are. Also, there are #arious differences of inflection "etween the numerals that refer to cylindrical items and those that refer to a"stract nouns. 2ome suffixes that occur on numerals referring to a"stract nouns are the same ones that occur on numerals referring to series. 2ee examples /..0, /.O0, /OO0, and /ON0. @xamples of a"stract nouns are7 karayt (sickness) /n0, annut (work) /n0, annipwit (+o") /n0, abektey (example) /n0, inetit (news) /n0, yuwit (word) /n0, apat (song) /n0, gi-hawkan (.M,promise) /n0, ayap-ka (1uestion) /n0, wasaym-ka (lie) /n0, hiyakemni-ki (idea, custom) /n0, taraksa-ki (error) /n0, ka-bay-ka /ha#ing,good,:*M0
'.

2ome speakers pronounce this term as pekbak, which would mean the classifier is -kbak. -t would "e hard to explayn phonologically the presence of the k "efore the bak, "ut then some of the other word,medial classifiers are also difficult to explain only on phonological grounds. /Bistorical and semantic factors also influence their form.0 Bowe#er, - feel -bk follows phonological rules "etter, and pa...ak is a #ery common discontinuous morpheme referring to reciprocity, which fits the idea of matching elements on "oth sides.

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Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

!N

("lessing) /n0, m-bay-ka /without,good,:*M0 (affliction) /n0, kumaduka-ki (law) /n0, igis-ka (riches) /n0, watiswa-ki (+ump) /n0, etc.'O 3.2.7. Int"n-i2#e et 3 erie . 6or the series class, the classifier is -i. The numeral one is paha-i and the numeral two is p-i-na. The terms for numerals higher than two referring to series do not occur with a classifier. :ouns that ha#e to do with a series are hawkri (day) /n0, mtipka (night) /n0, paka (week) /n0, a-meremnit /.:,enlargement0 (full moon) /n0, kahikanaw ("reath) /n0, muwok-we-kri /rain,wideYrange,season0 (rainy season) /n0, and madik-wa /end,@MPB0 (tens). The numeral one with the series classifier is also used as an ad+ecti#e to descri"e any series of e#ents. 6or example7 /3N0 paha-i-min-ne m-bay-ka one,A972@8,B@F*:D,A*:T without,good,:*M (a series of "ad) /i. e. a series of pro"lems0 :umerals with the series classifier are often used as ad#er"s of time. -n this case, they ha#e inflections that do not occur on any other numeral, such as -e (completi#e action), as in example /3P0 and -ewpi (finality) /3Q0. /3P0 paha-i-e in madik-e one,A972@8,A*MP9 it end,A*MP9 (All at once it ended) /3Q0 ini nu-pewkan umeh-pe-n paha-i-ewpi this !2G,thought kill,A*MP,!2G one,A972@8,6-:A9-TF (- think this will kill me once and for all) All the numeral classifiers are listed in Ta"le O on the numerals one and two, with examples of nouns with which they often occur.

'O

5ords that end with -ka or -ki are nominali ed #er"s and ad+ecti#es. All are common words.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

!P

TAB9@ O @xamples of All Palikur :umeral Alassifiers V4444444444444444444444444444

TAN*I.LE UNITS3 ANIMATE "ni%"te %" c. "ni%"te !e%. irre-u#"r round < 9u"re paha-p-ri awayg pi-ya-na kayg paha-p-ru pak pi-ya-na pukupku paha-a kat pi-sa-ya payt paho-u tip pi-so-ya kiyes one,A97A:-M,M "oy two,A97A:-M,two moon one,A97A:-M,6 cow two,A97A:-M,two owl one,A97-88@G "asket two,A97-88@G,two house one,A978:D stone two,A978:D,two "ox one,A97AF9 arrow two,A97AF9,two to"acco (one "oy) ;two months) (one cow) (two owls) (one "asket) (two houses) (one stone) (two "oxes) (one arrow) )two cigarettes)

TAN*I.LE UNITS3 INANIMATE

c&#indric"# paha-t yakkot pi-ta-na ayg !#"t !#"t "nd dee5 paha-k sipapa pi-ka-na pudig paha-mku kud pi-muk-na iwan

one,A9769AT mat (one sleeping mat two,A9769AT,two hammock (two hammocks) one,A9769ATD "asin two,A9769ATD,two knife one,A979*:G ri#er two,A979*:G,two :,cord one,A97B8*AD fire two,A97B8*AD,two field one,A976*9- "anana two,A976*9-,two flower (one "asin) (two kni#es) (one ri#er) (two cords) (one fire) (two fields) (one "anana plant (two flowers)

e=tended< paha-tra warik in " ro, pi-tahr-a a-rim e=tended < 5eri%. trun$ < !o#i!or% h"nd %outh paha-iku tiket pi-rik-na was paha-kti pilatno pi-kat-na ipuwiti paha-uku gi-wak pi-wok-na gu-wak paha, 2i&u pi-biy-na

TAN*I.LE UNITS3 PLANTS AN4 .14> PARTS

one,A97BA:D .M,hand (one hand) two,A97BA:D,two .6,hand (two hands) one,A97M*ETB two,A97M*ETB,two one,A97G8EP duck two,A97G8EP,two "oot one,A97A9E2 necklace two,A97A9E2,two fruit one,A97T-@ arrow two,A97T-@,two fish (one mouthful) (two mouthfuls) (one flock of ducks) (two pairs of "oots) (one necklace) (' clusters of fruit) (! "undle of arrows) (' strings of fish)

TAN*I.LE SETS -rou5 paha-bru upayan pi-bohr-a bot c#u ter tied ,r"55ed 2" $eted 5otted paha-twi akabdat pi-tiw-na ah ariw paha-ki yakkot pi-ki-na im paha-imku ipeyti pi-sa-ya kamis paha-ih kat mayk pi-si-na kat dug

one,A9758AP medicine (! pkg. of medicine two,A97-88@G,two clothes (' pkg. of clothes) one,A97BA2$ "asket corn (! "asket of corn) two,A97BA2$,two "asket rice (' "askets of rice)

paha-ap dari%wit wohska one,A97P*T pot "rew (! pot of "rew) pi-yap-na dari%wit wohska two ,A97P*T pot "rew (' pots of "rew) paha-uhri kewrihri one,A97PA8T island paha-uhri a-rih one,A97PA8T .:,meat /(Two) does not occur.0 paha-bak warik pe-bk-ak gi-kugku (! part of the island) (one piece of meat)

0RA/TI1NS 5"rt

ide

one,A972-D@ ri#er (! side of the ri#er) two,A972-D@ .M,foot (two sides of feet) /i. e. the feet on "oth sides ?

