1.

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
EXAMPLE 1: Prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = for any integer n 1. Proof: STEP 1: For n=1 (1.1) is true, since 1= 1(1 + 1) . 2 n(n + 1) 2 (1.1)

STEP 2: Suppose (1.1) is true for some n = k 1, that is 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = k (k + 1) . 2

STEP 3: Prove that (1.1) is true for n = k + 1, that is 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = We have 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =

ST.2 ?

(k + 1)(k + 2) . 2 k +1 2 (k + 1)(k + 2) . 2

k (k + 1) + (k + 1) = (k + 1) 2

EXAMPLE 2: Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n 1) = n2 for any integer n 1. Proof: STEP 1: For n=1 (1.2) is true, since 1 = 12 . STEP 2: Suppose (1.2) is true for some n = k 1, that is 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k 1) = k 2 . STEP 3: Prove that (1.2) is true for n = k + 1, that is 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 . We have: 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k 1) + (2k + 1) = k 2 + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 . 1
ST.2 ?

(1.2)

EXAMPLE 3: Prove that n! nn for any integer n 1. Proof: STEP 1: For n=1 (1.3) is true, since 1! = 11 . STEP 2: Suppose (1.3) is true for some n = k 1, that is k ! k k . STEP 3: Prove that (1.3) is true for n = k + 1, that is (k + 1)! (k + 1)k+1 . We have (k + 1)! = k ! (k + 1) k k (k + 1) < (k + 1)k (k + 1) = (k + 1)k+1 .
ST.2 ?

(1.3)

EXAMPLE 4: Prove that 8 | 32n 1 for any integer n 0. Proof: STEP 1: For n=0 (1.4) is true, since 8 | 30 1. STEP 2: Suppose (1.4) is true for some n = k 0, that is 8 | 32k 1. STEP 3: Prove that (1.4) is true for n = k + 1, that is 8 | 32(k+1) 1. We have 32(k+1) 1 = 32k+2 1 = 32k 9 1 = 32k (8 + 1) 1 = 32k 8 + 32k 1 . div. by 8 St. 2 div. by 8 EXAMPLE 5: Prove that 7 | n7 n for any integer n 1. Proof: STEP 1: For n=1 (1.5) is true, since 7 | 17 1. STEP 2: Suppose (1.5) is true for some n = k 1, that is 7 | k 7 k. STEP 3: Prove that (1.5) is true for n = k + 1, that is 7 | (k + 1)7 (k + 1). We have (k + 1)7 (k + 1) = k 7 + 7k 6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 7k + 1 k 1 = k 7 k + 7k 6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 7k . St. 2 div. by 7 div. by 7 (1.5) (1.4)

2. THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

DEFINITION: Let n and k be some integers with 0 k n. Then n k is called a binomial coecient. = n! k !(n k )!

PROPERTIES: 1. n 0 = n n = 1.

Proof: We have n 0 n n = n! n! = = 1, 0!(n 0)! 1 n! n! n! n! = = = 1. n!(n n)! n! 0! n! 1

2.

n 1

n n1

= n.

Proof: We have n 1 = (n 1)! n n! = = n, 1!(n 1)! 1! (n 1)! n! n! (n 1)! n = = = n. (n 1)![n (n 1)]! (n 1)! 1! (n 1)! 1!

n n1

3.

n k

n . nk

Proof: We have n k = n! n! n! = = = k !(n k )! (n k )!k ! (n k )![n (n k )]! n . nk

4.

n n + k k1

n+1 . k

Proof: We have n n + k k1 = = = = = = = n! n! + k !(n k )! (k 1)!(n k + 1)! n!(n k + 1) n!k + k !(n k )!(n k + 1) (k 1)!k (n k + 1)! n!(n k + 1) n!k + k !(n k + 1)! k !(n k + 1)! n!(n k + 1) + n!k k !(n k + 1)! n!n n!k + n! + n!k k !(n k + 1)! n!n + n! k !(n k + 1)! (n + 1)! (n + 1)! n!(n + 1) = = = k !(n k + 1)! k !(n k + 1)! k !(n + 1 k )! n+1 . k

PROBLEM: For all integers n and k with 1 k n we have n n n +2 + k1 k k+1 Proof: By property 4 we have n n n +2 + k1 k k+1 = n n n n + + + k1 k k k+1 n+1 n+1 + k k+1 = n+2 . k+1 = n+2 . k+1

THEOREM (The Binomial Theorem): Let a and b be any real numbers and let n be any nonnegative integer. Then (a + b)n = an + n n1 n n2 2 n n a b+ a b + ... + a2 bn2 + abn1 + bn . 1 2 n2 n1 4

PROBLEM: For all integers n 1 we have n n n n + + + ... + 0 1 2 n Proof: Putting a = b = 1 in the Theorem above, we get (1 + 1)n = 1n + hence 2n = 1 + therefore by property 1 we get 2n = n n n n n n + + + ... + + + . 0 1 2 n2 n1 n n n n n 1n1 1 + 1n2 12 + . . . + 12 1n2 + 1 1n1 + 1n , 1 2 n2 n1 n n n n + + ... + + + 1, 1 2 n2 n1 = 2n .

