Chinese Languages

Chinese Language(s)
Trends in Linguistics
Studies and Monographs 215
Editor
Volker Gast
Advisory Editors
Walter Bisang
Hans Henrich Hock
Matthias Schlesewsky
Founding Editor
Werner Winter
De Gruyter Mouton
Chinese Language(s)
A Look through the Prism of
The Great Dictionary
of Modern Chinese Dialects
by
Maria Kurpaska
De Gruyter Mouton
ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2
e-ISBN 978-3-11-021915-9
ISSN 1861-4302
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kurpaska, Maria, 1977
Chinese language(s) : a look through the prism of The Great
dictionary of modern Chinese dialects / by Maria Kurpaska.
p. cm. (Trends in linguistics studies and monographs; 215)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-11-021914-2 (alk. paper)
1. Chinese language Dialects Dictionaries. I. Title.
PL1547.K87 2010
495.11703dc22
2010014948
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.
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To Cecylka and Macius

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to those, without whose help this book
would not have taken shape. First of all, I want to thank my supervisor,
Professor A.F. Majewicz, who has ignited my interest in the subject and
guided me through this work, supplying me with some of the most impor-
tant materials.
The scholarship at Peking University, in the academic year 2004/2005,
gave me a unique opportunity to gather material for the present book as
well as to take part in courses which brought me closer to the studied sub-
ject. I am greatly particularly indebted to Professor Li Xiaofan, who was
my tutor at that time, and who has served me with his knowledge after my
return home up to this day.
My special thanks go to Professor Xie Liuwen, one of the co-authors of
The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects, whose advice and an-
swers to my questions have been invaluable.
I am also much obliged to Professor Zhu Zhiping and Professor
Romuald Huszcza, who have given me many constructive remarks on my
book, as well as to Professor Werner Winter, whose comments and correc-
tions have allowed the book to take its present shape.
I am also grateful to Professor Moira Yip, who has patiently responded
to my inquiries concerning some phonological problems.
Furthermore, I would like to thank my friends and proof-readers, Anna
and Douglas Harrison, who have helped me correcting my English.
Nevertheless, the responsibility for all errors which may occur in this
book is mine.
As a wife, mother and daughter, I would not have been able to write this
book without the love and encouragement of my whole family. I want to
thank my father for his constant assistance, my mother, for all her time and
patience, and most of all my husband, Radek, who has helped me not only
by solving countless technical problems and drawing the maps, but also
simply by being there for me.

Preface
The Chinese linguistic situation has been for many years subject of debate
between Western and Chinese scholars. The main disagreement concerns
the identity and homogeneity of the Chinese linguistic area: the diversity is
predominantly stressed by probably most Western scholars, whereas the
traditional, deeply ingrained Chinese standpoint is that the language spoken
by the Han nationality creates a substantial unit. Its plentiful varieties are
referred to as , fngyn, lit. local speech, customarily translated into
English as dialects. The common writing system continues to be the sym-
bol of unity of Chinese, bonding the dialects together.
The main aim of this book is to trace the current structuring of the Chi-
nese language(s) on the ground of Chinese linguistics, basing the research
on the newest and most renowned sources, especially The Great Dictionary
of Modern Chinese Dialects_|),,,3 Xiandai Hanyu Fang-
yan Da Cidian, as well as the Language Atlas of China]),j
Zhongguo Yuyan Dituji.
There are two main axes of this structuring. One is the territorial
distribution of the language (the main source of its analysis is the Language
Atlas of China). The second axis is diachronic, based on the thesis that the
Middle Chinese language is the common point of origin from which the
miscellaneous varieties of modern Chinese have evolved.
Lexical diversity constitutes the additional dimension. Dialectal vocabu-
lary is not analyzed in reference to Middle Chinese; it is usually studied
through comparisons with the national standard. Generally, it is catalogued
without any systematic etymologizing.
The more precise structuring includes the analysis of phonetics, and
lately also lexical diversity. Grammatical differences still remain rather
unrevealed, although they are now more and more often taken into
consideration.
Many aspects of life in China are at present changing, the country is
going through economic, political and social transformations. This situation
naturally influences the language, even more so due to the strict language
policy, which aims at promoting the national standard called Putonghua.
Thus, Chinese dialectologists face the challenge of preserving as much
information about the current linguistic situation as possible.
Preface

x
The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects is one of the greatest
achievements of modern Chinese dialectology and Chinese linguistics in
general. This book tries to reveal the role the Dictionary plays in analyzing
the spectrum of linguistic differentiation and what kind of information it
provides, sketching firstly a background of the development and current
state of Chinese dialectology and dialectal research. The assumption is to
show respect to this unquestionably grand achievement, and also to empha-
size a critical distance to some of the views presented in the Dictionary.
The Dictionary is inseparably bound with the Language Atlas of China
(Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan yu Aodaliya Renwen Kexueyuan 1987,
1989), thus the point of view represented in the Atlas is relevant for this
study and constitutes a significant part of this book.
The dialects of Chinese naturally interact with the non-Chinese lan-
guages which are spoken on the territory of the Peoples Republic of China.
In order to make the picture of the linguistic situation in China complete,
languages of ethnic minorities are listed in the book (Chapter 2.2.). They
are excluded from the general analysis, though without neglecting their
importance.
Technical notes
The simplified Chinese characters ] jintz have been used
throughout the text, except for few cases when the unsimplified forms
fntz had to be applied.
[*] after Chinese characters indicates that the character is used as a
homonym to represent sounds, because the word itself does not have its
own character (for a more detailed explanation see Chapter 7.2.4.1.)
An empty square () is used instead of Chinese characters, where a
character which can represent the sound does not exist (see Chapter
7.2.4.1.).
The )|, Hny Pinyin (hereafter called pinyin) Romanization
system is used for the transliteration of proper names (for exceptions see
below) as well as for linguistic terms and the like.
The pinyin transcription of titles of books in Chinese has been provided
without the indication of tones.
The IPA transcription is applied for the pronunciation of dialectal words
and sentences, with the following exceptions (according to the rules listed
in Chapter 7.1.5.):
Technical notes

xi
The implosives are written as [1b, 1d, 1g].
The aspiration is noted with [], for instance [p, t, ts].
The tone values are noted with numbers according to the five-point
scale, with 1 representing the lowest pitch and 5 the highest. The values
are placed in the upper index following the syllable. The only exception
from this rule is the notation of tones in the descriptions of characteris-
tics of the Jin dialect group, where the method called [ fqunf
(see Chapter 7.1.5.) is used.
Tone values which change during the occurrence of tone sandhi follow
the original tone values after an arrow (). E.g. ] [su
31
pa
4445
ts5p].
The light (neutral) tone jj qingdiois marked with a dot on the
left-hand-side of the syllable, e.g., the Beijing syllables ]| [ti
55
ta].
Words or sentences written in Putonghua, are transliterated in pinyin,
not transcribed in IPA.
When in brackets and not in italics, the pronunciation in pinyin is the
equivalent of characters and words as pronounced in Putonghua, while the
pronunciation in respective dialects may be different, e.g. in the description
of lexical characteristics of the Hakka dialect: For the Beijing pronoun
] (w)` (I), the word 1; (i)` is used (see Chapter 6.5.10.).
The modern pronunciation in Putonghua of the thirty six ) zm (see
Chapter 4.3.), sixteen | sh (see Chapter 4.6.2., Chapter 7.1.1.1.), and the
names of particular | sh, etc., is written in brackets when the terms are
used in the text.
The name of the rising tone () shngsheng) is written down in the
falling tone (51), not in the falling-rising tone (214) (cf. p. 229 note 11).
Underlined tone values imply that the tone is short (e.g. in the Xiamen
dialect [ yngr 55).
If not indicated otherwise, English translations of words in Putonghua
have been cited from _|),3 ) (Xiandai Hanyu
Cidian [Han-Ying Shuang Yu]) (The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary
[Chinese-English Edition]). (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yan-
jiusuo Cidian Bianjishi 2002). Longer samples, such as sentences, have
been translated by the author.
English translations of Chinese titles of books and articles made by the
author are written in square brackets. Instances where the English transla-
tion appears in the source book or periodical are indicated by round brack-
ets.
Preface

xii
In order to avoid misunderstandings and to simplify the search, both the
surnames and the given names of Chinese authors are given in cross-refer-
ences to References, except in situations, where there are more than one
author. In such cases, only the surnames are written.
Names of Chinese scholars which appear in the book are written in the
text without Chinese characters, except for cases when they are the titles of
subchapters.
The names of Chinese scholars, who have spellings other than pinyin of
their names in English, are written in pinyin. E.g. | is written as
Zhao Yuanren, not Yuen Ren Chao. In the references, the authors can
be found under their pinyin spelling, with cross-references to other spell-
ings. All spellings can be found in the Index of personal names, together
with the Chinese characters.
The place names are accompanied by their respective Chinese charac-
ters, except for the names of provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities, which are all listed in the appendix (Chinas main
administrative units). The names of the forty two dialect localities
described in The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects are written
without their Chinese characters in chapters where they have already been
mentioned and occur frequently. Beijing as a city is also noted down
without characters. In the text, the place names are written without the
notation of tones. All place names can be found in the Index of Chinese
place names, together with their respective characters.
Chinese linguistic terms are noted in the text together with their respec-
tive characters and pinyin spelling in italics, with the notation of tones. The
exceptions are Putonghua and pinyin.
The names of Chinese dialect groups are written without the notation of
tones and characters, except for places where they are described in detail.
The names of the main dialect groups used in the book are mostly pinyin
equivalents of the names in Putonghua, except for Hakka |,
established in sinology, and therefore used, rather than Kejia.
Website addresses referred to in this book are placed on a separate list
which follows the main References. Each entry is labeled with [www X],
where X stands for a consecutive number. This symbol is used throughout
the text as cross-references to the website addresses.
Internal cross-references indicate the number of the chapter and/or
subchapter, e.g. see Chapter 6.4. refers to the fourth subchapter
(Controversial issues) of the sixth chapter (The classification of Chinese
dialects according to The Language Atlas of China).
Technical notes

xiii
References to The Language Atlas of China are written as numbers of
the maps and at the same time the accompanying descriptions, e.g. Atlas:
A2, B14, etc.
A very brief chronology of Chinese history has been appended. Only the
dates of the reign of respective dynasties are given as reference.
A list of Chinese provinces, autonomous regions, Special Administrative
Regions and municipalities has been appended. The list is complemented
with the notation in Chinese characters and pinyin spelling, Chinese
abbreviations, as well as the names of capitals/seats of government. There
is also an index of personal names and one of Chinese place names.
A Chinese-English index-glossary of basic linguistic terminology used
in the book has been appended at the end of the book.