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

!Q
INTAN*I.LE UNITS "2 tr"ction paha-t karayt pi-ta-na inetit paha-i kahikanaw p-i-na hawkri one,A97AB2T8 sickness (one sickness) two,A97AB2T8,two message (two messages) one,A972@8 "reath two,A972@8,two day (one "reath (two days)

INTAN*I.LE SETS erie

4444444444444V44444444444444444 Ta"le N presents a full paradigm of numerals referring to animate units, flat units, and a set of items in a "asket. They occur with the nouns tino (woman), puwayt (paddle), and kat im ("asket of fish). Morphemes that appear in the ta"le are -gben /P9E8A90, a-kak /.:,with0 (with it), gu-kak/.6,with0 (with her), gu-kak-kis /.6,with,P90 (with them), ar-awna /.:, addition0 (its addition), g-awna-kis /6HM,addition,P90 (their additions). 3.3. The e%"ntic +"#ue o! the nu%er"# c#" i!ier . The numeral classifier is more than a simple agreement with certain nouns of a particular (noun class). The speaker chooses the TAB9@ N Three Alassifiers *n :umerals !,!! And '3 -n Palikur 444444444444444444444444444444 ANIMATE UNIT 0LAT UNIT SET IN .ASKET tino (woman) 5u,"&t (paddle) $"t i% ("asket of fish) 1 paha-p-ru tino paha-k puwayt paha-ih kat im 2 pi-ya-na tino-gben pi-ka-na puwayt pi-si-na kat im 3 mpana tino-gben mpana-bu puwayt mpama-psi kat im 4 paxnika tino-gben paxka-bu puwayt paxka-psi kat im 5 pohowku tino-gben pohowku-bu puwayt pohowku-psi kat im 6 pugunkuna tino-gben pugunkunma-bu puwayt pugunkunma-psi kat im 7 ntewnenker tino-gben ntewnenker-bu puwayt ntewnenker-si kat im ( ntewnenker tino-gben gu-kak paha-p-ru g-awna-kis ntewnenker-bu puwayt a-kak paha-k ar-awna ntewnenker-si kat im a-kak paha-ih ar-awna ) ntewnenker tino-gben gu-kak-kis pi-ya-na g-awna-kis ntewnenker-bu puwayt a-kak pi-ka-na ar-awna ntewnenker-si kat im a-kak pi-si-na ar-awna 1' madikawku tino-gben madikawku-bu puwayt madikawku-psi kat im 11 madikawku tino-gben gu-kak-kis pi-ya-na g-awna-kis madikawku-bu puwayt a-kak pi-ka-na ar-awna madikawku-psi kat im a-kak pi-si-na ar-awna 2' p-i-na madikwa tino-gben p-i-na madikwa puwayt p-i-na madikwa kat im &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&4&&&&&&&&&& classifier that indicates a specific characteristic of the o"+ect he is speaking a"out. 6or that reason the classifier often defines the noun with which it occurs. 6or example, the numeral shows if the noun ahehtet (measure) means (meter), as in /3U0 or (kilogram), as in /3S0. /3U0 paha-t aheh-tet kamis one,A97AF9 measure,-:2T8 cloth /cylindrical measure, or arm (one meter of cloth) stretched from nose to fingers0
Palikur :umerals Diana Green March !3, '3!O

!U

/3S0 paho-u aheh-tet kamis one,A978:D measure,-:2T8 cloth (one kilogram of remnants) /round weight of scales0 The numeral also defines the word iwakti, which can mean either (hand) or (finger). -n this case, the (irregular) classifier is used to refer to a whole hand /!30D the (cylindrical) classifier refers to a finger /!!0, the (flat) classifier refers to the palm of the hand /!'0, and the (group) classifier refers to the four fingers as a set /!.0. /!30 pi-wok-na iwakti '( pi-sa-ya iwakti two,A97BA:D,two handHfinger two,A97-88@G,two handHfinger (two hands) /!!0 pi-ta-na iwakti two,A97AF9,two handHfinger (two fingers) /!'0 pi-ka-na iwakti two,A9769AT,two handHfinger (two palms) /!.0 pi-bohr-a iwokti /width of O fingers7 measure two,A97G8EP,two handHfinger used to measure cur#ature (two sets of fingers) of canoe shell0 As is true of all words, the exact meaning of a numeral depends on the context in which it is "eing used. 6or example, the arm is used to measure the length of many different things. The term (one arm), pahat iwanti /one,A97AF9 arm0, can indicate a length of approximately ''3 centimeters /Q feet0 or a"out !Q3 centimeters /N feet0 or e#en of only O3 centimeters /!Q inches0. But the listener, knowing the situation, understands perfectly. -t all depends on what o"+ect is "eing measured. 5hen the speaker is measuring the length of his field with a pole, the term (arm) refers to the height a man can reach with his arm stretched a"o#e his head. -n this case, (one arm) means more than two meters /two yards0. 6or example7 /!O0 nu-was-ra a-yabwi paxnika madikwa iwanti !2G,field,8@9 .:,length four tens arm (The length of my field KisL forty (arms) /O3 x ''3 cmCUU meters0. 5hen a man speaks of the length of his canoe or house, the term (arm) refers to his two arms stretched out from his sides. -n this case, (one arm) is less than two meters. 6or example7 /!N0 nu-pin pohowku iwanti a-yabwi a-kak mpana iwanti a-rik !2G,house fi#e arm .:,length .:,with three arm .:,within (My house KisL fi#e arms long /N x !Q3 cmCU.N meters0 and three arms wide /. x !Q3 cmCN meters0) 5hen the man speaks of the length of the long cylindrical manioc s1uee er he is wea#ing, the term (arm) refers to his forearm. -n this case, (one arm) means less than half a meter. 6or example7 /!P0 inin matap a-yabwi pi-ta-na iwanti a-kak pi-sa-ya iwokti this s1uee er .:,length ',A97AF9,' arm .:,with ',A97-88@G,' hand (The length of this s1uee er KisL two arms /' x O3 cmCU3 cm0 and two hands /' x U cmC!P cm0) /i. e. one meter0 4. *ender "-ree%ent. *nly the cardinal numeral one and the ordinal numeral two agree in gender with the noun they refer to, and then only with animate nouns. -n these cases gender agreement is o"ligatory. 6or example, (one girl( is paha-p-ru himano /one, A97A:-M,6 girl0D (two girls) is pi-ya-na gu-kebi-kis himano-pyo /two,A97A:-M,two

