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Over the last several decades, technological advancements have had a huge impact on the telecom industry as well as the consumer. Consumers are moving from the traditional fixed wire line or mobile experience toward fixed/mobile convergence, an expectation that services and information are available anytime, anywhere. This expectation has forced changes in carrier business plans and services: fixed-line operators are expanding their boundaries outside the home or business, while mobile operators are moving into the fixed line voice and broadband business. The goal of both is to capture maximum revenue while trying to meet the customers needs with what is referred to as Quadruple Play: TV, Internet, Telephone, and Mobility. Carrier success depends on providing Quadruple Play services with a low cost per bit, higher (broadband) capacity, increased flexibility, and with global appeal.

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Formalized in December 1998, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is a group of telecommunications associations whose main goal is to make globally applicable specifications for Third Generation (3G) mobile phone systems. 3GPP is responsible for developing global standards for Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and all of its subsequent releases; General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), and Long Term Evolution (LTE).

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The Participant Guide is not a technical book in the traditional, analytical sense. The material and information contained here is subject to change. The following references were used in the development of this course and should be used for most current information.

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To understand where LTE fits into the GSM/UMTS network, lets look at the evolution of GSM and UMTS networks.

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Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) The Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is the most popular 2G standard for mobile communication. It is estimated that over 80% of the global market uses GSM. Standardized in two phases in 1992-1995, GSM initially supported circuit-switched voice services, circuit-switched data at 2.4, 4.8, and 9.6 kbps, and introduced Short Message Service (SMS). GSM Release 96 introduced higher speed circuit-switched data rates. The 2G GSM network uses a 200 kHz air interface, and a Circuit Switched (CS) domain for digital voice/signalling. The CS domain consists of one or more Mobile Switching Centers (MSC) and (possibly) a Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC) to interconnect with the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The Home Location Register (HLR) contains the subscriber records, including authentication information and services associated with a subscriber. The graphic shows an extremely simplified view of GSM, ignoring critical functions such as Visited Location Register (VLR) and service architectures.

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General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Introduced in GSM Release 97, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a 2.5 G packet data network that shares the radio access network with GSM but has a separate Packet Switched (PS) core network. In a GSM/GPRS network, data traffic is forwarded through the PS domain, while voice and SMS traffic goes through the CS domain. GPRS consists of Serving GPRS Support Nodes (SGSN) and Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GGSN). SGSNs and GGSNs support IP mobility tunnels based on the GPRS Tunnelling Protocol (GTP). GPRS has theoretical data rates between 56 kbps and 114 kbps. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) Introduced in Release 99, Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) provides coding and modulation improvements to GPRS that support minimum 3G data rates from 236 kbps to 473 kbps depending on coding and modulation techniques used. EDGE does not introduce any changes to the network other than coding and modulation enhancements to the air interface to increase data speed.

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Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) Release 99 Introduced in Release 99, Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) was designed as the 3G replacement/evolution of GSM/GPRS. UMTS changes the air interface from 200 kHz Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to 5 MHz Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA). Also, the BTS and BSC were replaced by the NodeB and Radio Network Controller . (RNC) While UMTS was designed to coexist with GSM/GPRS, each new 3GPP release from this point forward is referred to as UMTS Release n.

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UMTS Release 4 the MSC with an MSC Server and Media Gateways (MGW). This upgrade to the CS domain dramatically reduced capital and upgrade costs, as well as reducing operational expenses for CS domain trunk circuits. Essentially, an MGW converts PCM voice samples to packet voice, and forwards the voice packets to a terminating MGW over a data circuit. The terminating MGW converts the voice packets back to PCM voice samples, and forwards the voice stream to the PSTN. The MSC Server, also called a soft-switch, controls the MGWs, manages call setup, and handles all signaling requirements. Although the MGW was intended to forward voice packets over IP, Bearer Independent Call Control (BICC) allowed carriers to also use other packet data technologies such as ATM. UMTS R4 does not affect data rates, services, or RAN or CS signaling techniques. The MSC Server and MGWs emulate a traditional MSC. With this release, 3GPP abandoned the annual release format (R97, R98, and so on) and began numbering releases consecutively from 4.