PROBLEM: For all integers n 1 we have n n n n + . . . + (1)n 0 1 2 n Proof: Putting a = 1 and b = 1 in the Theorem above, we get (1 1)n = 1n + hence 0=1 n n n 1n2 (1)2 + . . . + 1 (1)n1 + (1)n , 1n1 (1) + n1 2 1 n n n + . . . + (1)n1 + (1)n , 1 2 n1 = 0.

therefore by property 1 we get 0= n n n n n + . . . + (1)n1 + (1)n . 0 1 2 n1 n

3. RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

DEFINITION: Rational numbers are all numbers of the form p , where p and q are integers and q = 0. q

EXAMPLE:

1 5 50 , , 2, 0, , etc. 2 3 10

NOTATIONS: N = all natural numbers, that is, 1, 2, 3, . . . Z = all integer numbers, that is, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . Q = all rational numbers R = all real numbers

DEFINITION: A number which is not rational is said to be irrational.

PROBLEM 1: Prove that

2 is irrational. 2 is rational, that is p 2= , q

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

where p and q are integers and q = 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then 2= p2 q2 2q 2 = p2 . (3.1)

Since 2q 2 is even, it follows that p2 is even. Then p is also even (in fact, if p is odd, then p2 is odd). This means that there exists k Z such that p = 2k. Substituting (3.2) into (3.1), we get 2q 2 = (2k )2 2q 2 = 4k 2 q 2 = 2k 2 . (3.2)

Since 2k 2 is even, it follows that q 2 is even. Then q is also even. This is a contradiction.

PROBLEM 2: Prove that

4 is irrational. 3 4 is rational, that is 3 p 4= , q

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

where p and q are integers and q = 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then 4= p3 q3 4q 3 = p3 . (3.3)

Since 4q 3 is even, it follows that p3 is even. Then p is also even (in fact, if p is odd, then p3 is odd). This means that there exists k Z such that p = 2k. Substituting (3.4) into (3.3), we get 4q 3 = (2k )3 4q 3 = 8k 3 q 3 = 2k 3 . (3.4)

Since 2k 3 is even, it follows that q 3 is even. Then q is also even. This is a contradiction.

PROBLEM 3: Prove that

6 is irrational. 6 is rational, that is p 6= , q

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

where p and q are integers and q = 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then 6= p2 q2 6q 2 = p2 . (3.5)

Since 6q 2 is even, it follows that p2 is even. Then p is also even (in fact, if p is odd, then p2 is odd). This means that there exists k Z such that p = 2k. Substituting (3.6) into (3.5), we get 6q 2 = (2k )2 6q 2 = 4k 2 3q 2 = 2k 2 . (3.6)

Since 2k 2 is even, it follows that 3q 2 is even. Then q is also even (in fact, if q is odd, then 3q 2 is odd). This is a contradiction.

PROBLEM 4: Prove that

1 2 + 5 is irrational. 3 1 2 + 5 is rational, that is 3 1 p 2+5= , 3 q

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

where p and q are integers and q = 0. Then 2= 3(p 5q ) . q

Since

2 is irrational and

3(p 5q ) is rational, we obtain a contradiction. q

PROBLEM 5: Prove that log5 2 is irrational. Proof: Assume to the contrary that log5 2 is rational, that is p log5 2 = , q where p and q are integers and q = 0. Then 5p/q = 2 5p = 2q .

Since 5p is odd and 2q is even, we obtain a contradiction.

4. DIVISION ALGORITHM
PROBLEM: Prove that 3 is irrational. 3 is rational, that is p 3= , q

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

where p and q are integers and q = 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then 3= p2 q2 3q 2 = p2 .

Since 3q 2 is divisible by 3, it follows that p2 is divisible by 3. Then p is also divisible by 3 (in fact, if p is not divisible by 3, then ...??? THEOREM (DIVISION ALGORITHM): For any integers a and b with a = 0 there exist unique integers q and r such that b = aq + r, where 0 r < |a|.