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

!S

.6,units,P9 girl,P9.60D (three girls) is mpana gu-kebi-kis himano-pyo /three .6,units,P9 girl,P9.60. Palikur has a system of three genders7 masculine, feminine, and neuter. Terms referring to people, spirits, animals, and fish of the male sex are of the masculine gender. 5hen their sex is not known, the masculine gender is always used, except in the case of "irds, turtles, and caterpillars. 6or example, (one "oa constrictor) is paha-p-ri datkar /one,A97A:-M,M "oa constrictor0. Bea#enly "odies, thunder, and lightning are also considered to "e li#ing male creatures. Therefore (one star) is paha-p-ri warukma /one,A97A:-M,M star0. :ouns of the feminine gender may refer to animate or inanimate o"+ects. People, animals, and spirits of the female sex are of the feminine gender, as well as "irds, turtles, and caterpillars whose sex is not known. The numeral one agrees with them in gender. 6or example, (one "ird) is paha-p-ru kuhipra /one,A97A:-M,6 "ird0. Plants and other phenomenon of nature such as fire, ri#ers, and rain"ows are also of the feminine gender "ut they are not considered animate. Also, almost all round, s1uare, or conca#e o"+ects and all articles made of wood or metal are feminine. But the numerals do not agree in gender with them "ecause they are not animate. 6or example, (one tree) is paha-kti ah /one,A976*9treeHwood0. All other nouns, including items of other shapes, a"stract ideas, and actions, are of the neuter gender.'N 2ince they are inanimate, the numeral does not agree in gender. 6or example, (one road) is paha-tra ahin /one,A97@GT@:D@D path0, and (one +ump) is paha-t watis-ka /one,A97AB2T8 +ump,:*M0. Thus, opposition of gender is partially integrated with the system of numeral classifiers. But not completely. 6or example, the noun parewni (stream) is feminine "ecause it is a phenomenon of nature. But, since its shape is extended, the numeral has the same classifier used with the extended item, (path), ahin, which has neuter gender. These facts indicate that in this language, for animate units it is the gender that is important and not the shape /e#en when speaking of a #ery extended "oa constrictor0, and for inanimate units, the shape is more important than the gender /at least when dealing with numerals0. 5. Uni9ue nu%eric"# "!!i=e . The numerals of the Palikur language occur with ten uni1ue affixes which refer to mathematical concepts. These ha#e to do with numerical order, addition, su"traction, numerical limits, multiplication, totality, and #arious kinds of sets. These affixes occur on numerals referring to all nouns, "oth tangi"le and intangi"le. 5.1. Nu%eric"# order. The first kind of inflection, that of numerical order, is found in many languages. -n Palikur the ordinal numerals, except the term for (first), occur with the same classifiers as the cardinal numerals. The term (first) is not a numeral "ut an ad+ecti#e7 pitat-ye /in front,DE8.MH:0 or pitat-yo /in front,DE8.60. The rest of the ordinal numerals, (second), (third), etc., "egin with one of the se#en pronominal prefixes. They usually end with either a suffix that indicates gender /on the numeral two when counting animate units0, as in example /!Q0 or one that normally occurs on nouns and indicates a geniti#e relationship /8@90 as in examples /!S0, /'30, and /Q30. /!Q0 ig pitat-ye awayg gi-kak-kis gi-pe-p-ri, gi-mapnam he inYfront,DE8.M man .M,with,P9 .M,two,A97A:-M,M, .M,three (the first man, the second, and the third) /!U0 gu-mapnam ka atak .6,three :@G go (The third /woman0 did not go)

'N

The neuter gender, as well as the masculine and feminine, is marked on pronouns, postpositions, and demonstrati#es.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O