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UMTS Release 5 UMTS Release 5 (R5) introduced big changes to the UMTS network. Beginning in R5, all traffic is transported via the PS domain using IP. Because all traffic is now forwarded by the PS domain, Release 5 removes the Circuit Switched domain from the network architecture. Critical circuit switched functions, such as voice call setup, interconnecting with the PSTN, and so on, are performed by the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS). An R5 compliant UE must communicate with IMS using Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) signaling, and generate and receive voice over IP traffic within the subscriber device. UMTS R5 also introduced High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA); HSDPA increased peak downlink throughput to 14.4 Mbps.

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UMTS Release 6 With the introduction of High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), UMTS Release 6 increased the peak uplink speed to 5.76 Mbps. UMTS R6 also enhanced IMS, and introduced Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Services (MBMS) to support broadcast services such as mobile TV. MBMS offers broadcast and/or multicast, unidirectional, point-to-multipoint, multimedia flows. Broadcast and multicast are two completely different services. A broadcast service is transmitted to all user devices which have the service activated in their equipment. A service provider does not attempt to charge for or limit the broadcast transmission. In contrast, a multicast service is subscription-based. A UE must have subscribed to the service and explicitly joined the multicast group to receive the multicast transmission. A service provider may track, control, and charge for the multicast transmission. Examples of possible MBMS applications include audio/video streaming, audio/video downloading, file downloading, and text/image distribution.

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UMTS Release 7 Along with enhancing IMS, UMTS Release 7 introduced Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) antenna technology and High Speed Packet Access+ (HSPA+). MIMO antenna systems significantly improve radio network throughput and coverage. HSPA+ with 2X2 MIMO increases uplink speeds to 11.5 Mbps and downlink speeds to 22 Mbps.

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UMTS Release 8 UMTS Release 8 introduced the Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) and the Evolved Packet Core (EPC). To reduce latency, the E-UTRAN collapsed the UMTS NodeB and RNC functionality into the evolved NodeB (eNodeB). In addition to 5 MHz, the E-UTRAN radio access network supports 1.4, 3, 10, 15, and 20 MHz channels. R8 with 2x2 MIMO and 64QAM modulation increases UL speeds to 23 Mbps, and DL speeds to 42 Mbps. In the Evolved Packet Core, the SGSN and GGSN are replaced by the Serving Gateway (S-GW) and Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW). The Mobility Management Entity (MME) manages UE mobility and paging functions.

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SAE: System Architecture Evolution SAE GW: Serving Gateway +PDN Gateway

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LTE can evolve directly from UMTS R5, R6, or R7. If using dual-mode UEs or other overlay techniques, LTE can interoperate with GSM/GPRS.

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The UMTS Release 8 architecture consists of the EPC, E-UTRAN, and user entities (UEs).The Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) is defined by UMTS Release 8 as Long Term Evolution (LTE). System Architecture Evolution (SAE) defines the Evolved Packet Core (EPC). The EPC is an all IP, packet switched network. The Evolved Packet System (EPS) includes the EPC, LTE, and the end-user terminals called User Entities or User Equipment (UE).

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E-UTRAN air interface changes include new Physical Layer multiplexing, FDD and TDD duplexing, and Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) antennas

The LTE air interface uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) in the downlink and Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) in the uplink. It also supports both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) schemes.
MIMO antenna systems are also now fully employed. MIMO uses multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver, improving the network efficiency.

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The User Equipment (UE) must perform the following functions: Signal network entry and other state changes

Report its Tracking Area location while in idle mode

Request UL grants to transmit data while in active mode Act as PDCP, RLC, MAC, and PHY client. The eNodeB controls the air interface and all DL and UL scheduling. The UE reacts to instructions from the eNodeB. 3GPP TS 36.101 User Equipment (UE) Radio Transmission and Reception

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E-UTRAN consists of eNBs. It provides user plane (PDCP/RLC/ MAC/PHY) and control plane (RRC) protocol terminations towards the UE. eNBs are interconnected one another via X2 interface. The eNBs are connected to MME via S1-MME interface. The eNBs are connected to SGW via S1-U interface. The eNBs support many-to-many relation with MME/SGW (S1-Flex feature). In Nokia Siemens Networks, it is implemented on Flexi Multiradio BTS.