Contents
Acknowledgements....................................................................................vii
Preface.........................................................................................................ix
Abbreviations..........................................................................................xviii
List of tables, diagrams and illustrations...................................................xix
Chapter 1
Defining terminology...................................................................................1
1. fngyn versus dialect ..........................................................1
2. Dialects or languages..........................................................................2
3. Conclusions........................................................................................2
Chapter 2
Languages of China......................................................................................4
1. Classification of Chinese....................................................................4
2. Non-Chinese languages of China.......................................................5
3. Alternative classifications..................................................................8
Chapter 3
The language policy of the Peoples Republic of China regarding the
dialects of Chinese............................................................................10
1. The forming of Putonghua ...............................................................10
2. Language legislation.........................................................................10
3. Mutual inter-influence of dialects and Putonghua ...........................12
4. The status of Putonghua...................................................................13
Chapter 4
Chinese historical phonetics.......................................................................15
1. The structure of the syllable.............................................................15
2. Middle Chinese tones.......................................................................16
3. Middle Chinese initials.....................................................................18
4. Middle Chinese finals.......................................................................21
5. Fanqi e...............................................................................................22
6. Rhyme books ynsh.......................................................23
Chapter 5
Classifications of Chinese dialects.............................................................25
1. Criteria..............................................................................................25
2. A historical overview since the end of the nineteenth century.........36
Contents xvi
Chapter 6
The classification of Chinese dialects according to The Language Atl as
of Chi na ............................................................................................63
1. The Language Atl as of Chi na...........................................................63
2. Classification into smaller units.......................................................63
3. The classification..............................................................................64
4. Controversial issues..........................................................................74
5. General characteristics of the ten Chinese dialect groups................77
Chapter 7
Guidelines for field research of Chinese dialects.......................................91
1. Phonetics..........................................................................................91
2. Vocabulary.....................................................................................106
3. Grammar.........................................................................................121
Chapter 8
Analysis of The Great Di cti onar y of Moder n Chi nese Di al ects ..............128
1. Introduction....................................................................................128
2. Methods of research for The Great Di cti onar y of Moder n
Chi nese Di al ects.............................................................................134
3. The choice of dialect localities for The Great Di cti onar y of
Moder n Chi nese Di al ects...............................................................137
4. Background overview of explored places......................................157
Chapter 9
Information gathered from The Great Di cti onar y of Moder n Chi nese
Di al ects...........................................................................................184
1. Internal diversification...................................................................184
2. Phonetics........................................................................................186
3. Vocabulary.....................................................................................196
4. Grammar.........................................................................................201
Chapter 10
Summary and conclusions........................................................................203
1. Dialects or languages?....................................................................203
2. The language of the majority..........................................................204
3. Language policy.............................................................................204
4. Criteria............................................................................................205
5. Different classifications..................................................................205
6. Research methods...........................................................................206
7. Other aspects of modern dialectology............................................207
8. Chinese abroad...............................................................................207
Contents xvii
9. Are the dialects of China endangered?...........................................208
10. Tasks of Chinese dialectology........................................................208
11. The role of The Great Di cti onar y of Moder n Chi nese Di al ects.....208
A brief chronology of Chinese history since the Qin Dynasty.................210
Chinas main administrative units............................................................211
Notes ........................................................................................................213
References................................................................................................221
Chinese-English index-glossary of basic linguistic terminology.............252
Index of personal names...........................................................................266
Index of Chinese place names..................................................................271
Abbreviations
A.R. Autonomous Region |;lZizhiqu
Atlas The Language Atlas of China (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan yu
Aodaliya Renwen Kexueyuan 1987, 1989)
IPA International Phonetic Alphabet
S.A.R. Special Administrative Region ||]l Tebiexing
Zhengqu
List of tables, diagrams and illustrations
Page:
Table 1. Structure of a syllable 16
Table 2. Derivation of tones and their names 17
Table 3. Tone categories 18
Table 4. The traditional thirty six)zm 20
Table 5. ||lingh 21
Table 6. ||sh 22
Table 7. History of dialect classifications 5961
Table 8. Development of Middle Chinese syllables in
the)rsheng into modern Mandarin dia-
lects 89
Table 9. Development of Middle Chinese
qunzhu initials into modern dialects 90
Table 10. Tones of the Beijing dialect 96
Table 11. Initials of the Beijing dialect 97
Table 12. Finals of the Beijing dialect 97
Table 13. Table of homophonic characters for the [in]
final in the Beijing dialect 98
Table 14. Table of single characters for the [an, ian, uan,
yan] finals of the Beijing dialect 99
Table 15. Dialect groups and subgroups and their repre-
sentatives in The Great Dictionary of Mo-
dern Chinese Dialects
138142
Table 16. Provinces/A.R./Municipalities/S.A.R. and
their representatives in The Great Dictionary
of Modern Chinese Dialects
146147
Table 17. Representatives of dialects in preceding sur-
veys and in The Great Dictionary of Modern
Chinese Dialects
151154
Table 18. A choice of features of the forty two dialect
localities of The Great Dictionary of Modern
Chinese Dialects
181183
Table 19. Numbers of initials, finals and tones in the
forty two dialect localities and Putonghua 186188
List of tables, diagrams and illustrations
xx
Page:
Table 20. Tonal categories and their values in the forty
two dialect localities and Putonghua 188191
Table 21. Opposition between voiced and voiceless
plosive initials; plosive codas; nasal and
nasalized codas in the forty two dialect
localities and Putonghua
192194
Table 22. Words denoting sun and spring in the forty
two dialect localities and Putonghua 197200

Diagram 1. Percentage of subgroups of each dialect group
covered by The Great Dictionary of Modern
Chinese Dialects
142
Diagram 2. Percentage of volumes in The Great Diction-
ary of Modern Chinese Dialects against the
percentage of speakers of each dialect group
149

Figure 1. Sixteen |sh of Gungyn 24
Figure 2. Order of the sixteen |sh in Fangyan
Diaocha Zibiao
94
Figure 3. Order of the thirty six)zm in Fangyan
Diaocha Zibiao
9495
Figure 4. Symbols of [fqunf 106