'3

/!S0 eg kuwis ewk a-pe-ki-n a-kak a-mapnam-ki-n she already "ring .:-two,A97T-@,8@9 .:,with .:,three,A97T-@,8@9 (2he already "rought the second and the third /"undles of sugar cane0. /'30 ig danuh a-bet a-pe-i-ni-pi-ye mtipka he arri#e .:,in .:,two,A972@8,8@9,2T,DE8 night (Be arri#ed the second night) 5hen the ordinal numeral occurs in a noun phrase, the common ad+ecti#al suffixes -pi /2TAT-J@0 and -ye /DE8AT-J@0 are always added. Aompare the form of the following ordinal numeral when it functions as a pronoun with its form when it functions as a 1uantifier. /'!0 gi-mapnam-kis awna gi-mapnam-pi-ye awayg awna M,three,P9 speak M,three ,2T,DE8.M man speak (The third spoke) (The third man spoke) E- 5i&"n" -u$"%$"&h tino-2en. A%"5n"%@5i&e? ","&-. @/$ out A5i&e in thi 5"5er.B The terms for ordinal numerals higher than (sixth) can "e expressed "y the phrase7 (one /noun0 making /the numeral0). 6or example7 /''0 paha-i hawkri keh-pi-ye ntewnenker a-kak p-i-na ar-awna one,A972@8 day make,2T,DE8 se#en .:,with two,A972@8,two .:,addition (one day making se#en with two in addition) /i. e. the ninth day0 -t appears that the younger generation is not using the ordinal numerals with all the classifiers. Many prefer to use only the (series) classifier, no matter what nouns the numerals occur with. This makes sense since ordinal numerals form a kind of series. 6or example, to say (the second "ook), the younger generation says (a-pe-i-ni kagta) /.:,two,A972@8,8@9 "ook0 while the older generation says, (a-pe-k kagta) /.:,two,A9769AT "ook0. 5.2 Addition. The other types of numerical inflection in#ol#e only the addition of a suffix. The suffix indicating addition is the morpheme -wa /(additional)0.'P /'.0 nah ik) pi-t paha-a-wa arikna gi#e you,to one,A97-88@G,A44ITI1NAL thing (- will gi#e you one %ore thing) /'O0 ig-kis manuk paha-uhri-wa kewrihgi akiw he,P9 cross one,A97PA8T,A44ITI1NAL island more (They crossed o#er KtoL one %ore part of the island) 5.3. Su2tr"ction. The suffix indicating su"traction is the morpheme -e /(remainder)0. /'N0 usekw-e pehe-k-e parak remain,A*MP9 one,A9769AT,REM "oard (There remained one "oard /#e!t o+er0) /'P0 ku nah wiwh paha-t ah ar-iwntak paxnika a-kebi usakwa mpanm-e if take one,A97AF9 wood .:,from four .:,units remain three,8@M (-f - take one of the four sticks, three will "e left) 5.4. Tot"#it&. Another suffix, -te /(total)0, indicates the totality of a unit or group, as in examples /'Q0,/.30, /3O0, /NU0, and /Q!0. /'Q0 pilatno bus-ip paha-twi-te "anana spoil,2T one,A97A9E2,T1TAL (The stalk of "ananas is co%5#ete#& spoiled)

'P

This morpheme is homophonous with the morpheme -wa /@MPBA2-20 which can occur on almost any word.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

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/'U0 datkar daker-e takarak paha-p-ru-te "oa swallow,A*MP9 chicken one,A97A:-M,6,T1TAL (The "oa swallowed the chicken ,ho#e) /'S0 ig pituk-e antiyan ntewnenker-te he "reak,A*MP9 egg se#en,T1TAL (Be "roke "## se#en eggs) /.30 nah k-annipwi-ye paha-i-te hawkri had,work,DE8 one,A972@8, T1TAL day (- worked one ,ho#e day) 5.5. Nu%eric"# #i%it . The suffix indicating numerical limits is the morpheme -o /(limited)0 or its allomorph -wo. -t is usually followed "y the morpheme -wa /emphasis0, as in examples /.!0 and /.'0, "ut sometimes is not, as in examples /P'0 and /P.0. /.!0 mewka k-an-yo paha-i-wo-wa a-dahan paha-k kamu-kri turtle lay,DE8.6 one,A972@8,LIM,@MPB .:,"y one,A9769AT sun,season (The turtle lays eggs on#& once a year) A idea of limitation is also sometimes a mathematical concept. -n the following sentence the use of the (limited) morpheme indicates semantically that (others ha#e more and - ha#e less).'Q /.'0 nah pi-ka-n-mo-wa nu-kawih-ni two,A9769AT,two, LIM,@MPB !2G,clothes,8@9 (- Kha#eL on#& two outfits) 5.6. Mu#ti5#ic"tion. The suffix indicating multiplication is the morpheme -put /(multiplied)0. This morpheme occurs only on numerals that refer to (series) like p-i-ma-put /two, A972@8,two,ME9T0 (two times). -t also occurs on the interrogati#e word which means (how many timesT), aysaw-put /howYmany,ME9T0. The morpheme occurs on all the numerals referring to series, except the numeral one. /*"#iously, any numeral multiplied "y one remains the same.0 2ee examples /..0, /.O0, and /P.0. /..0 ig hasih paxka-put he snee e four,MULT (Be snee ed four ti%e ) /.O0 nah isim-e ini kamis mpama-put a-tiwnih a-pit-min akiw "uy,A*MP9 this cloth three,MULT .:,price .:,o#er,B@F*:D more (- "ought this cloth for a price three ti%e as much) The Palikur use these numerals to count money. Esing the term sah (hundred) "orrowed from the creole dialect of 6rench Guiana, they count like this7 /.N0 p-i-ma-put sah, mpama-put sah, paxka-put sah *,A972@8,',ME9T hundred, three,MULT hundred, four,ME9T hundred (two hundred /'330, three hundred /.330, four hundred /O330) 5.7. Set o! unit . -n section ..!.'. - descri"ed numerals used to count #arious kinds of sets like (two sets /groups0 of people) which is pi-bohr-a hiyeg /two,A97G8EP,two people0. There are also two numeral suffixes that specify the num"er of elements that make up a set, such as the num"er of items in a group, as in examples /.P,.Q0, a cluster /NS0, or a row /3!0 and /PS"0. The first affix, -me /(pair)0, occurs only on the numeral two. 6or example, a do#e and its mate are pi-ya-n-me ugus /two,A97A:-M,two, PAIR do#e0. The other affix occurs on
'Q

The Palikur use the word a-pit-min /it,o#er,B@F*:D0 (surpassing) to express the concept of (more) and the phrase warikap a-kebi /"elow .:,units0 (lower amount) for the concept of (less). -f, for example, - ha#e one egg and my friend has three, then he has pi-sa-ya a-pit-min (two surpassing) and - ha#e pi-sa-ya warikap a-kebi g-iw (two units lower than him). But it is more common to say that he has three and - ha#e (only one) paha-a-wo-wa /one,A97-88@G,9-M, @MPB0.