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The Evolved Packet Core network is an all IP, packet switched network. The EPC consists of:

Mobility Management Entity (MME) key control node for the LTE access network
Serving Gateway (S-GW) routes and forwards data packets Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW) provides connectivity to external packet data networks

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It is a pure signalling entity inside the EPC. MME is connected to eNB via S1-MME interface.

MME controls one or several SGWs via S11 interface

MME is connected to HSS via S6a interface MME can be connected to SGSNs via S3 interface MMEs are interconnected via the S10 interface In Nokia Siemens Networks, it is implemented on Flexi Network Server.

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It manages the user data path (EPS bearers) within EPC. It transmits and receives packet data to and from eNB via the S1-U interface. SGW is controlled by one or more MMEs via S11 interface. For interworking to other 3GPP RATs, it can be connected to SGSNs via S4 interface or to RNC via S12 interface (when Direct Tunnel feature is implemented). It relays the packet data to or from the PDN gateway via the S5/S8 interface. In Nokia Siemens Networks, it is implemented as standalone or combined network element based on Flexi Network Gateway.

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PGW provides connectivity toward PDN (e.g. Company intranet, internet and IMS) via SGi interface.

It is comparable to GGSN.
A major functionality provided by a PGW is the QoS coordination between the external PDN and EPC. PGW can be connected to a PCRF via Gx interface. In Local Breakout scenario, PGW transmits and receives packet data from Home SGW via S8 interface. In Nokia Siemens Networks, it is implemented as standalone or combined network element based on Flexi Network Gateway.

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For EPS, the HSS data may contain, IMSI

IMEI
MME Address EPS subscribed charging characteristics (e.g. prepaid, normal, flat-rate etc.) Subscribed UE-AMBR. It determines Aggregate Maximum Bit Rate per subscriber. PDN address APN EPS subscribed QoS profile, etc. Diameter is defined in many IETF and 3GPP specifications. The technical specifications listed below are a good starting point for understanding Diameter. IETF RFC 3588 Diameter Base Protocol IETF RFC 3589 Diameter Command Codes for 3GPP R5 3GPP TS 29.230 Diameter Applications; 3GPP Specific Codes and Identifiers

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PCRF is responsible for negotiating QoS Policy and Charging Policy on a per-flow basis.

The PCRF major functionality is the Quality of Service (QoS) coordination between the external PDN and EPC.
Therefore the PCRF is connected via Rx+ interface to the external Data network (PDN) This function can be used to check and modify the QoS associated with a SAE bearer setup from SAE or to request the setup of a SAE bearer from the PDN. This QoS management resembles the policy and charging control framework introduced for IMS with UMTS release

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S1-MME Supports the control plane between E-UTRAN and MME S1-U Supports the bearer plane between E-UTRAN and S-GW for the per-user tunnelling and inter-eNodeB path switching during handover S5 Supports the bearer plane between an S-GW and P-GW in the same network S8 Supports the bearer plane between an S-GW and P-GW in different networks S10 Supports transfer of context and other information between MMEs S11 Supports information transfer between MME and S-GW for session management functions SGi Connects the P-GW to an external data network Uu Air interface between eNodeB and UE X2 The X2 interface is defined between adjacent eNodeBs. The X2 is used for mobility control, bearer forwarding, and load management

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Packet Lawful Intercept Gateway (P-LIG) The P-LIG provides the interfaces between the LTE/EPC network and Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs), enabling the LEAs to intercept UE communications. Communicates with the HSS, MME, S-GW, and P-GW over the X1, X2, and X3 interfaces The P-LIG X2 interface is different from the eNodeB X2 interface

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Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) In 2G and 3G systems, the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is responsible for the delivery of data packets to and from UEs within its geographical service area. The SGSN provides the interfaces between the MME and S-GW in the EPC. Trusted Non-3GPP Access Non-3GPP IP Access describes access to the EPC by technologies not defined by 3GPP. Non-3GPP access technologies include WiFi, WiMAX, fixed access such as cable or DSL, and so on. System Architecture Evolution (SAE) describes trusted and untrusted non-3GPP IP access. The individual carrier must decide if a non-3GPP network is trusted or untrusted. This is a business decision and does not depend on the access network technology.