The integers q and r are called the quotient and the reminder respectively. EXAMPLE 1: Let b = 49 and a = 4, then 49 = 4 12 + 1, so the quotient is 12 and the reminder is 1. REMARK: We can also write 49 as 3 12 + 13, but in this case 13 is not a reminder, since it is NOT less than 3. EXAMPLE 2: Let a = 2. Since 0 r < 2, then for any integer number b we have ONLY TWO possibilities: b = 2q or b = 2q + 1. So, thanks to the Division Algorithm we proved that any integer number is either even or odd. EXAMPLE 3: Let a = 3. Since 0 r < 3, then for any integer number b we have ONLY THREE possibilities: b = 3q, b = 3q + 1, or b = 3q + 2. Proof of the Problem: Assume to the contrary that a 3= , b 3 is rational, that is

where a and b are integers and b = 0. Moreover, let a and b have no common divisor > 1. Then 3= a2 b2 3b2 = a2 . (4.1)

Since 3b2 is divisible by 3, it follows that a2 is divisible by 3. Then a is also divisible by 3. In fact, if a is not divisible by 3, then by the Division Algorithm there exists q Z such that a = 3q + 1 or a = 3q + 2. Suppose a = 3q + 1, then a2 = (3q + 1)2 = 9q 2 + 6q + 1 = 3(3q 2 + 2q ) + 1 = 3q + 1,
q

which is not divisible by 3. We get a contradiction. Similarly, if a = 3q + 2, then a2 = (3q + 2)2 = 9q 2 + 12q + 4 = 3(3q 2 + 4q + 1) + 1 = 3q + 1,
q

which is not divisible by 3. We get a contradiction again. So, we proved that if a2 is divisible by 3, then a is also divisible by 3. This means that there exists q Z such that a = 3q. (4.2) Substituting (4.2) into (4.1), we get 3b2 = (3q )2 3b2 = 9q 2 b2 = 3q 2 .

Since 3q 2 is divisible by 3, it follows that b2 is divisible by 3. Then b is also divisible by 3 by the arguments above. This is a contradiction.

10

5. GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR AND EUCLIDS LEMMA

PROBLEM: Prove that 101 is irrational. 101 is rational, that is a 101 = , b

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

where a and b are integers and b = 0. Moreover, let a and b have no common divisor > 1. Then 101 = a2 b2 101b2 = a2 .

Since 101b2 is divisible by 101, it follows that a2 is divisible by 101. Then a is also divisible by 101. In fact, if a is not divisible by 101, then by the Division Algorithm there exists q Z such that a = 101q + 1 or a = 101q + 2 or a = 101q + 3 or a = 101q + 4 . . .???

DEFINITION: If a and b are integers with a = 0, we say that a is a divisor of b if there exists an integer q such that b = aq. We also say that a divides b and we denote this by a | b. EXAMPLE: We have: 4 | 12, since 12 = 4 3 4 | 15, since 15 = 4 3.75 DEFINITION: A common divisor of nonzero integers a and b is an integer c such that c | a and c | b. The greatest common divisor (gcd) of a and b, denoted by (a, b), is the largest common divisor of integers a and b. EXAMPLE: The common divisors of 24 and 84 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. Hence, (24, 84) = 12. Similarly, looking at sets of common divisors, we nd that (15, 81) = 3, (100, 5) = 5, (17, 25) = 1, (17, 289) = 17, etc.

THEOREM: If a and b are nonzero integers, then their gcd is a linear combination of a and b, that is there exist integer numbers s and t such that sa + tb = (a, b). Proof: Let d be the least positive integer that is a linear combination of a and b. We write d = sa + tb, 11 (5.1)

where s and t are integers. We rst show that d | a. By the Division Algorithm we have a = dq + r, where 0 r < d. From this and (5.1) it follows that r = a dq = a q (sa + tb) = a qsa qtb = (1 qs)a + (qt)b. This shows that r is a linear combination of a and b. Since 0 r < d, and d is the least positive linear combination of a and b, we conclude that r = 0, and hence d | a. In a similar manner, we can show that d | b. We have shown that d is a common divisor of a and b. We now show that d is the greatest common divisor of a and b. Assume to the contrary that (a, b) = d and d > d.

Since d | a, d | b, and d = sa + tb, it follows that d | d, therefore d d. We obtain a contradiction. So, d is the greatest common divisor of a and b and this concludes the proof. DEFINITION: An integer n 2 is called prime if its only positive divisors are 1 and n. Otherwise, n is called composite.

EXAMPLE: Numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59 . . . are prime. THEOREM (Euclids Lemma): If p is a prime and p | ab, then p | a or p | b. More generally, if a prime p divides a product a1 a2 . . . an , then it must divide at least one of the factors ai . Proof: Assume that p | a. We must show that p | b. By the theorem above, there are integers s and t with sp + ta = (p, a). Since p is prime and p | a, we have (p, a) = 1, and so sp + ta = 1. Multiplying both sides by b, we get spb + tab = b. Since p | ab and p | spb, it follows that p | (spb + tab). This and (5.2) give p | b. This completes the proof of the rst part of the theorem. The second part (generalization) easily follows by induction on n 2. (5.2)

COROLLARY: If p is a prime and p | a2 , then p | a. Proof: Put a = b in Euclids Lemma. 12

 THEOREM: Let p be a prime. Then p is irrational. Proof: Assume to the contrary that p is rational, that is a p= , b

where a and b are integers and b = 0. Moreover, let a and b have no common divisor > 1. Then p= a2 b2 pb2 = a2 . (5.3)

Since pb2 is divisible by p, it follows that a2 is divisible by p. Then a is also divisible by p by the Corollary above. This means that there exists q Z such that a = pq. Substituting (5.4) into (5.3), we get pb2 = (pq )2 b2 = pq 2 . Since pq 2 is divisible by p, it follows that b2 is divisible by p. Then b is also divisible by p by the Corollary above. This is a contradiction. (5.4)

PROBLEM: Prove that

101 is irrational.