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any numeral. -t e#en occurs on the numeral two, when more than one set of pairs is "eing num"ered. This morpheme is -t, or its allomorphs -at and -it /(set)0. 6or example, people sitting in a canoe with two on each seat are pi-ya-n-m-at hiyeg /two,A97A:-M,two, PAIR, SET people0 (two people in a set). -f the canoe has four seats, the people are descri"ed as in example /.P07 /.P0 paxka-bru gi -kebi-kis a-dahan pi-ya-n-m-at four,A97G8EP .M,units,P9 .:,of two,A97A:-M,two, PAIR,SET (four et of two each) /.Q0 ig turuh akawakti pi-muk-na-m-at he pierce ring two,A9769ATD,two, PAIR,SET (Be car#ed out et of two rings Kfrom each nutL) This morpheme (set) also occurs on the numeral one, forming a set of only one element4a profound mathematical a"straction. 5hen this morpheme is affixed to the numeral one, we can translate it (each one) or (one for each). 6or example7 /.U0 nah ik) paha-p-ri-t im gi#e one,A97A:-M,M,SET fish (- ga#e one fish to e"ch /person0) /.S0 ig-kis ax paho-u-it uwas he,P9 eat one,A978:D,SET orange (They ate one orange e"ch) /O30 ig ewk gi-mana-kis gi-t-kis paha-p-ri-t hiyeg he "ring .M,food,P9 .M,to,P9 one,A97A:-M,M,SET people (Be "rought food for e"ch one) 5.(. Set o! i%u#t"neou e+ent . 2tates and e#ents constitute another type of set when they are simultaneous, as in example /O!0. This includes an action performed at the same time "y se#eral actors as in examples /O'0 and /P30, or an action recei#ed at the same time "y se#eral patients /O.0. The suffix indicating simultaneous action is -nam /(simultaneous)0. /O!0 ig mpa-nam gi-kah-ri he three,SIM .M,illness,8@9 (Be KhasL three illnesses i%u#t"neou #&) /O'0 ig-kis kah pi-ya-nam he,P9 pull two,A97A:-M,SIM (They "oth pulled i%u#t"neou #&) /O.0 ig takig-e ah pi-ta- nam he "reak,A*MP9 wood two,A97AF9,SIM (Be "roke the two sticks i%u#t"neou #&) 5hen speaking of intangi"le units that are simultaneous, in the case of the numeral two the morpheme -put /(multiplied)0 is always added "efore the morpheme -nam, as in examples /OO0 and /ON0. This also occurs when speaking of types of tangi"le items /"ut not the items themsel#es0, as in example /OP0. /OO0 eg pi-put-nam gu-hiyakem-ni she two, MULTASIM .6,thoughts,8@9 (2he KhasL two i%u#t"neou ways of thinking) /i.e. 2he is two,faced.0 /ON0 ig k-annu keh pi-put-nam annipwit he has,a"ility do two, MULTASIM work (Be can do two +o"s i%u#t"neou #&)

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/OP0 pi-put-nam ax-ka ay kitere akak suwiye two,ME9T,2-M eat,:*M here sweet and sour (KThere areL two kinds of food here4sweet and sour) 5.). Set o! e9uenti"# e+ent . 5e can also speak of sets of se1uential e#ents which take place (one "y one) or (two "y two). The suffix indicating se1uential action is the morpheme -empi /(se1uential)0 or its allomorphs. This suffix occurs only on numerals functioning as ad#er"s, as in example /OQ0, /OU0 and /PU0. A similar morpheme occurs on #er"s to indicate that the su"+ect is mo#ing along. Ta"le P summari es these nine uni1ue inflections of Palikur numerals. The suffixes appear in "oldface with the numeral one that refers to round o"+ects, paho-u /one,A978:D0, and the numeral two that refers to animate units, pi-ya-na /two,A97A:-M,two0. -n cases where a suffix does not occur on the numeral one, the numeral two that refers to round o"+ects is used7 pi-so-ya /two,A978:D,two0. 5hen a prefix is added to form ordinal numerals, the form of the root of numeral two, pi-so-ya, changes to pe-s /two,A978:D0 and the form of the root of the numeral two, pi-ya-na, changes to pe-p /two,A97A:-M0. The suffix concerning multiplication is shown with the numeral two that refers to a series, p-i-na /two,A972@8, two0.

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TAB9@ P @xamples of The Eni1ue -nflections *f Palikur :umerals V4444444444444444444444444444 nu%eric"# order "ddition u2tr"ction @re%"inder? tot"#it& nu%eric"# #i%it"tion a-pes-ru gi-pep-ri pahow-wa uwas piyanma-wa awayg pahow-re uwas piyanm-e awayg pahow-te uwas piyanma-te awayg pahow-wo-wa uwas piyanm-o-wa awayg (the second /orange0) (the second /man0) (one more orange) (two more men) (one remaining orange) (two remaining men) (a whole orange) (all two /"oth0 men) (only one orange) (only two men)

%u#ti5#ic"tion #was atiwnih pima-put akiw (The price of the orange orange price two,ME9T more is two times as much) +g padak uwas mpama-put (Be tossed the he throw orange three,ME9T orange three times) unit in " et +g pukuh uwas pisoya-m-at. (Be counted the oranges he count orange two,PA-8,2@T in sets of two /', O, P0) +gkis bat piyan-m-at hiyeg. (They are sitting in they sit two,PA-8,2@T people groups of two) ,Be s1uee ed the two oranges simultaneously) (The two pulled simultaneously) (Be KhasL two +o"s)

et o! e+ent +g pidik uwas pisoya-nam. @ i%u#t"neou ? he s1uee e orange two,2-M +gkis kah piya-nam. they pull two,2-M +g pi-put-nam g-annipwi. he two,ME9T,2-M .M,+o" et o! e+ent @ e9uenci"#?