Map 1. Distribution of the forty two dialect localities
of The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese
Dialects
144
Map 2. Distribution of the dialect localities of The
Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dia-
lects in southern China
145
Chapter 1
Defining terminology
1. , fngyn versus dialect
There is slight disagreement between the Chinese perception of the term
, fngyn and the western term dialect. The Chinese traditionally
refer to the local forms of their speech as , fngyn`, lit. regional
speech. This term is customarily translated into English as dialect,
though it seems that this translation is not fully accurate.
The Chinese definitions of , fngyn` do not take the parameter
of mutual intelligibility into consideration, whereas the western term dia-
lect usually applies this criterion as decisive, though not without excep-
tions (cf. Chambers and Trudgill 2003: 34; Bussman 2000: 125). This is
probably the main difference between the perception of the Chinese and
western terms.
The concept of regional linguistic varieties appeared in China at the
earliest around the time of the Zhou Dynasty. At that time it was called /
[) sh fng y y (different lands and distinct languages) (cf. Yuan
J iahua 2003: 1). The term , fngyn` was used for the first time
during the reign of the Western Han Dynasty by Yang Xiong in his work
entitled ||{|)], Youxuan shizhe juedai yu shi
bieguo fangyan (Study of dialect words of other states explained by the
light-carriage messenger), better known by its shortened name ,
Fangyan (see Liu J unhui et al. 1992; cf. He Gengyong 1984: 1; Zhan Bohui
et al. 2004: 19; Yan, M. M. 2006: 5).
Gao Mingkai and Shi Anshi (2002: 220221) present the definition of
, fngyn` as: a branch of the language of a nation, its local
variant. , fngyn is used by people living in a certain place, belong-
ing to a certain society, and it has characteristics of its own. You Rujie
(2000: 7) explains that we talk about dialects , fngynin contrast
to language ), yyn. The relationship between dialect and language
is the same as between specific and general. Language is a general term and
dialect a specific term. Dialects are the existent form of language, in every-
day life people use specific dialects, not general languages.
Defining terminology 2
The term , fngyn` can imply either a large dialect group, such
as Mandarin, Yue, Wu, etc., or a tongue used in a small area, such as the
Beijing dialect ;, Bijing fngyn, Shanghai dialect [
, Shnghi fngyn.
2. Dialects or languages
The debate as to whether or not the varieties of speech used by the Chinese
should be classified as separate languages or dialects of one language is a
difficult one, with reasons on both sides. The main criterion according to
which some scholars tend to use the English term language for the varie-
ties of Chinese, is the lack of mutual intelligibility between the various
forms of speech, the fact that the various Chinese dialects are as diverse
as the several Romance languages (Chomsky 2002: 15). On the other hand,
since there are no extra-linguistic (political, historical, geographical, cul-
tural) reasons to treat these dialects as individual languages, the tradition is
to call them dialects of Chinese (cf. DeFrancis 1984: 5457; Lin, Yen-Hwei
2007: 12, 363264; Crystal 2003: 287, 314; The Republic of China Year-
book 2000: 40, 41; Norman 1988: 187188; Gao Ran 1999a; Yan, M. M.
2006: 23).
Calling the varieties of Chinese dialects , fngyn rather than
languages does have a strong political undertone, as it serves the unity of
the Chinese people. If a vast majority of inhabitants speaks one language,
the country is also unified (cf. Chapter 3.1.).
The Chinese writing system is yet another factor which unifies the coun-
try. If the literary language is used to write down a text, then even if the
characters are pronounced differently in various parts of China, they can be
more or less understood by every speaker.
3. Conclusions
Perhaps the term , fngyn` is simply untranslatable and the
question will always provoke discussion. Nonetheless, since the Chinese
have been using the term since the time of the Han Dynasty to describe the
speech of the Han people, it maybe should not be changed.
The following words of Zhao Yuanren justify the treatment of Chinese
as one language (Zhao Yuanren 2004b: 965):
Conclusions 3
In the case of the dialects of Chinese, they are phonologically as divergent
from one another as German from Dutch or French from Italian. But the
historical association of the speakers of the dialects has always been main-
tained not only by the use of a common system of writing, but also by the
use of a common classical idiom, based on a common body of literature,
and more recently by the general use of a common modern dialect, usually
called Mandarin, so that there is a linguistic sense, as well as a poli-
tico-geographical sense in which one can speak of the Chinese language.
The choice between the terms dialect and language is not merely a
political question, but can also interfere in the sense of ethnic identity,
which is not the intention of the author. An analysis of the Chinese identity
and the role of the language as an ethnic flag could be an object for study in
the domain of linguistic anthropology.
Despite all the controversies, the term dialect will be applied to de-
scribe the Chinese , fngyn` in this book, as this form is deeply
rooted in the tradition of sinology, though one ought to remember that this
term is more or less a matter of convention.
Chapter 2
Languages of China
China is often regarded as a linguistic monolith, not only by people from
outside the country, but also by the Chinese themselves. This point of view
seems justified when one takes into account the fact that for about 92% of
the population the mother tongue is Chinese. However, if one takes a closer
look at the divergence of the dialects of Chinese, and observes that the
remaining 8% speak (officially) around eighty languages (cf. Zou and You
2001: 4; Zhou Qingsheng 2003: 250251; Li Rong 1989b; Dao Bu 2004:
67), then one should rather consider China as a vast mosaic of languages
and dialects (cf. Zhou Qingsheng 2003: 250251).
1. Classification of Chinese
Chinese is commonly classified as a sub-branch of the Sino-Tibetan lan-
guage family. However, the membership and classification of the Sino-
Tibetan family of languages is highly controversial (Crystal 2003: 312; cf.
Majewicz 1989: 66; Ruhlen 2004). Disregarding all the controversies
around the classification of this language family, it will be applied in this
book as the most popular existing view.
The Sino-Tibetan languages are divided into two branches: Sinitic and
Tibeto-Burman (cf. DeLancey 1987; Crystal 2003: 312313).
1
The Sinitic
branch denotes the Chinese dialects, the Tibeto-Burman several hundred
languages spoken from the Tibetan plateau in the north to the Malay Penin-
sula in the south and from northern Pakistan in the west, to northeastern
Vietnam in the east (DeLancey 1987: 799).
The Chinese language, in all its varieties, is spoken by more than a bil-
lion people, which is more than 20% of the global population, not only in
mainland China and Taiwan, but also throughout South-East Asia, as well
as in other parts of the world, e.g. in the United States (cf. Zou and You
2001: 1; Crystal 2003: 312).
Non-Chinese languages of China 5
2. Non-Chinese languages of China
Fifty six nationalities are officially recognized in China. The Han Chinese
constitute 91.59% of the population, minorities 8.41% (2000; cf. [www
12]). The Language Atlas of China (A1 [also Li Rong 1989b]; A4; C14)
lists around eighty officially recognized languages used in China
2
. They
belong to five language families (see also Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu.
Yuyan Wenzi Fence 1988: 523526):
1. Sino-Tibetan Family j)_Hnzng Yx
1.1. Sinitic Group Chinese )Hny
1.2. Tibeto-Burman Group j,) Zngmin Yz (26% of the
population speaking minority languages) (23 languages, spoken in:
Tibetan A.R., Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Hunan,
Hubei Provinces, Guangxi A.R.)
Tibetan j)Zngy
J iarong (~Gyarung, ~Rgyarung))Jirngy
Monba]])Mnby: Cona Monba )]])Cun
Mnby, Cangluo Monba ]])Cnglu Mnby
Lhoba (~Lopa) ]]) Luby: Bogaer Lhoba ]|]
]) Bgr Luby, Yidu Lhoba ]]) Yd
Luby
Dengj) Dngy: Geman Deng |j) Gmn Dng-
y, Darang Deng j)Drng Dngy
J ingpo (~Chingpaw, ~Kachin) [)Jngpy
Zaiwa (~J ingpo) ]])Ziwy
Derong (~Tulung, ~Drung) ))Dlngy
Nu)Ny
Qiang)Qingy
Primi (~Pumi) |/)Pmy
Yi (~Lolo) ,)Yy
Hani )Hny
Achang;)chngy
Lahu|)Lhy
J ino,)Jinuy
Lisu[])Lsy
Naxi (~Moso) ,)Nxiy
Bai ))Biy
Tujia (~Tuchia) )Tjiy
Languages of China 6
1.3. Miao-Yao (~Hmong-Mien) Group ,)) Mioyo Yz
(10.8%) (4 languages) (spoken in: Guizhou Province, Guangxi
A.R., Hunan, Yunnan, Guangdong Provinces)
Miao (~Hmong) ,)Mioy
Bunu)Bny
She,)Shey
3
Yao (~Mien) ))Yo (Min) y
1.4. Zhuang-Dong Group ]]) Zhung Dng Yz (14
languages) (spoken in: Guangxi A.R., Guizhou, Yunnan,
Guangdong Provinces)
Zhuang])Zhungy
Bouyei (~Buyei) |)Byiy
Dai ])Diy
Lingao|| Lngohu
Dong (~Kam)]) Dngy
Mulam ||)Mloy
Sui )Shuy
Maonan) Monny
Ten]Ynghung hu
Mojia (~Mak) Mhu
Lakia)Ljiy
Li (~Hlai) \) Ly
Cun|Cnhu
Gelao (~Gelo, ~Kelao) |)Geloy
2. Altaic Family ()_rti Yx
2.1. Mongolic Group ,) Mngg Yz (6 languages)
(spoken in: Inner Mongolia A.R., Xinjiang A.R., Gansu, Qinghai,
Heilongjiang, J ilin, Liaoning Provinces)
Mongolian ,)Mnggy
Dongxiang (~Santa) )Dngxingy
Tu (~Monguor) )Tzy
Daur )Dwry
Bonan (~Paoan) ])Bony
Eastern Yugur ;|)Dngb Ygy
2.2. Manchu-Tungusic Group -j,))Mn-Tnggsi Yz
(5 languages) (spoken in: Heilongjiang, J ilin, Liaoning Provinces,
Xinjiang A.R.)
Ewenki (~Owenk) ) wenky
Xibe,|)Xiby
Non-Chinese languages of China 7
Manchu (~Man) ) Mny
Oroqenj)lnchny
Hezhen (~Hoche) )Hzhy
2.3. Turkic Group ]) Tju Yz (8 languages) (spoken in:
Xinjiang A.R., Qinghai, Gansu Provinces)
Uygur ;)Wiwry
Kazak})Hsky
Kirgiz ])Kerkziy
Salar j)Sly
Western Yugur ;|)Xib Ygy
Uzbek_)Wzibiky
Tatar ,,)Ttry
Tuvan ])Twy
3. Austro-Asiatic Family )_ Nny Yx (3 languages)
(spoken in: Yunnan Province)
Mon-Khmer Group ||)Mng-Gomin Yz
Deang (~Palaung, ~Shwe) j,)Dngy
Va |)Wy
Blang|)Blngy
4. Austronesian Family _)_ Nndo Yx (12 languages)
(spoken in: Taiwan)
The languages of the Taiwan Gaoshan people | Goshnz
belonging to the Indonesian language group j)
Yndnxiy Yz
4.1. Atayalic ())[Tiyer Ytun:
Atayal ())Tiyery
Taroko ]j)Sidy
4.2. Tsouic )[Zu Ytun
Tsou )Zuy
Kanakanabu)Knknby
Saaroa;)Shly
4.3. Paiwanic|])[Piwn Ytun
Amis (Pangcah) ))misiy
Paiwan|]Piwn
Bunun()Bnngy
Rukai |)Lkiy
Puyuma )Beinny
Saisiyat })|)Ssity
Thao()Shoy
Languages of China 8
4.4. Yami ))Yemiy
5. Indo-European Family )_ Ynu Yx (2 languages)
(spoken in: Xinjiang A.R., Inner Mongolia A.R.)
Iranian language group |) Yilng Yz: Tajik ,
)Tjky
Slavic language group )5)Silf Yz: Russian ]
))lusiy
6. Non-defined language family
4
Korean=)Choxiny
Gin (~Vietnamese) ;)Jingy
Huihui (~Tsat, ~Cham) }'Huhuihu
3. Alternative classifications
3.1. Li Fanggui |
In 1937 Li Fanggui published an article in the Chinese Yearbook (Li Fang-
gui [1937] 1973), in which he described the then current linguistic situation
in China. According to his classification, the languages of China could be
divided into the following families and branches (Li Fanggui 1973: 1):
1. Indo-Chinese (Tibeto-Chinese, Sino-Tibetan, Sinitic)
a. Chinese
b. Kam-Tai
c. Miao-Yao
d. Tibeto-Burman
2. Austro-Asiatic:
a. Mon-Khmer
3. Altaic:
a. Turkish
b. Mongolian
c. Tungus
4. Indo-European
a. Tokharian (extinct)
Alternative classifications 9
3.2. S. Robert Ramsey
Ramsey (1987: 157291) gives a brief description of the minority lan-
guages of China. He divides the non-Chinese languages of China into two
linguistic areas: the North and the South. The languages of the North are
almost all Altaic languages The languages in the South are an extension
of the Southeast Asian linguistic area (Ramsey 1987: 171). Yet, the
author does not include the third linguistic area formed by Tibet and adja-
cent parts of West China, nor the island of Taiwan (Ramsey 1987: 172).
He lists and describes the minority languages divided into the following
groups:
The Minorities of North China:
1. Turkic (Ramsey 1987: 179194)
2. Mongolian (Ramsey 1987: 194212)
3. Tungus (Ramsey 1987: 212229)
The Minorities of South China:
4. Tai (Ramsey 1987: 232248)
5. Tibeto-Burman (Ramsey 1987: 248278)
6. Miao-Yao (Ramsey 1987: 278286)
7. Mon Khmer (Ramsey 1987: 286287)
8. Unclassified or Isolated Languages (Ramsey 1987: 287291)
3.3. SIL International
5
The online version of Ethnologue, an encyclopaedic reference work
cataloguing all of the worlds 6,909 known living languages (see [www
2]), presented by SIL International, lists 292 living languages in China,
including 13 dialects of Chinese and Chinese Sign Language (see [www 3])
and 22 languages in Taiwan (including 3 dialects of Chinese and Taiwan
Sign Language) (see [www 4]). This then totals 279 non-Chinese languages
in mainland China, along with 18 in Taiwan (some may be repeated in both
places).
The classification by SIL International differs greatly from the official
one of the Peoples Republic of China. The dissimilarities lie mostly in the
problem of recognition of languages as well as the criteria for treating the
varieties as dialects or individual languages.
Chapter 3
The language policy of the Peoples Republic of
China regarding the dialects of Chinese
6
1. The forming of Putonghua
Because of the diversity of languages and dialects in China, it is natural that
the need to create a linguistic standard, or a national language has come
about. The common language is supposed to become one of the pillars of
unity of the country, the means of communication between the local lan-
guages and dialects, and a means of controlling the inhabitants. The origin
of the Chinese national language goes back as far as to the time of the
Western Zhou Dynasty (1046256 BC). Its basis has always been the
Northern Dialects , Bifng Fngyn. Since the time of the
Ming Dynasty, the standard language has been called Gunhu, i.e.
Mandarin (cf. Li Rulong 2003a: 57; You Rujie 2004: 2628; L J iping
2002: 4147).
At present, the national standard in China is Putonghua |j
Ptnghu (literally common speech). Putonghua has also been created
on the basis of the Northern Dialects, i.e. Mandarin Dialects. The Beijing
pronunciation was used as the phonetic foundation. Model works written
in the modern )bihu
7
have been chosen as the grammatical founda-
tion. The process of creating the standard language was a long one. Offi-
cially, Putonghua was declared the common language of the Han people in
1955 (cf. Chen Zhangtai 2005: 107; Song Xinqiao ed. 2004: 1314; Tan
Dazheng ed. 2000: 181182; Quanguo Renda 2001: 4345). In article 19