Proof: Since 101 is prime, the result immediately follows from the Theorem above. PROBLEM: Prove that if a and b are positive integers with (a, b) = 1, then (a2 , b2 ) = 1 for all n Z+ . Proof 1: Assume to the contrary that (a2 , b2 ) = n > 1. Then there is a prime p such that p | a2 and p | b2 . From this by Euclids Lemma it follows that p | a and p | b, therefore (a, b) p. This is a contradiction. Proof 2 (Hint): Use the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic below.

13

6. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC

THEOREM (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic): Assume that an integer a 2 has factorizations a = p1 . . . pm and a = q1 . . . qn , where the ps and q s are primes. Then n = m and the q s may be reindexed so that qi = pi for all i. Proof: We prove by induction on , the larger of m and n, i. e. Step 1. If Step 2. Suppose the theorem holds for some Step 3. We prove it for = k + 1. Let a = p 1 . . . p m = q1 . . . qn , where max(m, n) = k + 1. (6.2) From (6.1) it follows that pm | q1 . . . qn , therefore by Euclids Lemma there is some qi such that pm | qi . But qi , being a prime, has no positive divisors other than 1, therefore pm = qi . Reindexing, we may assume that qn = pm . Canceling, we have p1 . . . pm1 = q1 . . . qn1 . Moreover, max(m 1, n 1) = k by (6.2). Therefore by step 2 q s may be reindexed so that qi = pi for all i; plus, m 1 = n 1, hence m = n. COROLLARY: If a 2 is an integer, then there are unique distinct primes pi and unique integers ei > 0 such that en 1 a = pe 1 . . . pn . Proof: Just collect like terms in a prime factorization. EXAMPLE: 120 = 23 3 5. PROBLEM: Prove that log3 5 is irrational. Proof: Assume to the contrary that log3 5 is rational, that is p log3 5 = , q where p and q are integers and q = 0. Then 3p/q = 5 3p = 5q , (6.1) = k 1. = max(m, n). = 1, then the given equation in a = p1 = q1 , and the result is obvious.

which contradicts the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

14

7. EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
THEOREM (Euclidean Algorithm): Let a and b be positive integers. Then there is an algorithm that nds (a, b). LEMMA: If a, b, q, r are integers and a = bq + r, then (a, b) = (b, r). Proof: We have (a, b) = (bq + r, b) = (b, r). Proof of the Theorem: The idea is to keep repeating the division algorithm. We have: a = bq1 + r1 , b = r 1 q2 + r 2 , r 1 = r 2 q3 + r 3 , r 2 = r 3 q4 + r 4 , ... rn2 = rn1 qn + rn , rn1 = rn qn+1 , therefore (a, b) = (b, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r3 ) = (r3 , r4 ) = . . . = (rn2 , rn1 ) = (rn1 , rn ) = rn . (rn2 , rn1 ) = (rn1 , rn ) (a, b) = (b, r1 ) (b, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ) (r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r3 ) (r2 , r3 ) = (r3 , r4 )

(rn1 , rn ) = rn ,

PROBLEM: Find (326, 78). Solution: By the Euclidean Algorithm we have 326 = 78 4 + 14 78 = 14 5 + 8 14 = 8 1 + 6 8=61+2 6=23 therefore (326, 78) = 2. PROBLEM: Find (252, 198). Solution: By the Euclidean Algorithm we have 252 = 198 1 + 54 198 = 54 3 + 36 54 = 36 1 + 18 36 = 18 2 therefore (252, 198) = 18. 15

PROBLEM: Find (4361, 42371). Solution: By the Euclidean Algorithm we have 42371 = 9 4361 + 3122 4361 = 1 3122 + 1239 3122 = 2 1239 + 644 1239 = 1 644 + 595 644 = 1 595 + 49 595 = 12 49 + 7 49 = 7 7 + 0, therefore (4361, 42371) = 7.
f1 fn en 1 THEOREM: Let a = pe 1 . . . pn and b = p1 . . . pn be positive integers. Then

(a, b) = p1

min(e1 ,f1 )

en ,fn ) . . . pmin( . n

EXAMPLE: Since 720 = 24 32 5 and 2100 = 22 3 52 7, we have: (720, 2100) = 22 3 5 = 60. PROBLEM: Let a Z. Prove that (2a + 3, a + 2) = 1. Proof: By the Lemma above we have (2a + 3, a + 2) = (a + 1 + a + 2, a + 2) = (a + 1, a + 2) = (a + 1, a + 1 + 1) = (a + 1, 1) = 1. PROBLEM: Let a Z. Prove that (7a + 2, 10a + 3) = 1. Proof: By the Lemma above we have (7k + 2, 10k + 3) = (7k + 2, 7k + 2 + 3k + 1) = (7k + 2, 3k + 1) = (6k + 2 + k, 3k + 1) = (k, 3k + 1) = (k, 1) = 1.