#was tuguhe pahow-rumpi. (The oranges fell orange fall one,2@I one "y one) -gkis mpiya piyan-empi. (They passed "y they pass two,2@I two "y two)

44444444444444444444444V44444 /OQ0 eg-kis pes pi-ya-n-empi she,P9 lea#e two,A97A:-M,two,2@IE@:T-A99F (They left two "y two) /OU0 ig kanum gi-u paha-i-impi he call .M,name one,A972@8, 2@IE@:T-A99F (Be said his name one "y one) /i. e. Be spelled his name letter "y letter.0

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6. S&nt"ctic !unction o! the nu%er"# . -n Palikur the numerals function not only as 1uantifying ad+ecti#es "ut also as ad#er"s, pronouns, #er"s and nouns. -n each function they occur with the suffixes appropriate for that function. 6ollowing is a description of the numerals in each function with an explanation of their external distri"ution and their internal structure. 6.1. Nu%er"# " 9u"nti!&in- "d6ecti+e . As ad+ecti#es, the numerals occur in 1uantified and demonstrati#e noun phrases, and in descripti#e clauses. The 1uantified noun phrase is the most common type of noun phrase in the language, "ecause the numeral one ser#es as an indefinite article. -n this type of phrase the 1uantifier always precedes the noun. 6or example7 /OS0 ewk nu-t-hu paho-u goble nops-ad kipun a-kak un "ring !2G,to,!@GA9 one,A978:D glass si e,AEM full .:,with water (Bring me a "ig glass full of water) /N30 nah hiy$ pi-ya-na gi-kebi-kis yit gu-kamkay see two,A97A:-M,two .M,units,P9 deer .6,offspring (- see two units of a deer)s offspring) /i. e. (- see two fawns)0 -n general, the ad+ecti#e precedes the noun, as can "e seen in example /N!0 "ut when a 1uantifier or demonstrati#e occurs in a noun phrase, the other ad+ecti#es always follow the noun, as in /N'0. /N!0 ig ay$ barew-yo tino he re1uest pretty,DE8.6 woman (Be demanded a pretty woman) /N'0 ig-kis ut. paha-p-ru tino barew-yo he,P9 find one,A97A:-M,6 woman pretty,DE8.6 (They found one pretty woman) /or (They found a pretty woman)0 5hen they function as ad+ecti#es, the numerals may "e inflected with most of the numeral suffixes, that is, those referring to numerical order, addition, su"traction, totality, numerical limits, multiplication, and #arious kinds of sets, as was exemplified in Ta"le P. The numerals may also "e inflected with affixes that occur in other parts of the language, such as -pa or -ap /(#ast) which indicates a wide range of space or time 0, as in /N.0, -ne or -n /(continuous)0 /NO0 and /NN0, which signifies a continuous state or action, -ad /(augmentati#e)0 /NO0, -ma /(negation)0 /NN0, and many others. /N.0 paha-k-ap waxri aynte a-napi wayk one,A9769AT,JA2T land there .:,under ground (KThere isL a #ast world under the ground) /NO0 ahegbet-ha-na-ba-i paxka-bu- n-ad yar-ad ready,J8B,P*9-T@,-MP,P9 four,A9769AT,A*:T,AEG fence,AEG (Prepare four "ig fences) /NN0 yuma paha-mku-ne-ma umuh none one,A9769ATD,A*:T,:@G canoe (not one canoe) -n demonstrati#e noun phrases, the numeral follows the noun, almost always "earing the suffix -nene or nano /(continuous durati#e)0 /NP0 and /NQ0, "ut sometimes with -kis /(plural)0 /NU0. /NP0 ner-as bakim-nay mpana-nene gi-kebi-kis that.M,P9 child,P9 three,A*:T.DE8.M .M,units,P9 (those children "eing three) /i. e. (those three children)0

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/NQ0 no-ne-wa pi-sam-ru paha-p-ru- wat-nano that.6,2AM@,@MPB your,si"ling,6 one,A97A:-M,6,@MPB,A*:T.DE8.6 (that only younger,sister of yours) /NU0 ner-as nu-kagmada-pu pi-ya-nma-te-kis that.M,P9 !2G,friend,P9 two,A97A:-M,two,T*TA9,P9 ("oth of those friends of mine) -n descripti#e clauses, the numeral follows the noun, as in examples /NS0 and /P30 although often the su"+ect is repeated after it, as in example /P!0. -t is sometimes inflected with the morpheme -ye /(durati#e.M)0 which occurs only on ad+ecti#es,'U as in example /P'0. /NS0 ig-kis pi-tiw-na-m-at he,P9 two,A97A9E2,two,PA-8,2@T (They /the hunters0 KwereL in groups of two) /i. e. two in one canoe and two in the other, the preferred way to hunt0 /P30 ig-kis mpan-nam gi-tiput he,P9 three,2-M .M,against (They KwereL three attacking him simultaneously) /P!0 gi-sam-ri paha-p-o ig .M,si"ling,M one,A97A:-M,9-M he (Bis younger "rother KisL alone) /P'0 ig ner kaybune ig paha-i-wot-ne-ye he that snake he one,A972@8,9-M,A*:T,DE8.M (That snake Kis aL (one time only) KkindL) /i. e. poisonous0 6.2. Nu%er"# " "d+er2 . As ad#er"s, numerals generally occur after the direct o"+ect of transiti#e #er"s, as in example /P.0 or following the intransiti#e #er" as in /..0. /P.0 ig biwh-e gi-kamkayh p-i-ma-put a-kak ah he hit,A*MP9 .M,child two,A972@8,two,ME9T .:,with stick (Be hit his son two times with a stick) 5hen numerals function as ad#er"s, they may "e inflected with many of the same numeral suffixes that 1uantifying numerals do, that is, those referring to totality, numerical limits, multiple action and simultaneous e#ents. -n addition, they can occur with the suffix referring to se1uential e#ents, as in /PU0. These numerals may also "e inflected with many morphemes that occur in other parts of the language, such as -pa or -ap /(#ast)0 /PO0, -min /("eyond)0 /PN0 and /PP0, -ne /(continuous)0 /PN0 and /PP0, -pu /(plural)0 /PQ0, and repetition of the first sylla"le, which indicates repeated action /PU0. /PO0 was mutuh-ka paha-ik-ap field plant,PA22 one,A97B8*ADHB8*AD,JA2T (The field is planted all o#er the #ast "readth of it) /PN0 paha-i-min-ne ig danuh-pa wo-t-hu one,A972@8,B@F*:D,A*:T he arri#e,JA2T !P9,to,!@GA9 (6rom time to time he #isits us) /PP0 nah hiy$ paha-p-ri hiyeg pi-ya-na- min see one,A97A:-M,M person two,A97A:-M,two,B@F*:D (- see a person dou"led) /dou"le #ision0

'U

-n noun phrases, -ye does not occur on numerals, unless they are on ordinal numerals.

