IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSII: EXPRESS BRIEFS, VOL. 60, NO.

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A 1-mW Solar-Energy-Harvesting Circuit Using an Adaptive MPPT With a SAR and a Counter
Hoonki Kim, Student Member, IEEE, Young-Jae Min, Member, IEEE, Chan-Hui Jeong, Student Member, IEEE, Kyu-Young Kim, Student Member, IEEE, Chulwoo Kim, Senior Member, IEEE, and Soo-Won Kim, Member, IEEE

AbstractThis brief presents an energy-harvesting system that uses an adaptive maximum power point tracking (MPPT) circuit for 1-mW solar-powered wireless sensor networks. The proposed MPPT circuit exploits a successive approximation register and a counter to solve the tradeoff problem between a fast transient response and a small steady-state oscillation with low-power consumption. The proposed energy-harvesting circuit is fabricated using a 0.35-m CMOS process. The MPPT circuit reduces the transient response time by 76.6%, dissipates only 110 W, and shows MPPT efciency of 99.6%. Index TermsEnergy harvesting, maximum power point tracking (MPPT), solar cell, wireless sensor network (WSN).

Fig. 1. Block diagram of an energy-harvesting system with the MPPT technique.

I. I NTRODUCTION HE RENEWABLE energy generation eld has attracted considerable attention because of its superior advantages in conserving natural resources and for being environmentally safe. Recently, energy-harvesting systems have been widely used by utilizing photovoltaic, thermoelectric, wind turbine, and piezoelectric energy sources to overcome battery limitations and maintenance problems [1][3]. In particular, a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique, which is mainly used in solar-energy-harvesting system, is important to improve the performance of the energy-harvesting system [2]. An energy-harvesting system that employs the MPPT technique is shown in Fig. 1. It extracts maximum power from a solar cell by matching the impedance between the solar cell and the power converter. The load impedance of the energy source can be controlled by the duty ratio of the power converter. Thus, the MPPT circuit adjusts the duty ratio of the power converter to maximize the generated power of the solar cell. The key features of an MPPT circuit, such as its transient response, steady-state oscillation, and power consumption, directly affect the overall performance of the energy-harvesting system. However, these features suffer from a tradeoff problem. In several MPPT techniques such as perturb-and-observe
Manuscript received January 17, 2013; accepted March 24, 2013. Date of publication May 7, 2013; date of current version June 12, 2013. This work was supported by the Seoul R&BD Program under Grant 10920. This brief was recommended by Associate Editor K.-H. Chen. H. Kim, C.-H. Jeong, C. Kim, and S.-W. Kim are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea (e-mail: khkm191@asic.korea.ac.kr; ckim@korea.ac.kr; swkim@korea.ac.kr). Y.-J. Min is with the Memory Division, Samsung Electronics, Hwasung 445-701, Korea (e-mail: yj2012.min@samsung.com). K.-Y. Kim is with the DRAM Development Division, SK Hynix, Inc., Icheon 467-701, Korea (e-mail: kyuyoung1.kim@skhynix.com). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this brief are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TCSII.2013.2258262

(P&O) and hill climbing (HC) [2][4], tracking operations always work even if the operating point reaches the maximum power point (MPP), resulting in an oscillation around the MPP at the steady-state condition. To reduce the oscillation at the steady state, a small perturbation step size is required. However, the small step size causes a problem of slow transient response. Although some MPPT techniques can solve this problem, they dissipate a relatively large power because of the high implementation complexity of MPPT circuits [5], [6]. The MPPT circuit is one of the power-hungry blocks in low-power applications, which accounts for over 30% of the generated power at the microwatt power level [4]. The proportion of the MPPT circuit power consumption in the energyharvesting system considerably increases as the maximum available power of the energy source decreases. In particular, the energy-harvesting source for wireless sensor network (WSN) applications generates extremely low energy, since the WSN applications suffer from mobility and area limitations [7], [8]. In this application, the MPPT circuit has to consume low power and solve the tradeoff problem between the transient response and the steady-state oscillation for high MPPT efciency. Therefore, this brief proposes an adaptive MPPT circuit using a successive approximation register (SAR) and a counter for 1-mW solar-powered WSNs to solve the tradeoff problem between the transient response and the steady-state oscillation with simple implementation complexity. The remainder of this brief is organized follows. Section II reviews the conventional MPPT techniques and introduces our proposed technique. The implementation and experimental results of the solarenergy-harvesting system are described in Section III. Finally, Section IV concludes this brief. II. P ROPOSED S OLAR -E NERGY-H ARVESTING S YSTEM A. Review of the State-of-the-Art MPPT Techniques Several MPPT techniques for a solar-energy-harvesting system have been presented. The performance improvement is