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Evolved Packet Data Gateway (ePDG) The evolved Packet Data Gateway (ePDG) connects the LTE network to an untrusted, non-3GPP network. To access the LTE network, the non-3GPP subscriber must establish an IP Security (IPSec) tunnel via the ePDG. The ePDG is the encapsulation/decapsulation point for Mobile IP/Proxy Mobile IP (MIP/PMIP). The ePDG also authenticates, authorizes, and enforces QoS policies in conjunction with the 3GPP AAA server. 3GPP AAA Server The 3GPP AAA server provides authentication, authorization, and accounting services for untrusted,non-3GPP IP access.

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Support wider bandwidth Carrier aggregation to achieve wider bandwidth Support of spectrum aggregation Peak data rate, spectrum flexibility Advanced MIMO techniques Extension to up to 8-layer transmission in downlink Introduction of single-user MIMO up to 4-layer transmission in uplink Peak data rate, capacity, cell-edge user throughput Coordinated multipoint transmission and reception (CoMP) CoMP transmission in downlink CoMP reception in uplink Cell-edge user throughput, coverage, deployment flexibility Further reduction of delay AS/NAS parallel processing for reduction of C-Plane delay Relaying Type 1 relays create a separate cell and appear as Rel. 8 LTE eNB to Rel. 8 LTE UEs Coverage, cost effective deployment

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Uplink MIMO for up to 4 UE antennas Increase peak data rate, and average and the cell edge throughput Fall back to TX diversity available for data and control (use the power amplifiers of all antennas even if multi-stream doesnt work) Advancements in reference signal structure, channel sounding and feedback

DL MIMO for 8 TX antennas

Increase peak data rate, and average and the cell edge throughput Release 8 LTE UEs support up to 4 TX antennas (which are actually combinations of the 8 physical antennas) Improved reference signal design, scheduling and feedback schemes

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Joint Processing (JP): data is available at each cell in the CoMP set As if all sites formed a single multi antenna base station

Coordinated Scheduling/Beamforming (CS/CB): data only at the serving cell scheduling coordinated among cells Standardization will be done in Rel. 11 Utilizing enhanced reference schemes introduced for MIMO enhancements, which were already done forward looking to CoMP applications

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The term Heterogeneous Networks does not necessarily refer to a specific technology or feature as such, but is instead used to describe networks that have both wide area and local area (small cell) deployments. In many expected deployment scenarios, heterogeneous networks spread across multiple radio access technologies. Autonomous or automated interference coordination and handover optimization in such hierarchical network architectures are key aspects of heterogeneous networks. Other coordination technologies like selfconfiguration and self-optimization have been covered under Self Organized/Optimized Networks (SON) and Minimized Drive Testing (MDT) related study and work items since Release 8.

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LTE-A enables a smooth and backward compatible evolution of LTE towards true 4G performance

LTE-A comprises of various tools to enhance mobile broadband user experience and network efficiency
There are serious interdependencies between network implementation and the various tools of LTE-A, which require an experienced partner when planning and implementing LTE-A Nokia Siemens Networks has always been at the forefront of LTE-A research and development, with a strong focus on real operator opportunities in terms of efficiency and user experience

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NOTE: A HeNB Hosting Party is likely to have the billing relationship with the operator. A HeNB Hosting

Party will typically be the 'lead' user in a household, but could be e.g. the corporate IT manager in an enterprise context.
Closed access mode: HeNB provides services only to its associated CSG members. Home based network: An IP based network in the same premises as, and is connected to, the HeNB. Hybrid access mode: HeNB provides services to its associated CSG members and to non-CSG members.

Open access mode: HeNB operates as a normal NodeB or eNodeB.