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/PQ0 usuh ay pi-ya-nma-pu we.@GA9 here two,A97A:-M,two,P9 (5e "oth KareL here together) /PU0 eg pak-no apat pa-paha-i-mpi she sing,A*:T.6 song 8@P@T-T-*:,one,A972@8,2@I (2he was singing songs one after the other) 6.3. Nu%er"# " 5ronoun . A numeral often takes the place of a noun "ecause, since the numeral shows the class of the noun, it is not difficult to know what the noun is. Aonsider the following monologue a"out pilatno ("ananas)7 /PSa0 nah kadahan paha-kti pilatno ha#e one,A9701LI "anana (- ha#e one "anana /plant0) /PS"0 eg pi,kat-na-ma-t gu-hinani-u she two,A9701LI,two,PA-8,2@T .6,side,"y (-t KhasL two /sprouts0 "eside it) /PSc0 nah kuwis matis-e paha- twi already pick,A*MP9 one,A97/LUS (- already picked one /stalk0) /PSd0 ba pis muwaka ax paha -t/ -:T@88*G you want eat one,A97/>L (Do you want to eat one /"anana0T /PSe0 ahah. nah ik) pi-t paha-bru Bere. gi#e you,to one,A97*RUP (Bere. -Zll gi#e you one /"unch0) 5hen ser#ing as a pronoun, the numerals may "e inflected with any of the numerical affixes /Q30, as well as the plural -kis, as in Ta"le Q, and the negati#e -ma, as in /Q!0. /Q30 0ahi gu-paxnika-n ka-kahri-ye Maria .6,four,8@9 ha#ing,sickness,DE8.M (Mary)s fourth KchildL is sick) /Q!0 ig-kis ka umah pi-ya-n-ma-te-ma he,P9 :@G kill two,A97A:-M,two,PA-8,T*TA9,:@G (They did not kill them "oth) :umerals functioning as pronouns also occur with a suffix that often occurs on pronouns and, at times, on demonstrati#es and nouns. -t is the morpheme -me /(contrast)0. This suffix is used to contrast two participants or e#ents. 6or example7 /Q'0 mpana gi-kebi-kis atak pi-ya-na-me ka atak three .M,units,P9 go two,A97A:-M,two,A*:T8A2T :@G go (Three are goingD two, howe#er, are not) 6.4. Nu%er"# " +er2 . Jer"s are sometimes deri#ed from numerals "y the addition of the morpheme -h, /(#er"ali er)0. @xamples /Q.0 to /QQ0 of #er"s "ased on numerals exhi"it the common #er"al suffixes -wa /(reflexi#e)0 and -e /(completi#e action)0. /Q.0 ig paha-p-ri-h-w-e he one,A97A:-M,M,J8B,8@69G,A*MP9 (Be Wone,edX himself) /i. e. he withdrew, isolated himself0

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/QO0 eg-kis pi-ye-n-me-h-w-e she,P9 two,A97A:-M,two,PA-8,J8B,8@69G,A*MP9 (They Wtwo,edX themsel#es) /i. e. they married0 /QN0 ig kuwis pahe-tre-h-e gi-hiyakem-ni he already one,A97@GT@:,J8B,A*MP9 .M,thoughts,8@9 (Be already Wone,edX his mind) /i. e. he decided, lined up his thoughts0 /QP0 eg-kis paha-dru-h-wa atere she,P9 one,A97 G8EP,J8B,8@69G there (They Wone,edX themsel#es there) /i. e. they met together0 /QQ0 ig paha-dru-h g-ewkan-bet he one,A97G8EP,J8B .M,"elonging,ME9T-P9@ PA8T2 (Be Wone,edX his "elongings) /i. e. he gathered them together0 6.5. Nu%er"# " noun . A few nouns are also deri#ed from numerals "y the addition of the suffix -ka or -ki /(nominali er)0, as seen in /QU0 to /U30. /QU0 ig-kis keh paha-tra-min-ka a-dahan parek-wiye he,P9 make one,A97@GT@:,B@F*:D,:*M .:,for enter,-A (They formed a Wone,extendedX /i.e. line0 in order to enter) /QS0 ig-kis paha-dru-pu ayre a-bet paha-dru-h-ka he,P9 one,A97G8EP,P9 there .:,in one,A97G8EP,J8B,:*M (They KareL Wone,edX /i.e. gathered0 together at the Wone,ingX /i.e. meeting0) /U30 ig paha-p-ri ar-ayt-tak ini paha-dru-h-wa-ki he one,A97A:-M .:,part of,from this one,A97G8EP,J8B,8@69G,:*M (That one is a mem"er of this Wself,one,ingX /i.e. group0) 7. Re#"ti+e order o! the nu%er"# "!!i=e . As has "een seen, the "asic stem of a Palikur numeral is composed of a root plus a classifier. *n the numeral one used with animate entities, a suffix is o"ligatorily added to the stem which indicates the gender of the entity. *ther affixes are often added. The next in order are those uni1ue to numerals which express mathematical concepts. 6ollowing these are modifying affixes that occur on other parts of speech as well and modify the noun or #er" to which the numeral refers. :o more than three modifiers occur on a numeral at one time. The order of the #arious affixes is illustrated in Ta"le Q. TAB9@ Q 8elati#e *rder *f The :umeral Affixes V444444444444444444444444444444444 8**T A9A22 G@:D@8. PA-8 -wa ,ADD MATB. M*D-6-@82 -ad ,AEM paha -p -ri one ,A97A:-M ,M (one more "ig male) pi ya-n two ,A97A:-M ("oth of them) paha -i one ,A972@8-@2 (at only one time in existence)
Palikur :umerals