16

8. FERMATS LITTLE THEOREM

Theorem (Fermats Little Theorem): Let p be a prime. We have p | np n for any integer n 1. Proof 1: STEP 1: For n=1 (8.1) is true, since p | 1p 1. STEP 2: Suppose (8.1) is true for some n = k 1, that is p | k p k. STEP 3: Prove that (8.1) is true for n = k + 1, that is p | (k + 1)p (k + 1). Lemma: Let p be a prime and be an integer with 1 p 1. Then p| Proof: We have p therefore = p! !( + 1) . . . p ( + 1) . . . p = = , !(p )! !(p )! (p )! p (p )! = ( + 1) . . . p. p p . (8.1)

Form this it follows that p| hence by Euclids Lemma p divides p| p . (k + 1)p (k + 1) = kp + p

(p )!,

or (p )!. It is easy to see that p | (p )!. Therefore

We have

p p p1 p p2 k + k + ... + k+1k1 1 2 p1 p p1 p p2 p k + k + ... + k. 1 2 p1 div. by p by Lemma

kp k + St. 2 div. by p

17

9. CONGRUENCES
DEFINITION: Let m be a positive integer. Then integers a and b are congruent modulo m, denoted by a b mod m, if m | (a b). EXAMPLE: 3 1 mod 2, PROPERTIES: Let m be a positive integer and let a, b, c, d be integers. Then 1. a a mod m 2. If a b mod m, then b a mod m. 3. If a b mod m and b c mod m, then a c mod m. 4. (a) If a qm + r mod m, then a r mod m. (b) Every integer a is congruent mod m to exactly one of 0, 1, . . . , m 1. 5. If a b mod m and c d mod m, then a c b d mod m and ac bd mod m. 5 . If a b mod m, then a c b c mod m and ac bc mod m. 5 . If a b mod m, then an bn mod m for any n Z+ . 6. If (c, m) = 1 and ac bc mod m, then a b mod m. 6 4 mod 2, 14 0 mod 7, 25 16 mod 9, 43 27 mod 35.

Proof 2 of Fermats Little Theorem: We distinguish two cases. Case A: Let p | n, then, obviously, p | np n, and we are done. Case B: Let p | n. Since p is prime, we have (p, n) = 1. Consider the following numbers: n, 2n, 3n, . . . , (p 1)n. 18 (9.1)

We have

n r1 mod p 2n r2 mod p 3n r3 mod p ... (p 1)n rp1 mod p, (9.2)

where 0 ri p 1. Moreover, ri = 0, since otherwise p | in, and therefore by Euclidd Lemma p | i or p | n. But this is impossible, since p > i and p | n. So, 1 ri p 1. From (9.2) by property 5 we have n 2n 3n . . . (p 1)n r1 r2 . . . rp1 mod p (p 1)!np1 r1 r2 . . . rp1 mod p. Lemma: We have r1 r2 . . . rp1 = (p 1)!. Proof: We rst show that r1 , r2 , . . . , rp1 are all distinct. (9.6) (9.5) (9.4) (9.3)

In fact, assume to the contrary that there are some ri and rj with ri = rj . Then by (9.2) we have in jn mod p, therefore by property 6 with (9.1) we get i j mod p, which is impossible. This contradiction proves (9.6). By the Lemma we have r1 r2 . . . rp1 = (p 1)!. (9.7) By (9.4) and (9.7) we obtain (p 1)!np1 (p 1)! mod p. Since (p, (p 1)!) = 1, from this by by property 6 we get np1 1 mod p, hence np n mod p by property 4 . This means that np n is divisible by p. COROLLARY: Let p be a prime. Then np1 1 mod p for any integer n 1 with (n, p) = 1. THEOREM: If (a, m) = 1, then, for every integer b, the congruence ax b mod m 19 (9.8)

has exactly one solution x bs mod m, where s is such number that as 1 mod m. (9.10) Proof (Sketch): We show that (9.9) is the solution of (9.8). In fact, if we multiply (9.9) by a and (9.10) by b (we can do that by property 5 ), we get ax abs mod m and bsa b mod m, which imply (9.8) by property 3. (9.9)

Problems
Problem 1: Find all solutions of the congruence 2x 1 mod 3. Solution: We rst note that (2, 3) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since 2 2 1 mod 3, we get x 1 2 2 mod 3.

