PADDAR SAPPHIRE MINES TEHSIL KISHTWAR, DISTRICT DODA

JAMMU AND KASHMIR (INDIA)

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Background: Jammu and Kashmir is famous for its Sapphire Mines which are situated in the
highly rugged terrain of great Himalayan Range. The accessibility to the area is through fair
weather road as well as bridle path. From Kishtwar to Atholi a distance of 60 Kms is covered by a
fair weather road and from Atholi to Sumcham a distance of 40 Kms is through the bridle path
only. J&K Minerals Ltd. (a J&K Govt. Undertaking) is holding lease for exploration / exploitation of
Sapphire Gem Stone in the area. The Company is presently involved in exploitation of minerals
like Lime Stone, Gypsum, Coal and is running a Cement Plant as well as two Precast Concrete
Factories. It has played pioneering role in establishing Mineral based industry in the State of J&K
(India).

In absence of evaluation of deposits in the area, and due to limited infrastructure at the mine
coupled with financial constraints very little mining has been done by the Corporation by manual
means through underground working. The mine has the possibility of Open Cast working after
utilization of heavy mechanized machinery. With a view to ensure commercial exploitation, on
scientific lines by following provisions of relevant statutes, the exploration of the area on scientific
lines for estimation of reserves is essential.

Geology: The mines which are situated in highly rugged terrain of Himalayan Range remains
almost snow bound. Perpetual snow covered glistering vitreous mountains, rising as high as more
than 5500 Mts. deep gorge's and precipitous defiles, cirques and amphitheaters, U-shaped glacial
valley and hanging valleys all combine in the central Himalayan topography. The glacial carved
out valleys represent a steep like longitudinal profile. Alluvial fans are seen throughout the paddar
area. The weathering conditions smooth their way to gentler slopes and torrential stream gets
away along it; a flat ground comes into existence. These flat grounds have been inhabited by the
people from the villages like Garh and Masu. Besides, these river terraces are by no means
uncommon in the paddar area. The town of Atholi and village of Kijai are situated on such
terraces. There is the considerable moisture in the area because of the enormous heights. This
area remains considerably under the clouds when monsoon attacks the plains. Average
temperature during the working season of July to September remains around 5°C to 10°C during
the day and almost minus 1-2°C during night. However, in the mine, the temperature is always
minus 2-10°C.

The whole paddar area has undergone Regional metamorphism as one moves from Kishtwar to
the Sapphire mine area. The original Argillaceous rocks subjected to Metamorphism changed the
chlorite under Epidote - Amphibolite Facies as under:

Mg3Si2O5 (OH)4 +KAlSi3O5 =KMgAISi3O10 (OH)2 +2Si2O +H2O

(Antigorite) (Orthoclase) (Biotite) (Quartz) (Water)

Properties of Sapphire: Sapphire is a Greek word meaning blue. Kashmir Sapphire is known as
king of sapphires. The brilliance exhibited by it is of a rare quality and fetches the highest possible
price per carat. Its deep blue colour with cornflower tinge is its specific colour characteristic. The
velvety touch called as mercurial colour resembles to the neck of a peacock; which provides the
only discernible characteristics of the stone from rest of the world. Inclusion of rutile needles result
in silky sheen. Sapphire exists in the Rhombohedral form, the prominent face read 2243 /\ 2423 =
51° 58' between two prismatic faces. Crystal faces show striation and etch-mark. The majority of
the crystals ranging from 0.8 inches to 1.5 inches in length are very much transparent, but, the
crystals, which are beyond two inch in length, are mostly opaque and translucent. The hardness of
the sapphire is nine as per the Moh's scale of hardness. The sapphire crystals are usually
embedded in the fine matrix of kaolin transversing the pegmatite vein. The Kashmir Sapphire
under microscope shows that they are uniaxial in nature. They depict negative characters. A
variety having satellite opalescence when viewed in the direction of vertical axis of the crystal is
the asteriated Sapphire. Sapphire is strongly diachronic. Streak is white, Sp. Gr. 3.93 to 4, fracture
uneven, Ref. Index 1.765, Double Ref. Index 0.08, Disperssion 0.018, Pleochroism is blue.
Absorption spectrum Blues from 4710, with Flourscance.