of the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China, legislated in 1982, it
is declared that The state promotes the nationwide use of Putonghua
(seeZhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa 2004: 24, 25; cf. Dao Bu 2004:
72).
2. Language legislation
The Peoples Republic of China Law of the Countrys Common Language
and Writing (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Guojia Tongyong Yuyan Wenzi
Language legislation 11
Fa '[)|]]jj),) (see Quanguo Renda 2001:
49), which has been valid since 2001, in the second article of the first
section, declares Putonghua and the standardized Chinese characters the
common language and writing of the Peoples Republic of China. In the
third article it is once again stated that the country promotes the
popularization of Putonghua and the standardized characters (see Quan-
guo Renda 2001: 4). The fourth article of the Constitution of the Peoples
Republic of China declares that all nationalities have the freedom to use
and develop their own spoken and written languages (see Zhonghua
Renmin Gongheguo Xianfa 2004: 14, 15; cf. Dao Bu 2004: 72).
In the Constitution, nothing is said about the protection of the dialects of
Chinese. This has caused some peculiar situations, such as the one de-
scribed by Frank Anshen (2001: 710711), when the government protects
and encourages the rights of minorities by publishing materials in their
languages, at the same time neglecting the vast groups of speakers of
individual dialects of Chinese, by not providing them with such privileges.
This is one of the ways in which the government wants to unify the Chinese
language.
The two points, i.e. the popularization of Putonghua all over the country,
and the right of the national minorities to use their own languages, are the
main goals of the Chinese language policy.
The rules of when to use dialects are precisely described in article 16 of
the language law (Quanguo Renda 2001: 67, English translation at
[www 15]):
Local dialects may be used under the following circumstances:
when State functionaries really need to use them in the performance of
official duties;
where they are used in broadcasting with the approval of the
broadcasting and television administration under the State Council or of
the broadcasting and television department at the provincial level;
where they are needed in traditional operas, films and TV programs and
other forms of art; and
where their use is really required in the publishing, teaching and
research.
As one can see, the possibility of using dialects is quite rigorously re-
stricted by the law. That does not, of course, prohibit the everyday users of
dialects to speak their own variety of the language. It is often repeated in
commentaries to the language law, that the aim of the promotion of
The language policy of the PRC 12
Putonghua is certainly not to eliminate the dialects, but to remove the
estrangement between various dialects (cf. Zhou Qingsheng 2003: 253;
Quanguo Renda 2001: 47; 292; Quanguo Ganbu... 2002: 3233). Dis-
semination of the common language means that the people who speak dia-
lects should also know the national standard. This standard is to be used in
official circumstances, such as schools, offices, etc. (cf. Quanguo Renda
2001: 47; Quanguo Ganbu... 2002: 33). This way, the dialects have in fact
been pushed away to become a marginal part of social life.
The use of the standard language is also widely promoted in all kinds of
media, films, literature. Nevertheless, as it is stated in the third section of
article 16 of the language law, the use of dialects is allowed in some cases.
These cases are local operas, folk ballads, musical storytelling, comic dia-
logues and other forms of folk performing art. The second section of this
article permits some particular use of dialects in radio and television. Al-
though existing local TV and radio stations, which have been transmitting
programs using dialects, did not have to be closed after the law came into
force, it is at the same time not recommended to create new channels and
programs in which dialects would be used. In the areas where dialects
dominate, new channels should be established, which would transmit pro-
grams in Putonghua (cf. Quanguo Renda 2001: 79).
According to the twelfth article of the law of the educational system, the
usage of Putonghua has become obligatory in schools and institutions of
higher education. An exception has been made for national minorities, in
reference to the above-mentioned article four of the Constitution of the
Peoples Republic of China (see Quanguo Renda 2001: 278279).
In reality, because of the large size of China, the population density, the
big diversity of languages and dialects, as well as the differences in
development between regions, dialects are still often used in education.
Moreover, it happens that dialects are spoken even at government level, and
at various conferences and celebrations. Also, in the judicature, at local TV
stations, or in industry one can find that Putonghua is not yet fully spread
(cf. Zhou Qingsheng 2003: 258; L J iping ed. 2002: 83120).
3. Mutual inter-influence of dialects and Putonghua
The expansion of the standard language in a natural way influences the
local varieties of the language. At the same time, paradoxically, this process
is also reversed. As the standard changes the dialects, so do some dialectal
The status of Putonghua 13
features penetrate the standard. This can most clearly be seen in areas that
are far from the capital. Yet, this mutual interaction, which is a normal reac-
tion to the unification of the language, is not symmetrical. Dialects are far
more influenced by Putonghua, than the other way round (cf. Li Rulong
2003: 7; Quanguo Renda 2001: 4748; Guo 2004). More and more
differences emerge between the older generations, who speak a conserva-
tive form of their dialects, and the younger generations, who are gradually
surrendering to the power of Putonghua (You Rujie 2004: 27).
Thus, although Putonghua is partially an artificial creation, it has be-
come a living language with all the consequences of being one. The stan-
dard continues to be the standard, and there is only one true language. At
the same time, however, far from the capital, it takes different shapes. That
is how the expression non-standard Putonghua |^[|j b
biozhn de Ptnghu has come into being. Various degrees of confor-
mity of speech with the national model can be distinguished, depending on
how far it strays away from the origin (cf. Quanguo Renda 2001: 292).
Here, another new term has emerged: local Putonghua j|j
dfng Ptnghu.
The language spoken by people with at least secondary education, who
have studied in Beijing, or people who come from dialectal areas, but
whose speech does not contain the slightest dialectal influence, is consid-
ered the Putonghua of the best quality. The non-standard Putonghua
means all its local varieties, to a greater or lesser extent different from the
pure form (cf. Chen Zhangtai 2005: 110112).
4. The status of Putonghua
Being the standard language, as well as the language of the educated part of
society, Putonghua is often viewed as the language of the elite.
8
This may
encourage the populace to learn this esteemed tongue, which may further
lead to the abandonment by the inhabitants of their home dialects, in order
to speak the language of high society.
One statement seems particularly interesting in this light, i.e. that one
of the main responsibilities of Chinese dialectology is to help the spread of
Putonghua (see Beijing Shi Yuyanxuehui 2004: 248). One of the achieve-
ments of the dialectologists in this field is making comparisons between the
standard and the dialects, as well as teaching the standard to people in
dialectal areas (cf. Beijing Shi Yuyanxuehui 2004: 248).
The language policy of the PRC 14
A national conference on the workings of the national language ]
),, Quanguo Yuyan Wenzi Gongzuo Huiyi was held in
Beijing in 1997. During this conference the main tasks for the first half of
the twenty first century were set. Before 2010, Putonghua is meant to be
pre-spread throughout the country. This process is to be completed by
mid-century. As far as dialects are concerned, this pre-spreading means
that unintelligibility between dialects should be basically removed. The
total spread indicates that all the communicational barriers between dialects
are to disappear (cf. Zhou Qingsheng 2003: 258259; [www 14]).
Chapter 4
Chinese historical phonetics
To study the phonetics of Chinese dialects, one must be familiar to some
extent with Chinese historical phonetics ) , , Hny
yinynxu, also known as Chinese traditional phonology, as it is com-
monly applicable while researching the phonetic system of modern dialects
from the diachronic j}lsh perspective.
9
The beginning of ,,yinynxu dates back to the end of the Eastern
Han Dynasty (25220 A.D.) and the invention of | fnqi, the tradi-
tional method of transcribing characters (see Chapter 4.5.). It deals with the
phonetics of different periods in the history of Chinese. For the diachronic
research of modern dialects, the most important era is Middle Chinese
,,zhnggyin, the time of the Sui, Tang and Song Dynasties.
The diachronic method of researching the phonetics of dialects consists
mainly in comparing the phonetic system of modern dialects with the pho-
netic system of Guangyun ,, a rhyme book which was written
during the time of the Song Dynasty (see Chapter 4.6.2.).
1. The structure of the syllable
According to the traditional partition, a Chinese syllable , yinji
consists of three components: the initial (the onset) ))shengm, the
final ,) ynm and the tone )j shengdio. The initial is
usually made up of a consonant, except for those cases where the so-called
zero initial )) lngshengm occurs. The final can be divided into
three parts: the medial (the onglide, head vowel of the final) ,yntu
or ], jiyin, the nucleus (the essential vowel of the final, the nuclear
vowel) ,] ynf or], zhyo yunyin and the coda (ending
of the final) ,ynwi. The coda can be either a vowel (offglide) or
a consonant (a nasal or a voiceless stop). Of all these components, only the
nucleus and the tone are essential in forming a syllable (cf. Lin and Geng
2004: 2225; Yan, M. M. 2006: 910; Wang Li 2004: 1828; Chen, M. Y.
Chinese historical phonetics 16
2001: 45). Thus, the syllable structure can be shown in the following dia-
gram (after Lin and Geng 2004: 23):
10
Table 1. Structure of a syllable.
11
TONE )jshengdio
FINAL ,)ynm
INITIAL
))
shengm
MEDIAL
,
yntu
NUCLEUS
,]
ynf
CODA
,
ynwi
2. Middle Chinese tones
The tones of modern Chinese dialects are believed to have evolved from
the four tonal categories of Middle Chinese pronunciation |)
ssheng, i.e. the level tone ) pngsheng, rising tone )
shngsheng or shngsheng
12
, falling tone ,) qsheng and enter-
ing tone )rsheng (cf. Lin and Geng 2004: 59).
The classification of tones in the modern Chinese dialects is closely re-
lated to voiceless and voiced qingzhu initials of Middle Chinese
(see Chapter 4.3.). Each of the four classical tones is divided into yin
| and yng [ categories j dioli. The tones deriving
from the syllables with voiceless qing initials are called yin |
(namely: | yinpng, | yinshng, |, yinq, | yinr), the ones
deriving from the syllables with voiced zhu initials yng [
(namely: [yngpng, [yngshng, [,yngq, [yngr) (cf.
Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 122; Lin and Geng 2004: 59; Chen, M. Y. 2001: 7
11) (see Table 2., based on Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 123). The tone values
jj diozh of the respective tone categories j dioli are
diverse in different modern dialects. The number of tone categories varies
as well; the tones have split and merged into different tone categories with
different tone values (cf. Chen, M. Y. 2001: 713; You Rujie 2000: 24, see
also Chapter 9.2.1.2.).
Middle Chinese tones 17
Table 2. Derivation of tones and their names.
Middle Chinese name of
tone
Middle Chinese initial Derived tone name
))
qing shengm
voiceless initials
|
yinpng )
pngsheng
level tone ))
zhu shengm
voiced initials
[
yngpng
))
qing shengm
voiceless initials
|
yinshng )
shngsheng
rising tone ))
zhu shengm
voiced initials
[
yngshng
))
qing shengm
voiceless initials
|,
yinq ,)
qsheng
falling tone ))
zhu shengm
voiced initials
[,
yngq
))
qing shengm
voiceless initials
|
yinr )
rsheng
entering tone ))
zhu shengm
voiced initials
[
yngr
There is also another way of dividing the tones into two categories, namely
the)pngsheng level tone and the ))zsheng oblique tones. The
former category is represented only by the level tone )pngsheng,
while the remaining three tones (i.e. rising tone ) shngsheng,
falling tone ,)qsheng and entering tone )rsheng belong
to the latter category.
Syllables are also divided into two classes depending on the type of end-
ing: short or checked syllables j) csheng, literally short
tone and smooth or slack syllables ) shsheng, literally
smooth tone. The checked syllables have an occlusive as the ending,
and only the syllables in the entering tone )rsheng belong to this
class. The smooth syllables are either open syllables or ones ending with
nasal stops; syllables in the level tone ) pngsheng, rising tone
) shngsheng and falling tone ,) qsheng belong to this
class (cf. Chen, M. Y. 2001: 56; Feng, Liang and Yang 1997: 119, 522)
(seeTable 3.).
Table 3. Tone categories.
)
pngsheng
level tone
)
shngsheng
rising tone
,)
qsheng
falling tone
)
rsheng
entering tone
)
pngsheng
level tone
))
zsheng
oblique tone
)
shsheng
smooth tone
j)
csheng
short tone
3. Middle Chinese initials
During the time of the Tang and Song Dynasties the term ,wyin (liter-
ally: five sounds) was used to describe the five points of consonant
articulation. These five sounds were:
;,yyin molar teeth sound, meaning velar sounds
,,shyin lingual sounds
,chnyin labial sounds
j,chyin dental sounds
,huyin laryngeal sounds
Later, two other sounds were added to the list:
,,bnshyin half-tongue sounds lateral sounds
j,bnchyin half-teeth sounds dorsal sounds
13
In this way the , qiyin (seven sounds) concept came into being.
Shortly thereafter, there occurred a more detailed classification of the
sounds. The, chnyin, ,, shyin and j, chyin underwent further
divisions:
,chnyin into:
,zhngchnyin heavy labial sounds bilabial sounds
j,qingchnyin light labial sounds labiodental sounds
Middle Chinese initials 19
,, shyin into:
,, shtuyin middle apical plosive, nasal and lateral sounds
,, shshngyin dorsal plosive and nasal sounds
j, chyin into:
j, chtuyin top-of-teeth sounds affricate and fricative
apico-dental sounds
j, zhngchyin centre-of-teeth sounds affricate and frica-
tive dorsal sounds