Problem 2: Find all solutions of the following congruence 2x 5 mod 7. Solution: We rst note that (2, 7) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since 2 4 1 mod 7, we get x 5 4 6 mod 7.

Problem 3: Find all solutions of the congruence 3x 4 mod 8. Solution: We rst note that (3, 8) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since 3 3 1 mod 8, we get x 4 3 12 4 mod 8.

Problem 4: Find all solutions of the following congruence 2x 5 mod 8. 20

Solution: Since (2, 8) = 2, we cant apply the theorem above directly. We now note that 2x 5 mod 8 is equivalent to 2x 8y = 5, which is impossible, since the left-hand side is divisible by 2, whereas the right-hand side is not. So, this equation has no solutions.

Problem 5: Find all solutions of the congruence 8x 7 mod 18. Solution: Since (8, 18) = 2, we cant apply the theorem above directly. We now note that 8x 7 mod 18 is equivalent to 8x 18y = 7, which is impossible, since the left-hand side is divisible by 2, whereas the right-hand side is not. So, this equation has no solutions.

Problem 6: Find all solutions of the following congruence 4x 2 mod 6. Solution: Since (4, 6) = 2, we cant apply the theorem above directly again. However, canceling out 2 (think about that!), we obtain 2x 1 mod 3. Note that (2, 3) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above to the new equation. Since 2 2 1 mod 3, we get x 1 2 2 mod 3.

Problem 7: Find all solutions of the congruence 6x 3 mod 15. Solution: Since (6, 15) = 3, we cant apply the theorem above directly again. However, canceling out 3, we obtain 2x 1 mod 5. Note that (2, 5) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above to the new equation. Since 2 3 1 mod 5, we get x 1 3 3 mod 5.

Problem 8: Find all solutions of the congruence 9x + 23 28 mod 25. 21

Solution: We rst rewrite this congruence as 9x 5 mod 25. Note that (9, 25) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since 9 14 1 mod 25, we get x 5 14 70 20 mod 25.

Problem 9: What is the last digit of 34527179399 ? Solution: It is obvious that 345271 1 mod 10, therefore by property 5 we have 34527179399 179399 1 mod 10. This means that the last digit of 34527179399 is 1.

Problem 10: What is the last digit of 43214321 ? Solution: It is obvious that 4321 1 mod 10, therefore by property 5 we have 43214321 14321 1 mod 10. This means that the last digit is 1.

Problem 11: Prove that there is no perfect square a2 which is congruent to 2 or 3 mod 4. Solution 1: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0 or 1 mod 2. Consider all these cases and use property 4(a): If a 0 mod 2, then a = 2k, therefore a2 = 4k 2 , hence a2 0 mod 4. If a 1 mod 2, then a = 2k + 1, therefore a2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1, hence a2 1 mod 4. So, a2 0 or 1 mod 4. Therefore a2 2 or 3 mod 4. Solution 2: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, 2, or 3 mod 4. Consider all these cases and use property 5 : If a 0 mod 4, then a2 02 0 mod 4. If a 1 mod 4, then a2 12 1 mod 4. If a 2 mod 4, then a2 22 0 mod 4. If a 3 mod 4, then a2 32 1 mod 4. So, a2 0 or 1 mod 4. Therefore a2 2 or 3 mod 4. 22

Problem 12: Prove that there is no integers a such that a4 is congruent to 2 or 3 mod 4. Solution: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, 2, or 3 mod 4. Consider all these cases and use property 5 : If a 0 mod 4, then a4 04 0 mod 4. If a 1 mod 4, then a4 14 1 mod 4. If a 2 mod 4, then a4 24 0 mod 4. If a 3 mod 4, then a4 34 1 mod 4. So, a4 0 or 1 mod 4. Therefore a4 2 or 3 mod 4.

Problem 13: Prove that there is no perfect square a2 whose last digit is 2, 3, 7 or 8. Solution: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, 2, . . . , 8 or 9 mod 10. Consider all these cases and use property 5 : If a 0 mod 10, then a2 02 0 mod 10. If a 1 mod 10, then a2 12 1 mod 10. If a 2 mod 10, then a2 22 4 mod 10. If a 3 mod 10, then a2 32 9 mod 10. If a 4 mod 10, then a2 42 6 mod 10. If a 5 mod 10, then a2 52 5 mod 10. If a 6 mod 10, then a2 62 6 mod 10. If a 7 mod 10, then a2 72 9 mod 10. If a 8 mod 10, then a2 82 4 mod 10. If a 9 mod 10, then a2 92 1 mod 10. So, a2 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 mod 10. Therefore a2 2, 3, 7 or 8 mod 10, and the result follows.

Problem 14: Prove that 444444444444444444443 is not a perfect square. Solution: The last digit is 3, which is impossible by Problem 13.