Mining Activity: J&K Minerals Limited has done mining activity in the area on a very small scale
and the year wise details of Sapphire Corundum collected are as under:

Year Production of Corundum Grams

1963-64 50,000
1964-65 2,00,000
1965-66 2,24,000
1966-67 1,85,000
1967-68 1,83,672
1968-69 1,44,580
1969-70 1,40,415
1970-71 2,14,500
1971-72 --
1972-73 --
1973-74 84,845
1974-75 --
1975-76 --
1976-77 --
1998-99 2,696
1999-2000 1,807
2000-2001 3,460
2001-2002 1,340
2002-2003 1,297.5
2003-2004 3,294
2004-2005 3,215.50

The Gemstones are generally retrieved from screening of debris. This screened debris is
subjected to splash of water which reflects upon wet gemstones getting picked up and are brought
before Gemmologist for identification purpose. After visual identification by magnifiers, the
corundum is segregated from sapphire. This segregated quality of sapphire is subjected to
removal of Kaoline and other matrix. Concentrated Hydrochloric acid or Nitric acid is applied, as
the case may be, in small proportions i.e. 100 gms. to 500 gms. And crystals are dipped in acid
wash. After stirring for an hour the matrix gets dissolved and gemstone are retrieved. This is
followed by passing the said stone through various sieves so that the size of the gemstone is
established. Around 4 to 5 categories are made for evaluation and each and every piece in the
sorted packet is properly weighed in carats for auction purpose.

Since we utilize 1 Kg to 2 Kg in a season of Hydrochloric Acid, as such, the waste of the said acid
is properly disposed in a small pit, which is mostly covered on completion of job. Around
100CubicM of water is required for processing of debris which is stored in a pond near the mines
and this water suffices for the entire period of operation of the expedition. There is thus no
problem involved in disposing of waste water and extent of recycling.

Generation of Hydroelectricity: In view of numerous water falls in the area, it is possible to

generate electricity from 5KW to 500 KW. In this connection an Alternator and Voltage Stabilizers
is to be installed of required specification on Vertical Shaft Type. The Water from the fall is trapped
and routed through the chute which falls on the flat blades.

Iron turbine with ball bearing and steel lining into wooden flume is installed for smooth passage of
water which generates hydroelectric power on mini scale sufficient for the project requirements.

Satellite Imagery: J&K Minerals Ltd. with the active help from National Remote Sensing Agency,
Hyderabad got drawn one satellite Imagery of Padder Sapphire Mines in 2001 on IRS IC/ID
Satellite, Sensor LISS III, path 94 ROW 47, TS 52 Co7 Geocoded data on Segment of 28 Kms,
Compatible to Q01 Toposheet on latitude from 33° 20' and longitude of 76° 15'to 33° 20' and
longitude of 76° 15' to 76° 25'. This plan shows in detail the geotechtonics of the area, the
movement of thrust fault zones, folding pattern etc. This imagery is the basis for undertaking
tonnel interference in the area for locating probable Sapphire resources. This imagery provides the
total picture of water regime in the area with glaciers of the sorts seen. River Chenab which takes
its existence from here is also clearly seen piercing through the area No: 1 denotes Sapphire Mine
area and rest are other locations with clear demarcation of linear and edges (Interanature Valley).

The pattern of mineralization structure and tectonics can be inferred from the study of this
imagery. The imagery has provided ample information of the area with reference to its height to
various mountain reaches in the area. This imagery has also highlighted the ridge of Zanaskar
Range forming part of the pattern of Greater Himalayas. The high resolution multispectral satellite
data forms an ideal base for mapping factual structural details and for preparing the interpreted
structural map. Bedding terraces, trend lines, fracture, faults folds and intrusive bodies are clearly
seen in this imagery, playing field anticline is clear.

