CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM • Consists of 10 reactions with 3 regulated

steps
I. Polysaccharide to Monosaccharide • Each molecule of glucose produces 4
• Digestion molecules of ATP
II. Monosaccharide to Acetyl CoA • STEPS:
• Glucose -> Acetyl CoA -> Citric Acid o 1: PHOSPHORYLATION OF
Cycle GLUCOSE
III. Oxidative Phosphorylation  Irreversible
 Requires ATP
STEP 1: DIGESTION  Glycolysis – occurs in
• MOUTH – doughnut (cellulose, amylase, CYTOSOL
amylopectin, lactose)  Glucose should be trapped
o α amylase (ptyalin) – capable of inside the cell by adding
breaking α 1,4 bonds phosphate
o basic – optimal pH of AMYLASE  HEXOKINASE
• STOMACH • Very high affinity for
o pH is ACIDIC glucose
o stops the digestion of carbohydrate • Found in most
because of acidic nature tissues
• INTESTINE • Broad specificity: can
o α AMYLASE from pancreas breaks be used in hexoses
the remaining α 1,4 bonds not only for glucose
o α dextrinase – breaks α 1,6 • Low Km and Vmax
o α glucosidase – breaks α 1,4 for glucose
o disaccharidases (maltase, • Can be inhibited by
lactase) – breaks disaccharides G6P (glucose-6-
into monosaccharide phosphate) –
o cellulose and monosaccharides negative feedback of
remain glycolysis
o monosaccharides – will be • Not influenced by
absorbed in the small intestine by insulin
entering the lumen to enter the • Can easily be
blood circulation saturated
 GLUCOKINASE
ACTIVE TRANSPORT – Co-transport
• Low affinity for
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – facilitated diffusion
glucose
• High Km for glucose
CARRIERS: GLUT1 – GLUT5 (GLUCOSE
found in the liver & B
TRANSPORTERS
cells of the pancreas
• GLUT4
o transports glucose under the • High Vmax for
glucose suitable for
influence of the hormone INSULIN
the liver (receives
o can be found in adipose tissues
high amounts of
and skeletal muscles
glucose)
• brain, liver, RBC and intestines doesn’t
• can phosphorylate
need INSULIN
high amounts of
glucose
STEP 2: GLYCOLYSIS – process of breaking
down glucose to provide energy in the form of • Not inhibited by G6P
ATP and to provide intermediates unlike hexokinase
• TYPES: • Not influenced by
o AEROBIC – mitochondria in insulin because it is
in the liver
the presence of O2
o 2: ISOMERIZATION OF G6P –
o ANAEROBIC – cells without
change aldose to ketose
mitochondria
• PHASES:  Catalyzed by
o ENERGY INVESMENT PHASE PHOSPHOGLUCOSE
ISOMERASE
o ENERGY GENERATION PHASE
 • G6P -> F6P
(fructose-6-
phosphate)
 Reversible step
o 3: PHOSPHORYLATION OF F6P
 Irreversible
 Rate-limiting – primary
control of how much
glycolysis will occur
 Mediated by enzyme
PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE
1 (PFK1)
 Most important control step
in glycolysis
 ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY OF
PFK1:
INCREASED DECREASED
AMP (energy starved ATP (energy rich)
Insulin Glucagon
Well fed state Fasting State
Fructose-2,6-
Biphosphate
 High amounts of ATP will
inhibit the activity of PFK1
 Decreased glucagon will
result into starvation
 Insulin is pro-storage while
glucagon is anti-
storage/pro-degradation
o 4-5: CLEAVAGE OF F1,6BP
 ALDOLASE A – cleaves
F1,6BP into
DIHYDROXYACETONE
PHOSPHATE &
GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-
PHOSPHATE (TRIOSE)
 DHAP & G3P – only involved
in glycolysis;
interchangeable
 TRIOSE PHOSPHATE
ISOMERASE – enzymes
o 6: OXIDATION OF G3P
 Catalyzed by G3P
dehydrogenase
 First oxidation-reduction
reaction of glycolysis
 Elemental phosphate is
added to G3P to form
1,3BPG
 BIPHOSPHOGLYCERATE
MUTASE
 Oxidation reaction will
remove the H+
 Reduction reaction will gain
the H+
o 7: 1,3BPG to 3PG
 1,3BPG is converted to 3PG
 Produces ATP in the process
 Catalyzed by
PHOSPHOGLYCERATE
KINASE
 Reversible
 SUBSTRATE LEVEL
PHOSPHORYLATION (SLP)
o 8: 3PG to 2PG
 Catalyzed by
PHOSPHOGLYCERATE
MUTASE
 Mutate from 3 to 2
phosphate group
o 9: DEHYDRATION OF 2-
PHOSPHOGLYCERATE
 2-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE is
dehydrated by ENOLASE to
from
PHOSPHOEOLPYRUVATE
(PEP)
 Reversible
o 10: FORMATION OF PYRUVATE
 Final step in glycolysis
 PYRUVATE KINASE
 Irreversible reaction
 Forms ATP (SLP)
 Pyruvate kinase is activated
by F1,6BP (feed forward
reaction)
 Ensures that the reaction
goes forward once PFK
converts F6P into F1,6BP
 Increased glucagon ->
decreased pyruvate kinase
activity
3 IMPORTANT STEPS (IRREVERSIBLE):
1. (1) PHOSPHORYLATION OF GLUCOSE
2. (3) PHOSPHORYLATION OF F6P
3. (10) FORMATION OF PYRUVATE
WHAT HAPPENS TO PYRUVATE?
1. OXIDATIVE CARBOXYLATION
 Enters the trycarboxylic acid cycle
 Gets converted to Acetyl CoA by
PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE
2. CAN BE CARBOXYLATED INTO
OXALOACETATE
 The first step in GLUCOGENESIS
3. PYRUVATE CONVERTED TO ETHANOL
4. PYRUVATE TO LACTATE
Pyruvate + NADH + H -> lactate + NAD +
2H
ENERGY YIELD OF GLYCOLYSIS
 2 invested ATP
 4 gained ATP
 ETC = total of 8: (10 – 2)
o NADH: 3 ATP x 2 = 6
 o FADH: 2 ATP x 2 = 4
 Overall reaction:
o ANAEROBIC – glucose to pyruvate
o AEROBIC – glucose to lactate

IN SUMMARY, GLYCOLYSIS:
 Uses 2 molecules of ATP per glucose
molecule to convert it to pyruvate
 Produces 4 molecules of ATP
 2 net ATP
 2 molecules f NADH are produced
 3 ATP produced per molecule of NADH if
the reaction proceeds to oxidative
phosphorylation
 2 ATP/glucose
 3 regulated steps: 1,3,10
 Glucose -> Pyruvate

-Rosette Go 091808 