Altogether ten categories were created, but then the ,, bnshyin
and j, bnchyin were treated as one, and thus the , jiyin (nine
sounds) were established (cf. Tang Zuofan 2004: 3436; Lin and Geng
2004: 5658; Wang Li 2004b: 7477; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 8384; Liu
Zhicheng 2004: 4950).
As to the manner of articulation, consonants were divided into qing
(voiceless) and zhu (voiced). These were then divided into qun-
qing, ] cqing, qunzhu and ] czhu. The features of each of
these classes were as follows (cf. Tang Zuofan 2004: 3638; Lin and Geng
2004: 57; Wang Li 2004b: 7779; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 8486; Liu Zhicheng
2004: 5152):
qunqing voiceless, unaspirated plosives, affricates and frica-
tives
] cqing voiceless, aspirated plosives and affricates
qunzhu voiced plosives, affricates and fricatives
] czhu voiced nasals, laterals and semivowels

Another important concept related to the initials of Middle Chinese is
) zm a character representing an initial consonant. Shou Wen, a monk
who lived at the end of the Tang Dynasty and the beginning of the Five
Dynasties, created a list of thirty ) zm. Later, in the time of the Song
Dynasty a further six ) zm were added. The traditional list of thirty
six ) zm has been used by Chinese phoneticians ever since (cf. Tang
Zuofan 2004: 3036 Wang Li 2004b: 7180; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 8083; Liu
Zhicheng 2004: 4349).
The thirty six ) zm can be put into a table showing their phonetic
features (the modern pronunciation in Putonghua is given in pinyin) (after
Tang Zuofan 2004: 33; cf. You Rujie 2004: 87):
Table 4. The traditional thirty six )zm.

qun-
qing
]
cqing

qun-
zhu
]
czhu

qun-
qing

qun-
zhu
;,
yyin

jin

x

qn
)
y

,
,
shtu
yin

dun

tu

dng

n
,,
shyin
,
,
sh-
shng-
yin

)
zh

|
ch

chng

(
ning

,
zhng-
chn-
yin

bng

png

}
bng

|
mng
,
chn-
yin
j
,
qing-
chn-
yin

(
fi

f

fng

]
wi

j
,
chtu-
yin

|
jng

qng

)
cng

(
xn

(
xi
j,
chyin
j
,
zhng-
chyin

|
zho

chun

chung

'
shn

chn
,
huyin

yng
j
y
|
xio
[
xi
,,
bnshyin

li

j,
bnchyin

r

Middle Chinese finals 21
4. Middle Chinese finals
14
The basic concept in terms of traditional finals is , ynli. Various
syllables belong to the same , ynli if their finals are identical, i.e.
when the medial, nucleus and coda as well as the tone are the same (cf. Lin
and Geng 2004: 54).
Syllables belong to the same, yn if the , ynji (i.e. the nucleus
and coda) and the tone are the same. A ,yn can include one or several ,
ynli (cf. Lin and Geng 2004: 5455).
When the ,ynji is the same, but the tone is not, then they belong to
the same ,;ynb (cf. Lin and Geng 2004: 55).
,| ynsh (or | sh) is a category which consists of , yn which
have the same or a similar nucleus and coda. The number of ,yn in each
| sh varies (cf. Lin and Geng 2004: 55; Liu Zhicheng 2004: 6769; Zou
Xiaoli 2002: 8788; Tang Zuofan 2004: 7071; see also Chapter 4.6.2.).
Depending on the type of medial and nucleus, during the time of the
Song and Yuan Dynasties, syllables were divided into two classes, called |
|lingh, namely: ;| kikuh (or ; kiku) open and {
| hkuh (or { hku) closed.
15
;| kikuh syllables were
ones which did not have the medial nor the nucleus [u], while {| h-
kuh syllables contained the medial or nucleus [u] (cf. Tang Zuofan 2004:
46, Liu Zhicheng 2004: 5456; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 8687) (see Table 5.).
Table 5. ||lingh.
class: type of final:
;|kikuh without [u]
{|hkuh with [u]
Since the time of the Ming Dynasty, due to changes in the phonetic system,
Chinese syllables have been divided into four classes ||sh: ;
|kikuh syllables without a medial and with a nucleus other than [i],
[u] or [y] (e.g. [kan]); ,j| qchih syllables with the medial or nu-
cleus [i] (e.g. [tcian]) ; {| hkuh syllables with the medial or nu-
cleus [u] (e.g. [kuan]); ]| cukuh syllables with the medial or
nucleus [y] (e.g. [tcyan]) (cf. Lin and Geng 2004: 2324; Wang Li 2004b:
22; Tang Zuofan 2004: 4647; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 8687).