The fundamental aim of the remote sensing mapping was in the study of segmentation of
Geological & Geomorphical mapping in the depicting structure and tectonic pattern, lethological
varieties and Geological Evolution higher spatial resolution of PAN & multispectral resolution of
less III has given two mineral details, in the preperation of lithological structure, Geomophological
& Geo Environmental. This information combined with Geophysical and other date had proved
useful in tangetting areas of Mineral Exploration especially Sapphire Gemstone.

Drainage & Vegetation: The presence of snow in the mines gives rise to small drains but as and
when the snow cover depletes the drains become dry. Since the area is within the snow line and
above the forest cover only small herbs and shrubs are seen in the fauna and flora. The flora of
the area is represented by different kinds of mild flowers with small grass that adds to the scientific
beauty of the area.

Relief and Elevation: The relief of the area has been shaped by the action of ice and glaciers. Te
north east limb of anticline has been eroded at many places to pseudo ridge like relief. Sometimes
these ridges turn to cliffs which is exposed to near mines on the north east side. Elevation of the
mine area starts from 4200mtrs. and covers more than 5600mtrs.
According to a report these deposits are situated in a small upland valley in the upper part of the
district of Padar, about thirteen days journey south-east of Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir, a few
miles to the east of the village of Machel, and a little west-north-west of the village of Soomjam.
Soomjam is higher than any other village on the southwestern slopes of the lofty Zanskar range. It
is about half a day journey down from the Umasi Pass, and has an altitude of 11,000 feet. It lies in
latitude 33° 25' 30" N., and longitude 76° 28' 10" E., on the Bhutna River, a tributary of the Chinab.
The valley in which the sapphires are found is 1,000 yards long and 400 yards wide at its lower
end; it has an elevation of 13,000 feet above sea level, and its floor rises towards the northwest,
the average angle of slope being about 20°. The first find have been made in the sapphire-bearing
rock, which forms a precipice at the head of the valley. This rock, which was laid bare by a
landslip, is at an altitude of 14,800 feet, and lies very near the limit of perpetual snow. A large
number of gems were at first won from the solid rock; very soon, however, it was discovered that
they existed in equal abundance in the loose detrital material weathered from these rocks and
deposited on the floor of the valley. Veins of granite penetrate the rocks of the district, mainly
mica-schists and garnetiferous gneiss with interfoliated crystalline limestone, and it is in these
veins that the sapphire, associated with an abundance of dark-brown tourmaline, is found. The
material formed by the weathering of the granite is laid down in the valley as a white bed of little
thickness, and is described as being overlain by a reddish-brown earth. The gems were picked out
by hand from this deposit "like potatoes" though they ware, of course, also won by washing. The
dark-brown tourmaline, mentioned above as being present in the granite veins, is also found in
these secondary deposits.
The fine blue color of the sapphires of this locality first attracted the attention of the inhabitants,
who, not knowing the value of the stones often used them for striking fire. They were so abundant
at first that large numbers were collected by the natives and sold to the gem merchants of Simla
and Delhi, who, supposing them to be blue quartz or amethyst, purchased them very cheaply.
When their true nature became known many expeditions were sent out to the Zanskar range with
the object of collecting as many of these valuable stones as possible. The prices, of course, rose,
and very quickly reached the figure at which sapphire is usually sold, namely, about £20 per
ounce. Later on the stones fell again in value owing to the large number, which were put on the
market. Soon the Maharajah of Kashmir, in whose dominions the deposit is situated, began to
interest himself in the matter. Those persons who had already found stones were allowed to retain
them, but duly licensed individuals, who had to pay for the privilege, could only make any further
search. This arrangement still holds good.
The sapphires found in the Zanskar range are frequently in well-developed crystals, of the forms.
Numerous dark-brown or green tourmalines of small size are often observed enclosed in, or
growing on the surface of, the crystals of sapphire. The crystals arc sometimes very large,