Problem 15: Prove that 888 . . . 882 is not a perfect square. Solution 1: The last digit is 2, which is impossible by Problem 13. Solution 2: We have 888 . . . 882 = 4k +2. Therefore it is congruent to 2 mod 4 by property 4(a), which is impossible by Problem 11.

Problem 16: Prove that there is no perfect square a2 whose last digits are 85. Solution: It follows from problem 13 that a2 5 mod 10 only if a 5 mod 10. Therefore a2 85 mod 100 only if a 5, 15, 25, . . . , 95 mod 100. If we consider all these cases and use property 5 is the same manner as in problem 13, we will see that a2 25 mod 100. Therefore a2 85 mod 100, and the result follows. 23

Problem 17: Prove that the equation x4 4y = 3 has no solutions in integer numbers. Solution: Rewrite this equation as x4 = 4y + 3, which means that x4 3 mod 4, which is impossible by Problem 12.

Problem 18: Prove that the equation x2 3y = 5 has no solutions in integer numbers. Solution: Rewrite this equation as x2 = 3y + 5, which means that x2 5 2 mod 3. By the property 4(a) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, or 2 mod 3. Consider all these cases and use property 5 : If a 0 mod 3, then a2 02 0 mod 3. If a 1 mod 3, then a2 12 1 mod 3. If a 2 mod 4, then a2 22 1 mod 3. So, a2 0 or 1 mod 3. Therefore a2 2 mod 3.

Problem 19: Prove that the equation 3x2 4y = 5 has no solutions in integer numbers. Solution: Rewrite this equation as 3x2 = 4y + 5, which means that 3x2 5 1 mod 4. On the other hand, by Problem 11 we have x2 0 or 1 mod 4, hence 3x2 0 or 3 mod 4. Therefore x2 1 mod 4. Problem 20: Prove that the equation x2 y 2 = 2002 has no solutions in integer numbers. 24

Solution: By Problem 11 we have x2 0 or 1 mod 4, hence x2 y 2 0, 1 or -1 mod 4. On the other hand, 2002 2 mod 4. Therefore x2 y 2 2002 mod 4,

Problem 21: Prove that 10 | 1110 1. Solution: We have 11 1 mod 10, therefore by property 5 we get 1110 110 1 mod 10, which means that 10 | 1110 1.

Problem 22: Prove that 10 | 1012003 1. Solution: We have 101 1 mod 10, therefore by property 5 we get 1012003 12003 1 mod 10, which means that 10 | 1012003 1. Problem 23: Prove that 23 | a154 1 for any a Z+ with (a, 23) = 1. Solution: By Fermats Little theorem we have a22 1 mod 23, therefore by property 5 we get a227 17 1 mod 23, and the result follows. Problem 24: Prove that 17 | a80 1 for any a Z+ with (a, 17) = 1. Solution: By Fermats Little theorem we have a16 1 mod 17, therefore by property 5 we get a165 15 1 mod 17, and the result follows.

Problem 25: What is the remainder after dividing 350 by 7? Solution: By Fermats Little theorem we have 36 1 mod 7, therefore by property 5 we get 368 148 1 mod 7, therefore 350 9 2 mod 7.

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10. PERMUTATIONS
DEFINITION: A permutation of a set X is a rearrangement of its elements. EXAMPLE: 1. Let X = {1, 2}. Then there are 2 permutations: 12, 21. 2. Let X = {1, 2, 3}. Then there are 6 permutations: 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321. 3. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then there are 24 permutations: 1234, 2134, 3214, 4231, 1243, 2143, 3241, 4213, 1324, 2314, 3124, 4321, 1342, 2341, 3142, 4312, 1423, 2413, 3421, 4123, 1432 2431 3412 4132

REMARK: One can show that there are exactly n! permutations of the n-element set X. DEFINITION : A permutation of a set X is a one-one correspondence (a bijection) from X to itself. NOTATION: Let X = {1, 2, . . . , n} and : X X be a permutation. It is convenient to describe this function in the following way: = 1 2 ... n (1) (2) . . . (n) .

EXAMPLE: 1 2 2 1 CONCLUSION: For a permutation we can use two dierent notations. For example, 24513 are the same permutations. 1 2 3 4 5 2 4 5 1 3 and 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 3 4 1 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 3 5 4 1 2

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DEFINITION: Let X = {1, 2, . . . , n} and : X X be a permutation. Let i1 , i2 , . . . , ir be distinct numbers from {1, 2, . . . , n}. If (i1 ) = i2 , (i2 ) = i3 , . . . , (ir1 ) = ir , (ir ) = i1 ,

and (i ) = i for other numbers from {1, 2, . . . , n}, then is called an r-cycle. NOTATION: An r-cycle is denoted by (i1 i2 . . . ir ). EXAMPLE: 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 2 3 1 1 2 3 4 4 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 3 5 4 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 2 5 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 5 2 5 4 3 1 = (1) 1 cycle = (1) 1 cycle = (12) 2 cycle = (13) 2 cycle = (123) 3 cycle = (1423) 4 cycle = (13425) 5 cycle = (125) 3 cycle is not a cycle

REMARK: We can use dierent notations for the same cycles. For example, 1 2 3 1 2 3 = (1) = (2) = (3), 1 2 3 2 3 1 = (123) = (231) = (312).