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The E-UTRAN architecture may deploy a Home eNB Gateway (HeNB GW) to allow the S1 interface between the HeNB and the EPC to support a large number of HeNBs in a scalable manner. The HeNB GW serves as a concentrator for the C-Plane, specifically the S1-MME interface. The S1-U interface from the HeNB may be terminated at the HeNB GW, or a direct logical U-Plane connection between HeNB and S-GW may be used. The S1 interface is defined as the interface: - Between the HeNB GW and the Core Network, - Between the HeNB and the HeNB GW, - Between the HeNB and the Core Network, - Between the eNB and the Core Network. The HeNB GW appears to the MME as an eNB. The HeNB GW appears to the HeNB as an MME. The S1 interface between the HeNB and the EPC is the same whether the HeNB is connected to the EPC via a HeNB GW or not. The HeNB GW shall connect to the EPC in a way that inbound and outbound mobility to cells served by the HeNB GW shall not necessarily require inter MME handovers. One HeNB serves only one cell. The functions supported by the HeNB shall be the same as those supported by an eNB (with possible exceptions e.g. NNSF -NAS Node Selection Function) and the procedures run between a HeNB and the EPC shall be the same as those between an eNB and the EPC (with possible exceptions e.g. S5 procedures in case of LIPA support)

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A HeNB subsystem consists of a HeNB, optionally a HeNB GW and optionally a Local GW.

The Local IP Access function is achieved using a Local GW (L-GW) collocated with the HeNB.
The HeNB subsystem is connected by means of the standard S1 interface to the EPC (Evolved Packet Core), more specifically to the MME (Mobility Management Entity) by means of the S1-MME interface and to the Serving Gateway (S-GW) by means of the S1-U interface. When LIPA is activated, the L-GW has a S5 interface with the S-GW. The Local GW is the gateway towards the IP networks (e.g. residential/enterprise networks) associated with the HeNB. The Local GW has the following PDN GW functions: - UE IP address allocation; - DHCPv4 (server and client) and DHCPv6 (client and server) functions; - Packet screening; - Functionality as defined in RFC 4861 . Additionally, the Local GW has the following functions: - ECM-IDLE mode downlink packet buffering; - ECM-CONNECTED mode direct tunneling towards the HeNB.

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X2-based HO between HeNBs is allowed if no access control at the MME is needed, i.e. when the handover is between closed/hybrid access HeNBs having the same CSG ID or when the target HeNB is an open access HeNB. This version supports direct X2-connectivity between HeNBs, independent of whether any of the involved HeNBs is connected to a HeNB GW. Only if the HeNB supports the LIPA function, it shall support an S5 interface towards the S-GW and an SGi interface towards the residential/IP network.

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Local IP Access provides access for IP capable UEs connected via a H(e)NB (i.e. using H(e)NB radio access) to other IP capable entities in the same residential/enterprise IP network. Data traffic for Local IP Access is expected to not traverse the mobile operators network except mobile operator network components in the residential/enterprise premises. Signaling traffic will continue to traverse the mobile operator network. The residential/enterprise IP network itself and the entities within that network are not within the scope of 3GPP standardization. 3GPP TS 22.220 Home eNodeB (HeNB)

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For a LIPA PDN connection, the HeNB sets up and maintains an S5 connection to the EPC. The S5 interface does not go via the HeNB GW even when present.

The HeNB may reuse the IP address used for S1 interface for this S5 interface in order to reuse the S1 IPSEC tunnel or it may also use another IP address which would result in the establishment of another IPSEC tunnel.
The mobility of the LIPA PDN connection is not supported in release 10 of the specification. The LIPA connection is always released at outgoing handover as described in TS23.401 . The L-GW function in the HeNB triggers this release over the S5 interface. In case of LIPA support, the HeNB supports the following additional functions, regardless of the presence of a HeNB GW: - transfer of the collocated L-GW IP address of the HeNB over S1-MME to the EPC at every idle-active transition, - transfer of the collocated L-GW IP address of the HeNB over S1-MME to the EPC within every Uplink NAS Transport procedure, - support of basic P-GW functions in the collocated L-GW function such as support of the SGi interface corresponding to LIPA, - additional support of first packet sending, buffering of subsequent packets, internal direct L-GW - HeNB user path management and in sequence packet delivery to the UE,
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Support of the necessary restricted set of S5 procedures corresponding to the strict support of LIPA function