specimens suitable for cutting having been found measuring 5 inches in length and 3 inches in
thickness, while a few arc said to have attained a length of a foot. Irregular grains and fragments
of the gem are frequently met with, but many of these are probably due to the fracture of crystals
during their extraction from the mother-rock. The stones found in the loose weathered material on
the floor of the valley are more or less rounded, showing that they have been transported some
distance by running water. Some are of considerable size, weighing 100 or even 300 carats.
The crystals of sapphire are often bluish-white or bluish-gray, but specimens of a finer and richer
color are also frequently found. Single crystals often show a difference of color in different
portions; thus the center of a crystal may be of a fine blue color, and the two ends colorless. The
majority of the stones found here possess, wholly or in part, a milky cloudiness; silkiness of luster
is also a common fault. Only transparent and finely colored stones are valuable as gems. Large
cloudy crystals often have a small portion clear and transparent, which is carefully cut away by the
lapidary and transformed into a gem. The yellow, brown, and red varieties of corundum are rare at
this locality.
These mines are not the only places in this remote region where sapphires worth cutting have
been found. At some distance away, but still in the same neighborhood, are several places at
which sapphire occurs under exactly similar conditions as far as is known. Thus, stones, which
were not at first recognized as sapphires, were brought down from the Sacha Pass to the gem-
market at Delhi, and others have been found in the gneiss and mica-schist of the upper Raini
valley, below the Hamta Pass in Kulu, Punjab, as well as at other places.
All varieties of precious corundum-ruby, sapphire, "oriental topaz", "oriental emerald", etc. are
found in the United States of North America, being especially abundant in two particular regions.
The first of these regions includes the western portions of North Carolina and of South Carolina
and extends into Georgia and Alabama. Almost all the precious corundum found in this region
comes from Macon County in North Carolina, where the crystals, which are usually well
developed, are enclosed in an olivine-rock (dunite). The occurrence of corundum in rocks other
than dunite in North Carolina, and especially at Cowee Creek in Macon County, has already been
dealt with under ruby. In these localities the pure mineral often forms the nucleus of large masses
of common corundum. In the Culsagee mine on Corundum Hill, near Franklin in Macon County, a
crystal weighing 311 pounds was once found. This, however, was not of gem quality and was
colored partly red and partly blue. At the same mine rubies, sapphire, "oriental topaz", and a few
"oriental emeralds", etc., suitable for cutting as gems, have been found. Fine star-stones occur
here also, as well as in Delaware County, Pennsylvania.
The other region, which is especially rich in precious corundum, is situated in the west. Sapphire
and other color-varieties of corundum have been known since 1865 to occur in the neighborhood
of Helena on the upper reaches of the Missouri river, in the State of Montana, being first
discovered during the process of gold-washing. Again the true nature of the stones was not at first
recognized, and they were sold at much below their actual value. Since 1891 these deposits have
been systematically worked for gold, and at the same time large numbers of the precious stones
have been collected. They are found in masses of glacial debris known as" bars", which are laid
down on the sides of the valleys parallel to the river-courses and at a height of 300 feet above the
present high-water level of the upper Missouri. These glacial sands and gravels containing gold
overlie black shales, probably of Lower Silurian age, which are associated with limestones,
quartzite, and rocks of igneous origin. It is in the lowest layer of these sands and gravels, with a
thickness of only a few inches, that the sapphire is principally found. The sapphires ware most
abundant at Eldorado Bar, Spokane Bar, French Bar, and Ruby Bar, and these deposits ware
being worked. Spokane Bar near Stubb's Ferry, twelve miles to the east of Helena, was
approximately the central point of this district, which extends along the Missouri for at least fifteen
miles and embraces an area of certainly no less than eleven and a half square miles.
The sapphires frequently occurred as well-developed crystals, having the form of a short