Table 6. ||sh.
class: type of final:
;|kikuh without [i], [u], [y]
,j|qchih with [i]
{|hkuh with [u]
]|cukuh with [y]
The syllables were further divided into four grades | s dng. This
division is also based on different categories of medials and finals. Every
, ynli is ascribed to one of the four grades dng. Linguists
have still not reached a consensus as to the rules of grouping finals into the
four grades. What is known is that the categorization is based upon the
presence or absence of [i] as the medial and differences in the openness of
the nucleus. Finals belonging to the third grade sndng had [i]
as the medial. It is not clear on which basis the other finals were divided
into respective grades. The first grade yidng and the second
graderdng together are called vast sound ;,hngyin;
the third grade sndng and the fourth grade | sdng
together are called thin sound ;, xyin. These names denote that
the first two grades were more open than the latter two (cf. Lin and Geng
2004: 5556).
16
5. Fanqie
| fnqi (also called fn or | qi) is a traditional method of
transcription, in which the pronunciation of a character is indicated by the
use of two other characters. The first of these two is called |fnqi
shngz, the second one | fnqi xiz; the character the
pronunciation of which is being described | bi fnqi z. The
first character indicates the initial of |bi fnqi z, and the second
one, the final and tone.
For example, the pronunciation of is explained as `)|, mean-
ing that one should take the initial of the character ` [tap] and the final
together with the tone of ) [ku
11
] to get the reading of [tu
11
] (in
modern Putonghua) (example taken from Tang Zuofan 2004: 19).
17
Rhyme books

23
6. Rhyme books ,ynsh
Rhyme books are rather like dictionaries which arrange Chinese characters
into rhyme categories and homophones. The rhymes were to help poets
when composing poems. At the same time, the pronunciation of a series of
homophones was written down, using the | fnqi method (see Chapter
4.5.), in order to correct the dialectal accents. Rhyme books also give an
explanation of the meaning of the characters used, so they can also serve as
dictionaries (cf. Wang Li 2004: 47). These books show the phonetic system
of Middle Chinese, which is selected to be the starting point for the survey
of the phonetics of modern Chinese dialects. The most important books of
this kind are Qieyun |, and Guangyun ,.
6.1. Qieyun |,
Qieyun is one of the most important Chinese rhyme books. It was compiled
by Lu Fayan in 601 A.D., i.e. during the time of the Sui Dynasty. The origi-
nal has not stood the test of time and only a few remnants exist. It consisted
of five volumes, including altogether 193 , yn and around 11500 charac-
ters.
18

Although most of the original of Qieyun has perished, it has been the
base of Tangyun j,
19
, which in turn has been the basis for writing
Guangyun ,.
6.2. Guangyun ,
The full title of Guangyun is ,], (Dasong Chongxiu Guangyun)
(The Song Dynastys Recompiled Extensive Rhyming Dictionary). It was
written in 1008 A.D. (during the reign of the Song Dynasty) by Chen Peng-
nian, Qiu Yong and others, on the base of Qieyun and Tangyun and other
rhyme books. It consists of five volumes with 26194 characters divided into
206 , yn (rhymes). Since it has been preserved, unlike its predecessors, it
is at present the most important source of knowledge about the phonetic
system of Middle Chinese.
The rhymes are sorted into tones. The five volumes include two vol-
umes for the level tone ) pngsheng (28 and 29 rhymes respec-
tively), and one for each of the remaining tones i.e. the rising tone )
Chinese historical phonetics

24
shngsheng (55 rhymes), the falling tone ,) qsheng (60 rhymes)
and the entering tone ) rsheng (34 rhymes) (see Chapter 4.4.).
The 206 rhymes of Guangyun have been divided into sixteen | sh
(rhyme groups) (see Chapter 4.4.). These are (the modern pronunciation of
the characters in Putonghua is given in pinyin, see also: Lin and Geng 2004:
55; Tang Zuofan 2004: 71; You Rujie 2004: 8992):

1. j tng 9. gu
2. jing 10. j ji
3. ) zh 11. { dng
4. y 12. | gng
5. xi 13. zng
6. ) zhng 14. li
7. shn 15. , shn
8. ; xio 16. j xin
Figure 1. Sixteen |sh of Guangyun.

It is still not clear whether Guangyun is a description of the phonetic sys-
tem of a single form of speech at one point in time, or if it is a synthetic
description of various forms of speech from different regions or from
different historical periods. What is certain is that it has been the model for
the standard written language for centuries (cf. Li Rulong 2003a: 81).
20.

Showing the phonetics of the literary language of Middle Chinese,
Guangyun can serve as the point of reference for the research of modern
dialects. However, it should not be treated as the origin of all the dialects,
as it is evident that dialects had already split before the time of the Song
Dynasty (cf. Li Rulong 2003a: 8182, 1996a: 1).

Chapter 5
Classifications of Chinese dialects
1. Criteria
The scholar who passes as the first to present quite clear and methodologi-
cal criteria for the classification of Chinese dialects was Wang Li in 1936
(see Chapter 5.2.5.). The main parameter of division which he used were
Middle Chinese qunzhu initials in modern pronunciation (cf. Li
Xiaofan 2005: 360).
Nowadays, the classification of Chinese dialects is usually made on the
basis of both diachronic j} lsh and synchronic )} gngsh
criteria. The diachronic features denote the historical changes in the pho-
netic system of the Chinese language since the times of Middle Chinese.
Comparing the phonetic system of Middle Chinese with those of today has
been the most popular method for classifying Chinese dialects in modern
dialectology. It has been applied by many scholars, such as Zhao Yuanren
(see Chapter 5.2.8.), Li Fanggui (see Chapter 5.2.7.), as well as by Li Rong
in the Atlas (see Chapter 6.; Chapter 6.4.) (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 347; You
Rujie 2000: 50). The synchronic aspects refer to the differences between
modern dialects as well as to their special features.
1.1. Phonetic characteristics
Traditionally, the phonetic characteristics have been most widely applied
and are still considered the most important parameters for dialect classifica-
tion (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 5859; Li Rulong 1996b: 20). This chapter
presents the views of some of the scholars on phonetic criteria since the
beginning of the 1980s.
1.1.1. Ding Bangxin |]
In 1982 Ding Bangxin published an article in which he discusses the prob-
lem of the choice of criteria for dialect classification (Ding Bangxin 1998a).

26
Ding lists the features applied by some of his most renowned predecessors:
Li Fanggui (1937, see Chapter 5.2.7.), R.A.D. Forrest (1973, first published
in 1948, see Chapter 5.2.9.), Dong Tonghe (1953, see Chapter 5.2.10.),
Yuan Jiahua (2003, first published in 1960, see Chapter 5.2.14.), Zhan Bo-
hui (1981, see Chapter 5.1.1.2.). These criteria are as follows (Ding
Bangxin 1998a: 167; cf. Yan, M. M. 2006: 1415):

For initials:
1. Evolution of Middle Chinese qunzhu plosive initials
2. Modern continuants of Middle Chinese bilabial plosives before fi-
nals belonging to the third grade sndng of {| h-
kuh
3. Differentiation or merging of [f-] and [xu]
4. Modern continuants of Middle Chinese ) (zh), | (ch),
(chng) initials
5. Differentiation or merging of [n-] and [l-]
6. Modern continuants of Middle Chinese | (zho), (chun),
(chung), ' (shn) and (chn) initials
7. Palatalization of Middle Chinese velar initials
8. Denasalization of Middle Chinese nasal initials
9. Presence or absence of voiced affricates and voiced fricatives

For finals:
10. Differentiation or merging of medials
11. Monophthongization and diphthongization of vowels
12. Length of vowels
13. Evolution of Middle Chinese plosive codas
14. Evolution of Middle Chinese nasal codas

For tones:
15. Differentiation or merging and number of tonal categories
16. Evolution of the Middle Chinese entering tone ) rsheng

Both the quality and the number of criteria applied by the scholars are
subjects for discussion. The sets of features are composed on rather
heterogeneous grounds some are diachronic, some synchronic, and the
hierarchy is not obvious. Ding tries to find the most thoroughgoing norms.
He proposes the following rule (Ding Bangxin 1998a: 168; cf. Yan, M. M.
2006: 15):
21

Criteria

27
On the basis of the history of Chinese phonetics, major dialect groups ,
, d fngyn are classified according to early historical conditions;
sub-dialects ], c fngyn are classified according to late histori-
cal conditions; dialect clusters , xio fngyn are determined
according to synchronic conditions. Early and late are relative terms; it
may not be possible to indicate the exact times. The weight of the criteria
should be decided upon according to their sequence in time; the earliest
features are most important, the latest ones determine the differences of
synchronic nature.

The criteria can be divided in two ways: either depending on the diachronic
and synchronic nature, or depending on the general and specific nature. The
universal rules are applied to every dialect; specific ones can describe the
characteristics of a single dialect (cf. Ding Bangxin 1998a: 168169).
On the basis of the following criteria, Ding classifies the Chinese dia-
lects into seven major groups (Mandarin, Wu, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Min,
Yue) (Ding Bangxin 1998a: 171172):
General criteria:
1. Evolution of Middle Chinese qunzhu plosive initials [b-, d-,
g-]
2. Evolution of Middle Chinese plosive codas [-p, -t, -k]

Specific criteria:
3. Whether or not Middle Chinese ) (zh), | (ch), (chng) ini-
tials are pronounced as [t, t]
4. Whether or not the Middle Chinese ] czhu syllables in the
rising tone ) shngsheng (such as _ (m), (mi), |
(l), (lng), | (wn)) are at present pronounced in the | yin-
png tone

Additional criteria:
5. Evolution of Middle Chinese velar initials [k-, k-, x-] in front of
closed front vowels
6. Evolution of the Middle Chinese tonal categories

Ding Bangxins article has had a great impact on Chinese dialectologists
up to this day and many scholars hold his views in high esteem (cf. Wang
Futang 2005: 60; Li Rulong 2003a: 3536; [www 5]: 1011; You Rujie
2000: 5051; Yan, M. M. 2006: 1416; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 53).