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TABLE I K EY F EATURES OF THE MPPT A LGORITHMS

determined by the tracking algorithm, which should be chosen according to the applications and energy sources. The key features of the MPPT algorithms are summarized in Table I. The fractional open-circuit voltage (FOCV) algorithm is generally used in low-power applications [2], [3]. This algorithm has low implementation complexity in the absence of digital signal processors (DSPs). Since the linear factor depends on the characteristics of the used solar cell and the algorithm is not a true MPPT technique, the MPPT efciency is relatively low. The fuzzy logic control and the neural network algorithm exhibit a good performance for MPPT efciency [2], [6]. However, these techniques require user-dependent rule-based tables, which are implemented with the building of the statistic model. Since it results in large computational burden and complex DSPs, they are not suitable for the low-power applications. The P&O and HC algorithms [2], [4], which can be implemented without DSPs, are suitable for low-power applications owing to simplicity and ease of implementation, except for the tradeoff problem between the steady-state oscillation and the transient response. Although the adaptive P&O or incremental conductance technique, which uses a variable perturbation step size based on the magnitude of the power variation between the current and previous states, solves the tradeoff problem, it requires additional computation logic to calculate the rate of change of PPV [5]. In addition, the scaling factor for perturbation adaptation is a user-dependent parameter and needs to be optimized for a given system and operating condition. In order to overcome these limitations, the proposed MPPT algorithm has the same functionality as that of the adaptive MPPT without the additional complex logic and consumes low power using an analog-based circuit implementation. B. Proposed MPPT Algorithm Using a SAR and a Counter The SAR algorithm can be utilized to adjust the duty ratio of the power converter in the MPPT operation to achieve both fast transient response and low-power consumption [9]. It is characterized by simplicity of implementation and fast speed to estimate the value of an unknown quantity. However, the SAR suffers from two limitations for its direct application to the MPPT algorithm. At the start of the SAR operation, the decision error in the perturbation direction can occur owing to the large

Fig. 2. Power tracking graph (irradiance step change at t1 and at t2 ). (a) Conventional MPPT algorithm. (b) Proposed MPPT algorithm.

step size of the duty ratio, which makes a signicant difference between the nal operating point and the MPP. In addition, the SAR does not operate if the irradiance changes after the SAR operation are completed. Although periodic restart of the SAR operation can solve this problem, it degrades the MPPT efciency under the condition of a small change in irradiance. These limitations can be overcome using the proposed comparison method of two adjacent operating points and a hybrid mode of the SAR and counter operation, as shown in Fig. 2. Since the decision error in the perturbation direction occurs from the comparison of two operating points that are far away, it can be avoided by comparing two operating points that are adjacent. The initial two adjacent operating points start at half of the full range. Comparison of two adjacent operating points determines the perturbation direction, and the next two adjacent operating points move toward the determined direction using a step size based on the SAR operation. The initial step size of a duty ratio is a quarter of the full range, and the next step size is set to half the current step size. It operates similar to the adaptive MPPT algorithm without the additional computation logic and optimization of the scaling factor. Furthermore, the periodic restarting SAR problem can be overcome using the SAR and counter operation. The conventional small-step-size HC algorithm, which can be implemented by using a digital counter, performs better than the SAR algorithm under the condition of a small change in irradiance, as shown in Fig. 2(a). In our proposed MPPT algorithm, the SAR mode is exploited in the case of a large change in irradiance, and the counter (CNT) mode is selected under the condition of a small change in irradiance, as shown in Fig. 2(b). The CNT mode starts at the end of the SAR operation. If the irradiance is signicantly changed in the CNT mode, the perturbation directions are determined several times in the same direction. In this case, the mode changes from CNT to SAR. Therefore, the proposed adaptive MPPT algorithm can achieve both a fast tracking time and less oscillation at a steady state, without degradation in the MPPT efciency under the condition of a small change in irradiance.