WARNING: Do not confuse notations of a permutation and a cycle. For example, (123) = 123. Instead, (123) = 231 and 123 = (1). 27

Composition (Product) Of Permutations

Let = Then = = 1 2 ... n ( (1)) ( (2)) . . . ( (n)) 1 2 ... n ((1)) ((2)) . . . ((n)) , . 1 2 ... n (1) (2) . . . (n) and = 1 2 ... n (1) (2) . . . (n) .

WARNING: In general, = . EXAMPLE: Let = 1 2 3 4 5 5 1 2 4 3 = , = 1 2 3 4 5 4 2 5 1 3 . We have: 1 2 3 4 5 4 1 3 5 2 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 2 1 5

1 2 3 4 5 5 1 2 4 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 2 5 1 3

1 2 3 4 5 4 2 5 1 3 1 2 3 4 5 5 1 2 4 3

REMARK: It is convenient to represent a permutation as the product of circles. EXAMPLE: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 2 6 9 5 7 1 8 4 = (1367)(49)(2)(5)(8) = (1367)(49)

REMARK: One can nd a composition of permutations using circles. EXAMPLE: 1. Let = 1 2 3 2 3 1 = (123), = 1 2 3 2 1 3 = (12)(3) = (12). We have: 1 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2

= (123)(12) = (13)(2) = (13) =

= (12)(123) = (1)(23) = (23) = 28

2. Let = = We have: = (1532)(14)(35) = (1452)(3) = (1452) = 1 2 3 4 5 4 1 3 5 2 1 2 3 4 5 3 4 2 1 5 , 1 2 3 4 5 5 1 2 4 3 1 2 3 4 5 4 2 5 1 3 = (1532)(4) = (1532), = (14)(2)(35) = (14)(35).

= (14)(35)(1532) = (1324)(5) = (1324) =

THEOREM: The inverse of the cycle = (i1 i2 . . . ir ) is the cycle 1 = (ir ir1 . . . i1 ). EXAMPLE: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Let = 5 4 6 1 7 3 2

= (15724)(36). Find 1 . We have: 1 = (42751)(63)

In fact, 1 = (15724)(36)(42751)(63) = (1) and 1 = (42751)(63)(15724)(36) = (1). THEOREM: Every permutation is either a cycle or a product of disjoint (with no common elements) cycles.

Examples
1. Determine which permutations are equal: (a) (12) = 12 (b) (1) = 12 (c) (1)(2) = (1) (d) (12)(34) = (1234) (e) (12)(34) = (123)(234) (f) (12)(34) = (123)(234)(341) 29 (g) (124)(53) = (53)(124) (h) (124)(53) = (124)(35) (i) (124)(53) = (142)(53) (j) (12345) = 12345 (k) (12345) = 23451 (l) (23451) = 23451

2. Factor the following permutations into the product of cycles: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 5 4 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5 3 10 4 11 12 6 9 1 2 8 7 = (4 5)

= (1 5 11 8 9)(2 3 10)(6 12 7) = (3 12 10)(4 7 8)(5 9)(6 14 13 11)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 12 7 9 14 8 4 5 3 6 10 11 13 15 3. Find the following products:

(12)(34)(56)(1234) = (24)(56) (12)(23)(34)(45) = (12345) (12)(34)(56) = (12)(34)(56) (123)(234)(345) = (12)(45) 4. Let = (135)(24), = (124)(35). We have: (a) = (143) (b) = (152) (c) 1 = (421)(53) (d) 2004 = (1)

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11. GROUPS
DEFINITION: An operation on a set G is a function : G G G. DEFINITION: A group is a set G which is equipped with an operation and a special element e G, called the identity, such that (i) the associative law holds: for every x, y, z G, x (y z ) = (x y ) z ; (ii) e x = x = x e for all x G; (iii) for every x G, there is x G with x x = e = x x. EXAMPLE: Set N Z Q R R\Q Operation + Operation Additional Condition no no yes yes yes no no no no no for Q \ {0} for R \ {0}

EXAMPLE: Set Z>0 Z0 Q>0 Q0 R>0 R0 Operation + Operation no no no no no no no no yes no yes no

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EXAMPLE: Set {2n : n Z} {2n + 1 : n Z} {3n : n Z} {kn : n Z}, where k N is some xed number {an : n Z}, where a R, a = 0, 1, is some xed number p : p Z, n Z0 2n Operation + Operation yes no no yes yes no yes no no no yes no

EXAMPLE: Set R>0 R>0 Operation a b = a2 b2 no a b = ab no

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