28
1.1.2. Zhan Bohui |
In 1981 Zhan Bohui presented the following characteristics of the Chinese
dialects (Zhan Bohui 1981: 2346; see also Chapter 5.1.1.1.):
1. Retention and change in the place of articulation of Middle Chi-
nese velars
2. Retention and disappearance of Middle Chinese qunzhu
initials
3. Differentiation or merging of [f-] and [xu]
4. Differentiation or merging of [n-] and [l-]
5. Different developments of Middle Chinese initials belonging to the
) zm ) (zh) and | (zho)
9. Retention and disappearance of Middle Chinese plosive codas
10. Evolution of the Middle Chinese four tones

In ),,,j[ (Hanyu Fangyan ji Fangyan Diaocha), the
work of which Zhan Bohui was the chief editor (Zhan Bohui et al. 2004,
first edition published in 1991), Zhan lists the following features as most
commonly referred to by Chinese dialectologists (Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
53):
1. Evolution of Middle Chinese qunzhu plosive initials
belonging to the following ) zm: } (bng), (dng),
(qn)
2. Modern continuants of Middle Chinese j, qingchnyin ini-
tials
3. Modern continuants of the following Middle Chinese ) zm:
) (zh), | (ch), (chng)
4. Modern continuants of Middle Chinese | (zho), (chun),
(chung), ' (shn), (chn) initials
5. Differentiation or merging of Middle Chinese (n) and (li)
initials
6. Palatalization of Middle Chinese velar initials
8. Evolution of Middle Chinese plosive codas
Criteria

29
9. Differentiation and merging of Middle Chinese level tone )
pngsheng, rising tone ) shngsheng and falling tone
,) qsheng
10. Evolution of the Middle Chinese entering tone ) rsheng
11. Differentiation or merging of Middle Chinese {| hkuh of
the ( (fi), (f), (fng) and | (xio), [ (xi) initials
14. Length of vowels

Most of the above mentioned criteria are those reflecting historical
changes in the phonetic system. Although the method of diachronic
comparison has been widely accepted, it does have disadvantages. Due to
the fact that the amount of data about the dialects is constantly growing, the
discrepancy between the established knowledge and linguistic reality is
becoming clearer (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 347348).
1.1.3. Li Rulong ;
Li Rulong and Zhan Bohui suggest that it is not enough to describe the
phonetic system of isolated syllables, but they should be put into context.
Thus, features like tone sandhi, mutation, the neutral tone j) qing-
sheng, rhu (see Chapter 7.1.4.2.), diminutives, the literary and
colloquial variant pronunciations )[, wnbi yd (see Chapter
7.1.4.4.) should also be taken into consideration as relevant parameters for
dialect classification (cf. [www 5]: 9, 10; Li Rulong 2003a: 3536; Zhan
Bohui et al. 2004: 5657).
In accordance with the postulate of Ding Bangxin that more general
criteria are to be used for the classification of dialects into major dialect
groups while more specific criteria define the inner boundaries (cf. Chapter
5.1.1.1.), Li Rulong draws up a list of the following features (Li Rulong
2003a: 3637):
General criteria:
1. Modern continuants of Middle Chinese qunzhu plosive and
affricate initials ) zm } (bng), (dng), (qn), )
(cng), (chng): Whether or not they have devoiced, if so,
then whether they are aspirated or not; if there are both aspirated

30
and unaspirated initials, then what are the rules which determine
the changes?
2. Differentiation vs. merging of the Middle Chinese | (jng),
(zhung), ) (zh), (zhng) initials: If ) (zh) has merged with
(dun) or with (zhng); if the ;, xyin of initials belonging
to the | (jng) group have merged with (jin); how many sets
of affricate initials are there at present?
3. Modern continuants of Middle Chinese initials belonging to the (
(fi) group: If ( (fi), (f), (fng) initials are pronounced the
same way as (bng), (png), } (bng); if ] (wi) has
merged with | (mng); if the phenomenon of j, qingchnyin
being read as , zhngchnyin exists, then how many charac-
ters
22
are concerned, have the {| hkuh of | (xio) and [
(xi) merged with the [f-] initial?
4. Modern continuants of the finals of the Middle Chinese syllables in
the [ yng tones: How many types of nasal codas are there; does
the phenomenon of nasalization or denasalization exist; if part of
the syllables have developed into those with nasalized codas or
with the disappearance of nasals, then what are the rules for it?
5. Modern continuants of the finals of the Middle Chinese syllables in
the entering tone ) rsheng: How many types of plosive
codas are there; whether or not they have developed into glottal
stops, or if the plosive codas have also disappeared; if some of the
changes have occurred, then what are the rules?
6. Evolution of the four grades |s dng of Middle Chinese
;| kikuh and {| hkuh: Whether or not the sylla-
bles of the Middle Chinese first and second grade yi, r
dng are today pronounced as ;, xyin, whether or not Middle
Chinese third and fourth grade | sn, s dng syllables
are pronounced as ;, hngyin; if there are Middle Chinese ;
| kikuh syllables which are now pronounced as {| h-
kuh and Middle Chinese {| hkuh syllables which are
now pronounced as ;| kikuh; if there are ]| cu-
kuh finals?
7. Modern tones of the Middle Chinese syllables in the entering tone
) rsheng: Whether or not the ) rsheng exists
independently; if so, if it is divided into | yin and [ yng catego-
ries; whether or not it is pronounced as a short tone; if there are
Criteria

31
three types of ) rsheng or if there are ) shsheng syllables
which are pronounced in the ) rsheng?
8. Whether or not the distinction between the literary and colloquial
pronunciation )[, wnbi yd exists; is it a widespread
phenomenon?
9. Whether or not in polysyllabic words the mutation of initials, finals
or tones occurs; if so, does it concern individual syllables or bigger
units; what types do the rules for the changes belong to?
10. Whether or not the neutral tone j) qingsheng, rhu,
or phonetic changes of diminutives |, xiochng
binyin occur (see Chapter 7.1.4.2.), if so, does it concern a
small number of characters or is it a large scale phenomenon?

Specific criteria:
1. Does the opposition between long and short vowels exist, or does
the ) rsheng divide into long and short? (e.g. in the Yue dia-
lect).
2. If there are Middle Chinese syllables with voiced zhu ini-
tials pronounced in the rising tone ) shngsheng which
have developed into syllables in the | yinpng tone; if there is a
distinction between syllables in the ) shngsheng with
qunzhu and ] czhu initials? (e.g. in the Hakka dialect).
3. Are there ,, shtuyin which are pronounced as ,,
shshngyin; are characters belonging to the ) zm [ (xi)
pronounced the same way as those belonging to the ) zm
(qn), if so, how many such characters are there? (e.g. in the Min
dialect).
4. Are the ) pngsheng or the ) shngsheng not divided into
| yin and [ yng categories? (e.g. in the Mandarin dialect, etc.).
5. What kind of specific changes have syllables belonging to the fol-
lowing Middle Chinese ) zm: (n), (r) and (li),
undergone, e.g. (n) and (li) initials are not distinguished;
(li) initials are pronounced as [s-] or [t-], (r) initials are pro-
nounced as [n-] or [h-] or have merged with (yng) initials and
are pronounced with a zero initial.
6. Whether or not Middle Chinese syllables with fricative initials, be-
longing to the following Middle Chinese ) zm: ( (xn), (
(xi) (sh), (chn) are today pronounced with affricate ini-
tials, if so, how many characters of this kind are there?

32
7. Whether or not the Middle Chinese finals have merged on a large
scale: @ (g) with | (m), @ (g) with (ho), (yu) with
,, (xio), j (tng) with (dng)?
8. Whether or not Middle Chinese syllables belonging to the )
zm (yng) have merged with other ) zm (n), )
(y)?
9. Whether or not initials of Middle Chinese syllables belonging to
the ) (zh) and (zhng) groups have specific modern
pronunciation, such as [k-, k-], [pf-, pf-], [t-, t-]?
10. Whether or not there is tone-aspiration division jj
sngq fendio
23
; if so, is it a common phenomenon or does it af-
fect only a small number of characters?
1.2. Lexical characteristics and grammatical differences
With the development of research of dialectal vocabulary and grammar,
phonetic characteristics are no longer viewed as the only criteria for dialect
classification. Some scholars prove that lexical and grammatical parameters
are as important as phonetic (cf. [www 5]: 910; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
57).
The methods of research of lexical and grammatical characteristics are
similar to those of the research of dialectal vocabulary and grammar in
general (see Chapter 7.2.; Chapter 7.3.).
1.2.1. Lexical criteria
Specific dialectal words ,|/,) fngyn tsh cy or ,|
, fngyn tzheng c are the most important factor for the classifica-
tion of dialects. They are extracted through comparison of dialectal vocabu-
lary of various places (cf. Li Rulong 2003a: 3739 Zhan Bohui 2002: 348
349; see also Chapter 7.2.3.5.).
Because the variation of vocabulary is extensive, and the influence of
other dialects is quite strong, there are few words which are uniform in the
area in question and salient in comparison with other areas. Some words
can be specific to a few dialect groups at the same time, while they are not
found in other dialects. This is also one of the characteristics (cf. Li Rulong
2003a: 37).
Criteria

33
1.2.2. Grammatical parameters
Grammatical characteristics are found through the comparison of some
features, such as morphological changes, the use of function words, some
sentence patterns (cf. Li Rulong 2003 a: 3940; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 57;
see also Chapter 7.3.).
Due to the fact that grammatical features are not easy to find and that
this aspect of Chinese dialects is still not fully explored, they are seldom
applied when making classifications of dialects (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 349).
1.2.3. Jerry Normans classification
Without rejecting the traditional scheme, Jerry Norman proposes a new
set of criteria or diagnostic features which will provide a framework that
both has greater historical depth and shows more clearly the internal
relationships which obtain among the various subgroups (Norman 1988:
181182). He is the first to choose at the same time phonological, lexical
and grammatical features for the classification of Chinese dialects. His
criteria are the following (Norman 1988: 182):
1. The third-person pronoun is t [] or cognate to it.
2. The subordinative particle is de (di) [[] or cognate to it.
3. The ordinary negative is b [] or cognate to it.
4. The gender marker for animals is prefixed, as in the word for hen
mji [)J].
5. There is a register distinction only in the png [] tonal category.
6. Velars are palatalized before i.
7. Zhn [,] or words cognate to it are used for to stand.
8. Zu [_] or words cognate to it are used for to walk.
9. rzi [] or words cognate to it are used for son.
10. Fngzi [[] or words cognate to it are used for house.
1.3. Mutual intelligibility
The criterion of mutual intelligibility between Chinese dialects is not a
popular means for dialect classification. So far, no satisfactory method for
using this criterion has been found (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 349; You Rujie
2000: 5253).