-ma -te -kis PA-8 ,T*TA9 ,P9 -wo -wat-nene ,9-M-T ,@MPB,A*:T.DE8.M

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pikat-na -ma -ttwo ,A976*9-6*8M ,PA-8 ,2@T (not in sets of two plants each)

-ne-ma ,A*:T.M,:@GAT-*:

pi -sa-ya -ma -te -bet two ,A978*E:D PA-8 ,T*TA9 ,ME9T-P9@ PA8T2 ("oth of the round multiple parts) /the two heads of a monster0 paha -k one ,A9769AT (one small flat area) /an underground world0 -es-ne-wa ,D-M,A*:T,@MPB

44444444444444444444444V4444444 (. /onc#u ion. -t is fitting that the Palikur word pukuh (to count) also means (to understand). The study of the numerical system of the Palikur language not only re#eals how the people count "ut also how well they understand "asic mathematical concepts. Many arithmetical relationships are expressed in the morphology of the numerical terms and thus are easier to percei#e. The affixation of the numerals confirms linguistically that cultures outside of our own ha#e many mathematical concepts similar to ours. -t makes it clear that e#en in an illiterate society, where written numerical sym"ols were ne#er thought of, systematic mathematical concepts may "e well,de#eloped. *"#iously the people of this so,called (primiti#e) culture are a"le to think "oth a"stractly and analytically[ -n the numerical system of this language, we can o"ser#e !0 the "asic organi ation of all classifiers into units, sets, and fractions, '0 the idea of series, .0 well,defined geometrical categories "ased on four dimensions instead of three, with su",categories esta"lished on the concept of -min (something more), O0 uni1ue numerical inflections that express "asic arithmetical concepts like that of numerical order, addition, su"traction, multiplication, more and less, wholes and parts, and N0 extensi#e reference to #arious kinds of sets. This raises the 1uestion7 could the study of mathematical terms in indigenous languages lead to the disco#ery of some small "ut #ital concept that would contri"ute to the science of mathematics in generalT Another 1uestion is whether mathematics will influence the way linguists categori e numerical classifiers. Much analysis and description of linguistic structure and semantics has already fruitfully "een done along the lines of mathematical relationships. The Palikur terms reaffirm the existence of an intricate relationship "etween language and mathematics, especially when it concerns numerals. The ease and precision with which the numeral classifiers can "e categori ed according to units, sets, and fractions suggests that this kind of (mathematical) categori ation may pro#ide a useful framework for the description of num"er classifiers in other languages as well. The disco#ery of the elegant arrangement of the geometrical classes was made possi"le only "y considering the nati#e speakers) own descriptions of the forms they are "ased on. -t indicates the importance of studying the indigenous terms for these classes. -t also demonstrates the necessity of descri"ing classes according to their primary and secondary dimensions, keeping in mind the possi"ility of the existence of a fourth dimension of (perimeter). The morphological structure of the Palikur numerals supports the morpho,syntactic typology of noun classification systems and classifiers proposed "y Der"yshire and Payne /!SS30. -t is apparent that nominal agreement systems /such as gender0, modifying affixes /such as those indicating si e or plurality0, and affixes referring to mathematical concepts /such as addition, remainders, limitation, and totality0 are not classifiers and should "e treated separately. The numerical terms of Palikur furnish a rare example of all these types of morphemes on the numerals of a single language. 6**T:*T@

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The semantic typology of the numeral classifiers has "een addressed in more detail in WPalikur and the typology of classifiersX /Aikhen#ald \ Green, !SSU0 which compares the numeral classifiers of Palikur with the #er"al and locati#e classifiers, as well as the concordial noun classification system and the demonstrati#e referents. The com"ination of so many systems of classifiers in one language, all with different markers and different semantic classes, is 1uite unusual and may "e uni1ue.

8@6@8@:A@2 ADAM2, $A8@:. 9. \ A*:$9-:, :A:AF. 6. !SQ.. Toward a theory of natural classification, Papers from the Sth 8egional Meeting, Ahicago 9inguistic 2ociety, pp. !,!3 A-$B@:JA9D, A9@GA:D8A !SSO. WAlasse nominal e g]nero em l?nguas aru&kX. 1oletim do 0useu !araense -m)lio 2oeldi,A:P1. Bel%m, Jol. !3/'07!.Q,'NS. A-$B@:JA9D, A9@GA:D8A F. '333. Alassifiers7 A typology of noun classification de#ices, :ew Fork7 *xford Eni#ersity Press, Pp. N.N. A-$B@:JA9D, A9@GA:D8A F. \ G8@@:, D-A:A. !SSU. Palikur and the typology of classifiers. Anthropological 9inguistics O3/.07O'SVOU3. A99A:, $@-TB. !SQQ. Alassifiers, 9anguage N., pp. 'UO,.!3. D@8BF2B-8@, D@2M*:D \ PAF:@, D*8-2. !SS3. :oun classification systems of Ama onian languages, Ama onian 9inguistics, ed. Doris Payne. Austin, Eni#ersity of Texas press, pp. 'O.,'Q'. G8@@:, BA8*9D. !SQS. Aomo se pergunta em Palikur, 8e#ista de Atualidade -nd?gena. Bras?lia, ./!U0 pp. '.,S. 9A$*66, G@*8G@. !SUP. Alassifiers as a reflection of mind, :oun classes and categori ation, ed. A. Araig. AmsterdamHPhiladelphia, >ohn Ben+amin, pp. !.,N'. PAF:@, DAJ-D. !SS!. A classification of Maipuran /Arawakan0 languages "ased on shared lexical retentions. -n7 Band"ook of Ama onian 9anguages, eds. D.A. Der"yshire \ G.$. Pullum. Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter, Jol. .7.NN,OSS. 2-:G@8, >AM@2. !SS.. Geometry, 0icrosoft -ncarta. Microsoft Aorp. 6unk \ 5agnallZs Aorp.

Palikur :umerals

Diana Green

March !3, '3!O