hexagonal prism with basal planes, an unusual type for this gem. Irregular grains ware also found,
which like the crystals, are more or less rounded. Neither crystals nor grains attain to any
considerable size, measuring at the most from 1/4 to 1/2 inch in diameter and rarely exceeding 9
carats in weight. Though small in size the stones ware abundant in number, as evidenced by the
fact that an acre of the deposit at Eldorado Bar yielded no less than 2,000 ounces of sapphire.
Many of these stones, however, were unsuitable for cutting, since the predominant tints of the
sapphires of this locality are all pale.
The colors, though almost always pale in shade, show great variety of tint, red, violet, yellow, blue,
green, bluish-green, and all possible intermediate colors being met with. Bluish-green and green
corundum is especially abundant, while the pure blue and the red varieties are absent.
Occasionally a stone with it red nucleus and a border of another color is met with. Some green
and blue stones appear red by artificial light. Almost all the color-varieties of corundum from this
region, which are suitable for cutting, have a peculiar metallic sheen, which is very characteristic
and is not seen in stones from any other locality. They are remarkable also for the brilliancy of
their luster, and, according to the statements of lapidaries, are especially hard.
Corundum is associated in these glacial sands with many other minerals, among which are
crystals of white topaz not exceeding 1/4 inch in length, fine ruby-red garnets the size of a pea
(which have often been mistaken for true rubies), kyanite, cassiterite in small, rounded grains
(stream-tin), iron-pyrites altered to limonite, chalcedony, and small rounded fragments of calcite.
As already mentioned, the rocks occurring in situ in the district and underlying the gemmiferous
sands are penetrated by dykes of igneous material. In one of these dykes, consisting of mica-
augite andesite, crystals of sapphire, garnet (pyrope), and sanidine have been found; and it has
been argued from this that in every case the sapphires originated in similar situations and have
been set free by the weathering of the igneous rock. This origin for the sapphire is not universally
accepted, although parallel cases may be found in the occurrence of fine blue sapphire in the
volcanic rocks of other regions, such, for example, as the basalts of Unkel on the Rhine,
Niedermendig on the Laacher See, Calvarienberg near Fulda, and Expailly near Le Puy-en-Velay
in France, etc. Also sapphires have been found at Yogo Gulch in Fergus County in the State of
Montana, and seventy-five to one hundred miles east of the Missouri bars. According to G. F.
Kunz and others they occur in a yellow earthy material, which may owe its origin to the weathering
of an igneous rock. The blue stones vary in shade from light to dark, some being of the true
sapphire or cornflower-blue, while there are others which incline to an amethyst or almost ruby
shade of red. The crystals are rhombohedral in habit, and in this respect differ from the sapphires
found near Helena.
The amount of corundum of a quality suitable for cutting, which comes into the market from
Australia, is not altogether insignificant. The mineral is found in gold-sands with diamond and in
stanniferous and other similar sands and gravels in Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and
especially in New South Wales. In the last named State, sapphires are found in the north-east
corner in the New England district, especially in the neighbourhood of Bingera and Inverell, and
indeed at all the localities which have been already mentioned for diamond. Sapphire occurs here
under exactly the same conditions as does the diamond, and it is even more widely distributed. An
occurrence of the stone in Tasmania has also been reported.
Australian sapphires, as a rule, are too dark to be of much value as gems; they vary from perfect
transparency and absence of color through various shades of blue and gray to almost absolute
opacity and dark blue color. Crystals showing a fine sapphire-blue color are met with occasionally,
and fine star-sapphires are not uncommon. A few rubies are found, but corundum of a fine green
color, that is "oriental emerald", is more abundant, every hundred stones always including two or
three specimens of "oriental emerald". The original crystalline form of the stones, a hexagonal
bipyramid is frequently well preserved, but more often they are in the form of irregular grains or
rounded pebbles, like the other constituents of the sands. From a commercial point of view the
Australian output of sapphires is unimportant.