- notification to the EPC of the collocated L-GW function uplink TEIDs for the LIPA bearers over S5 interface within the restricted set of procedures to be forwarded over S1-MME and further used by the HeNB as "correlation id" for correlation purposes between the collocated L-GW function and the HeNB,
- in case of outgoing handover triggering the L-GW function to release the LIPA PDN connection and only handing over the non-LIPA E-RABs. In case of LIPA support, the MME may support the following additional functions: - verification of UE authorization to request LIPA activation for the requested APN at this CSG and transfer of the received collocated L-GW IP address, - transfer of the "correlation id" i.e. collocated L-GW uplink TEID to the HeNB within the UE context setup procedure and E-RAB setup procedure, - verification of whether the LIPA PDN connection has been released during the handover preparation procedure over S1, - deactivation of the LIPA PDN connection of an idle-mode UE if it detects that the UE has moved out of the coverage area of the HeNB collocated with L-GW function, as specified in TS23.401

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E-UTRAN supports relaying by having a Relay Node (RN) wirelessly connect to an eNB serving the RN, called Donor eNB (DeNB), via a modified version of the E-UTRA radio interface, the modified version being called the Un interface. The RN supports the eNB functionality meaning it terminates the radio protocols of the E-UTRA radio interface, and the S1 and X2 interfaces. From a specification point of view, functionality defined for eNBs, e.g. RNL(Radio Network Layer ) and TNL (Transport Network Layer ), also applies to RNs unless explicitly specified. RNs do not support NNSF (NAS Node Selection Function ). In addition to the eNB functionality, the RN also supports a subset of the UE functionality, e.g. physical layer, layer-2, RRC, and NAS functionality, in order to wirelessly connect to the DeNB.

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The architecture for supporting RNs is shown. The RN terminates the S1, X2 and Un interfaces. The DeNB provides S1 and X2 proxy functionality between the RN and other network nodes (other eNBs, MMEs and S-GWs). The S1 and X2 proxy functionality includes passing UE-dedicated S1 and X2 signaling messages as well as GTP data packets between the S1 and X2 interfaces associated with the RN and the S1 and X2 interfaces associated with other network nodes. Due to the proxy functionality, the DeNB appears as an MME (for S1-MME), an eNB (for X2) and an SGW (for S1-U) to the RN. In phase II of RN operation, the DeNB also embeds and provides the S-GW/P-GW-like functions needed for the RN operation. This includes creating a session for the RN and managing EPS bearers for the RN, as well as terminating the S11 interface towards the MME serving the RN. The RN and DeNB also perform mapping of signaling and data packets onto EPS bearers that are setup for the RN. The mapping is based on existing QoS mechanisms defined for the UE and the P-GW. In phase II of RN operation, the P-GW functions in the DeNB allocate an IP address for the RN for the O&M which may be different than the S1 IP address of the DeNB. If the RN address is not routable to the RN O&M domain, it shall be reachable from the RN O&M domain (e.g. via NAT).

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The relaying function enables an operator to improve and extend the coverage area by having a Relay Node (RN) wirelessly connected to an eNB serving the RN, called Donor eNB (DeNB), via a modified version of the E-UTRA radio interface called the Un interface as specified in TS 36.300. The relaying function and use of RN/DeNB entities in a network is transparent to the operations of the UEs connected to it and associated core network entities (e.g. MME, S/P-GW, PCRF etc.) for the UEs. The RN supports the eNB functionality like termination of the radio protocols of the E-UTRA radio interface and the S1 and X2 interfaces. The RN also supports a subset of the UE functionality and protocols to wirelessly connect to the DeNB. In addition to supporting eNB functionality, the DeNB also embeds and provides the S-GW/P-GW-like functions needed for the RN operation. This includes creating a session for the RN and managing EPS bearers for the RN, as well as terminating the S1-AP and S11 interfaces towards the MME serving the RN. Due to the proxy functionality, the DeNB appears as an MME (for S1), an eNB (for X2) and an S-GW to the RN. The RN and DeNB also perform mapping of signaling and data packets onto EPS bearers that are setup for the RN. The mapping is based on existing QoS mechanisms defined for the UE and the P-GW and are described in TS 36.300.

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