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III. C IRCUIT I MPLEMENTATION A. Circuit Description The proposed energy-harvesting system with an adaptive MPPT for solar-powered WSNs is shown in Fig. 4(a), which consists of a power converter, a voltage-and-current (V&I) sensing circuit, a power comparator, and a SAR+CNT circuit. The power converter utilizes the conventional boost-type dcdc converter and a digital pulsewidth modulator. The V&I sensing circuit measures VPV and IPV , and the power comparator calculates PPV and compares the previous and the current output power of the solar cell. The SAR+CNT circuit decides the perturbation direction and the step size according to the proposed MPPT algorithm. To achieve low-power consumption, MPPT is implemented with simple analog-based circuits. The V&I sensing circuit uses a switched-capacitor integrator, as shown in Fig. 4(b). It uses nonoverlapping clock signals 1 and 2 . When 1 is high, the amplier samples the voltage and current of the solar cell at a sensing resistor RS of 1 . When 2 is high, the amplier integrates the values. After repetition of the integration process, the output of the V&I sensing circuit, i.e., IPV_S and VPV_S , have average values of the voltage and current of the solar cell, respectively. This process reduces the effects of the VP and VN uctuations. When RST is high, the amplier resets the integrated values and prepares to measure the subsequent voltage and current of the solar cell. The power comparator is implemented using the conventional Gilbert-cell analog multiplier, a time-interleaved sample-and-hold circuit, and a dynamic comparator [9]. The analog multiplier calculates the output power of the solar cell from IPV_S and VPV_S . The time-interleaved sample-and-hold circuit stores the previous and the current output power of the solar cell according to CKSH . The result of power comparison PCMP is updated at the rising edge of CKCMP . Fig. 4(c) shows the SAR+CNT circuit for the proposed adaptive MPPT. In the SAR mode, the SAR logic operates and tracks the MPP. At the end of the SAR mode, the SAR logic generates a counterenable signal CNTEN to start the CNT mode. In the CNT mode, the counter logic operates and tracks the MPP with a small step size. The mode controller monitors the condition for the end of the CNT mode and then initializes the SAR logic. The detailed circuit and timing diagrams of the SAR+CNT circuit are shown in Fig. 4(d)(f). When the SAR-enable signal SAREN is low, the SAR logic is activated. In the SAR mode, DCTL is determined by using the SAR algorithm at the rising edge of CKSAR . At the end of the SAR mode, CNTEN is set to low, and the counter logic is activated. If PCMP is set to high for more than four times in a row in the CNT mode, SAREN is set to high to reset the SAR logic. Furthermore, CNTEN is changed to high to disable the counter logic, and SAREN is also changed to low to initialize the SAR logic. SMUX selects the output values of the SAR and the counter as DCTL . B. Experimental Result The proposed circuit was implemented and fabricated in a 0.35-m CMOS process. A microphotograph of the fabricated

Fig. 3.

Flowchart for the proposed adaptive MPPT algorithm.

Fig. 3 depicts the ow diagram of the proposed N -bit adaptive MPPT algorithm using the SAR and CNT modes. DCTL is the N -bit digitized duty ratio of the power converter, and k is the number of repetitions for the limitation in the same perturbation direction. PPV (t) is the output power of the solar cell at time t. The proposed algorithm begins to operate in the SAR mode. We assume that a 4-bit DCTL is used in the MPPT operation. The initial DCTL expressed as a binary number is 1000. It begins by measuring and comparing the output power of two adjacent operating points, which are PPV (t 1) at DCTL = 1000 and PPV (t) at DCTL = 1001. The comparison result of PPV (t) and PPV (t 1) decides the perturbation direction. The step size is equal to 2N i . In this case, the step size expressed as a binary number is equal to 0100. If PPV (t) > PPV (t 1), the next two adjacent operating points are located at DCTL = 1100 and 1101. By contrast, if PPV (t) < PPV (t 1), the next two adjacent operating points are located at DCTL = 0100 and 0101. The next step size is 0010. This SAR operation starts to decide the most signicant bit to a least signicant bit. When the SAR operation is completed, the operating point of the solar cell is located at the MPP, and the algorithm enters the CNT mode. In the CNT mode, the step size is xed at the minimum value. If the perturbations are decided more than k times in the same direction, the CNT mode changes to the SAR mode. The tracking time can be represented by the number of MPPT operation cycles. The proposed adaptive MPPT algorithm with an N -bit SAR and a counter requires k + 2N 1 cycles to reach the MPP, whereas the conventional small-step-size HC algorithm with an N -bit digital counter requires 2N cycles to reach the MPP in the worst case.

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Fig. 4. Circuit diagram of the (a) proposed energy-harvesting system with an adaptive MPPT circuit for solar-powered WSNs, (b) voltage-and-current sensing circuit, (c) SAR+CNT circuit, (d) mode controller, (e) 6-bit SAR logic, and (f) timing diagram of the SAR+CNT circuit.

Fig. 5. Chip microphotograph.

chip is shown in Fig. 5. The proposed circuit, excluding the external inductor, occupied an area of 3.15 mm2 . The measured results of the tracking operation of the conventional HC and the proposed algorithms are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. The frequencies of CKCMP and CKCNT are 1.5 kHz. CKTRACK shows the MPPT time when the irradiance changes. The small-step-size conventional HC algorithm takes 29 cycles to reach the MPP, whereas the large-step-size conventional HC algorithm takes 7 cycles to reach the MPP. However, the large-step-size conventional HC algorithm has

Fig. 6. Measured power tracking waveforms. (a) Conventional small-step-size HC algorithm. (b) Conventional large-step-size HC algorithm.

a large oscillation at the steady state, as shown in Fig. 6(b). The proposed algorithm tracks the MPP within 15 cycles in the worst case and has the same steady-state oscillation as that of

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HC algorithm. The measurement results of the proposed chip are summarized in Table II. IV. C ONCLUSION A 1-mW solar-energy-harvesting circuit using an adaptive MPPT for WSNs has been presented in this brief. To achieve a fast transient response, a small steady-state oscillation, and low-power consumption, the adaptive MPPT using a SAR and a counter was proposed, and the system was implemented using a simple analog-based circuit. The proposed MPPT circuit has high MPPT efciency of 99.6%. The MPPT circuit dissipates 110 W of power. The V&I sensing circuit and the multiplier in the power comparator each consume 40% of total power. Since the operating frequency of the MPPT is low (fCKCMP = 1.5 kHz) and the results of the power comparator do not need to be always valid, the power consumption of the MPPT circuit can be reduced by adopting the sleep mode, which activates the operation only for a short time [11]. Furthermore, the proposed system can be extended to portable and biomedical applications. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE II P ERFORMANCE C OMPARISON

Fig. 7. Measured power tracking waveforms of the proposed MPPT algorithm. (a) Large irradiance variation. (b) Small irradiance variation.

The authors would like to thank the IC Design Education Center for the fabrication of the chip. R EFERENCES
[1] C. Alippi, R. Camplani, C. Galperti, and M. Roveri, A robust, adaptive, solar-powered WSN framework for aquatic environmental monitoring, IEEE Sensors J., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 4555, Jan. 2011. [2] T. Esram and P. L. Chapman, Comparison of photovoltaic array maximum power point tracking techniques, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 439449, Jun. 2007. [3] J. Kim, J. Kim, and C. Kim, A regulated charge pump with a lowpower integrated optimum power point tracking algorithm for indoor solar energy harvesting, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II, Exp. Briefs, vol. 58, no. 12, pp. 802806, Dec. 2011. [4] Y. Qiu, C. V. Liempd, B. O. H. Veld, G. Blanken, and C. V. Hoof, 5 W-to-10 mW input power range inductive boost converter for indoor photovoltaic energy harvesting with integrated maximum power point tracking algorithm, in Proc. IEEE Int. Solid-State Circuits Conf. Dig. Tech. Papers, Feb. 2011, pp. 118120. [5] F. Liu, S. Duan, F. Liu, B. Liu, and Y. Kang, A variable step size INC MPPT method for PV systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 26222628, Jul. 2008. [6] B. N. Alajmi, K. H. Ahmed, S. J. Finney, and B. W. Williams, Fuzzylogic-control approach of a modied hill-climbing method for maximum power point in microgrid standalone photovoltaic system, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 10221030, Apr. 2011. [7] F. I. Simjee and P. H. Chou, Efcient charging of supercapacitors for extended lifetime of wireless sensor nodes, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 15261536, May 2008. [8] D. Dondi, A. Bertacchini, D. Brunelli, L. Larcher, and L. Benini, Modeling and optimization of a solar energy harvester system for self-powered wireless sensor networks, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 27592766, Jul. 2008. [9] H. Kim, S. Kim, C.-K. Kwon, Y.-J. Min, C. Kim, and S.-W. Kim, An energy-efcient fast maximum power point tracking circuit in a 800 W photovoltaic energy harvester, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 29272935, Jun. 2013. [10] R. Brndlinger, N. Henze, H. Hberlin, B. Burger, A. Bergmann, and F. Baumgartner, prEN 50530The new European standard for performance characterization of PV inverters, in Proc. 24th Eur. Photovolt. Sol. Energy Conf., Sep. 2009, pp. 31053109. [11] B.-N. Fang and J.-T. Wu, A 10-bit 300-MS/s pipelined ADC with digital calibration and digital bias generation, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 670683, Mar. 2013.

the small-step-size conventional HC algorithm. In addition, it takes 2 or 3 cycles to track the MPP in the case of a small change in irradiance. The proposed MPPT circuit, including the V&I sensing circuit, the power comparator circuit, and the SAR+CNT circuit, dissipates 110 W of power. The MPPT efciency is expressed as MPPT =
TM PPV (t)dt 0 TM PMPP (t)dt 0

(1)

where PMPP is the ideal maximum PV power at MPP, and the measuring period TM is 300 s [10]. The irradiance condition changes from 300 to 600 W/m2 . The proposed adaptive MPPT using a SAR and a counter logic improves the MPPT efciency from 99.2% to 99.6% and reduces the tracking time (transient response time) by 76.6%, as compared with the conventional