34
To use mutual intelligibility as the only criterion can cause much confu-
sion. Because the degree of mutual intelligibility between Yue or Min and
the other dialects is very low, some people tend to call them separate lan-
guages. This idea is rejected by most scholars, as the prerequisite of the
classification of Chinese dialects is: they are all dialects of Chinese (Zhan
Bohui 2002: 349). The feeling for language of the inhabitants of a certain
dialectal region, their ability (or the lack of it) to communicate with people
of surrounding areas can, however, serve as a supplement for the other
criteria (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 349350).
1.4. Compartmentalizing and regrouping
The classification of dialects can be divided into two steps. The first is to
compartmentalize the dialects into large dialect groups and subgroups.
24

The second is to regroup the dialects of individual places into appropriate
groups (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 344345; Li Xiaofan 2005: 357360).
The issue is to choose the criteria which can best synthesize the dialectal
diversification and to apply an adequate number of them. Some scholars
argue that the fewer features are taken into consideration the better, one
being the ideal, especially for compartmentalizing (cf. Li Xiaofan 2005:
360361). Others state that an entire set of criteria should be applied (cf.
[www 5]: 910; Wang Futang 2005: 6163). The parameters applied for
each level of gradation should be the same (cf. Li Xiaofan 2005: 357, see
also Chapter 6.4.1.).
The areas which cannot easily be regrouped into appropriate dialect
groups are called intermediate (transitional) dialect areas ,l
fngyn gudq or mixed dialect areas {,l hnh fng-
ynq (cf. Li Xiaofan 2005: 358; Gao Ran 1999b: 1719).
1.5. Conclusions
All the classifications summarized above refer to selected phonological
features as the most basic ground for dialect differentiations. However,
lexical and grammatical parameters begin to be appreciated.
Middle Chinese is generally treated as the point of origin for the modern
dialects (cf. Chapter 4.) and its phonetic system constitutes the referential
frame and the core for dialect classifications.
Criteria

35
The most salient feature appears to be the evolution of Middle Chinese
qunzhu (especially plosive) initials. Li Xiaofan (2005: 362) sug-
gests even that this criterion is so far the most adequate for dialect
classification, and uses it to compartmentalize the Chinese dialects into six
main groups (Wu, Xiang, Hakka-Gan, Min, Yue, Mandarin). The same
criterion is also mentioned by Ding Bangxin, Zhan Bohui, Li Rulong, as
well as by all the authors enumerated by Ding (see Chapter 5.1.1.1.; cf.
Ding Bangxin 1998a: 167).
The evolution of Middle Chinese plosive codas is the second general
feature applied by Ding Bangxin along with all the predecessors he refers
to, as well as by Zhan Bohui and Li Rulong. Another parameter relating to
the finals which seems relevant is the evolution of Middle Chinese nasal
codas; both Li Rulong and Zhan Bohui list it. Ding Bangxin does not use
this feature in his classification, in opposition to do all the authors men-
tioned by him (see Chapter 5.1.1.1.).
The evolution of Middle Chinese tones is one more important
characteristic referred to by Ding Bangxin, Zhan Bohui and Li Rulong. It is
the second of the so-called additional criteria employed by Ding. He
explains that this feature is added because the remaining criteria include
those relating to both initials and finals, therefore a need is brought up to
take the tones into consideration as well (Ding Bangxin 1998a: 173).
Regarding the evolution of Middle Chinese tones, one more parameter
is significant for the course of this book, i.e. the evolution of the Middle
Chinese entering tone ) rsheng. It is listed by Zhan Bohui and Li
Rulong. It is also included in the list prepared by Ding Bangxin (1998a:
167). Of all the five authors enumerated by Ding, only Forrest does not
refer to this feature. Li Rong (1985a) applies this criterion to classify the
Mandarin dialects into eight subordinated units (see Chapter 6.4.; Chapter
6.5.11.). The preservation of the ) rsheng is also the main reason for
separating the Jin dialect from the Mandarin supergroup (see also Chapter
6.4.1.).
Jerry Norman (1988: 182) is the only author of the above-mentioned,
who does not treat Middle Chinese as the referential frame for his division.
Generally, he applies the classification employed by Yuan Jiahua in his
1961 standard handbook (Norman 1988: 181; cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003, see
also Chapter 5.2.14.), which is based on the comparisons of modern Chi-
nese dialects with the phonetic system of Middle Chinese. Yet Norman
employs his own criteria to categorize the seven dialects into three groups

36
(see Chapter 5.2.17.). Moreover, among the ten diagnostic features listed
by Norman, only two (fifth and sixth) relate to phonology.
Traditionally, the phonetic system was analysed without its broader con-
text. Such are the criteria cited by Ding Bangxin (1998a: 167) and Zhan
Bohui (Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 53), as well as those applied by them (Ding
Bangxin 1998a: 171172; Zhan Bohui 1981: 2346). Yet, as the investiga-
tion of modern dialects is progressing, it is not only the isolated syllables
that are now taken into consideration. Other features, such as the opposition
between the literary and colloquial pronunciation )[, wnbi
yd, tone sandhi, rhu, etc. are to be examined for the sake of
dialect classification.
Lexical and grammatical characteristics begin to play an important role
in finding differences between dialects. For example, the most evident
dissimilarities between the Gan and Hakka dialects are in the field of
vocabulary (cf. Yan Sen 1986: 24). More thoroughgoing studies of this
aspect may be helpful in solving the controversies around the grouping of
Chinese dialects (see Chapter 5.2.18.).
A tendency towards the unification and hierarchization of adequate
criteria is also visible, especially since the article of Ding Bangxin (1998a).
Universal features should be used for dividing the dialects into large groups,
later specific parameters divide the dialects into subordinated units. The
significance of criteria should be respected and those of equal importance
are to be used at every level of classification. Nonetheless, the question of
which criteria to use is still an unsettled matter among scholars (cf. Chapter
5.2.18.; Chapter 6.4.).

2. A historical overview since the end of the nineteenth century
Many attempts have been made to categorize the varieties of Chinese in
modern times by both Chinese and Western scholars. Some of the attempts
have been based upon quite scientific analysis, some do not meet the
requirements. Nevertheless, undoubtedly up to this moment this is still a
matter of debate with roots in the inquiries of nineteenth century linguistics.
This survey presents in chronological order the ideas of a selection of au-
thors.
A historical overview 37
2.1. Paul Georg von Mllendorf
The harbinger of modern dialectal classifications of the Chinese language
was the German linguist and diplomat Paul Georg von Mllendorf (known
in China as Mu Linde). In 1896, in the China Mission Handbook]|
{+| Zhongguo Chuanjiaoshi Gongnianbao (American Presbyte-
rian Mission ed. 1896), he divided the dialects of China into four groups (cf.
You Rujie 2002: 25, 2004: 232; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
Jiaoyanshi 2004: 12):
25

1. Cantonese ) Yuy (the dialect of Guangdong
Gungdnghu and Hakka dialect | Kjihu)
2. Fukien dialect |) Mny (the dialects of Zhangzhou ;
|, Chaozhou |, Fuzhou ||)
3. Wu dialect ) Wy (the dialects of Wenzhou |,
Ningbo , Suzhou j|, Shanghai [)
4. Mandarin Gunhu

2.2. Zhang Binglin )
In 1900, Zhang Binglin (also known as Zhang Taiyan) presented his pro-
posal for the arrangement of Chinese dialects. In his work Qiushu
[Words of urgency] (Zhang Taiyan 1984: 1348), he divides the dialects
into ten groups (see Zhang Taiyan 1984: 205206; cf. Zhan Bohui et al ed.
2004: 58, Li Rong 1989a: 241242):
1. From north of the Yellow River up to the region north of the Great
Wall, including Zhili Province , (modern day Hebei Prov-
ince), Shandong, Shanxi Provinces, as well as Zhangdej,
Weihui', Huaiqingcities in Henan Province
2. Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces
3. Henan from west of Kaifeng;|, as well as Runing ]
, Nanfang | and other places, along with the area
along the Yangtze River of Hubei Province up to Zhenjiang ,

4. Hunan Province
5. Fujian Province
6. Guangdong Province
Classifications of Chinese dialects 38
7. The area east of Kaifeng ;| and around Caozhou |
and Yizhou ,| in Shandong Province up to the region be-
tween the Yangtze River and Huai River ]] Huai He
8. The area south of the Yangtze River, Suzhou j|, Songjiang
|, Changzhou ;|, Taicang , together with
Huzhou |, Jiaxing , Hangzhou ||,
Ningbo and Shaoxing , in Zhejiang Province
9. The area around Huizhou | and Ningguo ] (Jin-
hua ', Quzhou @|, Yanzhou | in Zhejiang
Province as well as Guangxin ], Raozhou || in
Jiangxi Province were also included in this group)
10. Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi Provinces

In 1915, in his work j| Jianlun (Zhang Taiyan 1984: 349628),
Zhang revised the classification into nine groups (Zhang Taiyan 1984: 486
487), collapsing groups three and four into one (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 52
53; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 58).
Zhangs classification is not based on any field investigations, he uses
his instinctive feel for the language as the criterion (cf. Wang Futang 2004:
514515). Although Zhang enumerates the phonetic characteristics and the
reason of the development of some of the dialects, his classification is
mainly based on geographical factors. This kind of division belongs to the
traditional way of thinking and it is not recognized as scientific according
to modern-day rules (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 54).
2.3. The Christian Occupation of China
In 1922 another classification made by western linguists was published. In
the work entitled The Christian Occupation of China: A General Survey of
the Numerical Strength and Geographical Distribution of the Christian
Forces in China (see Stauffer, Wong and Tewksbury 1922), Chinese dia-
lects were classified into two major groups, which were then further di-
vided (cf. You Rujie 2002: 25, 2004: 232233; Wang Futang 2005: 54;
Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 12):
26

I. Mandarin Gunhu:
1. Mandarin proper, divided into Northern Mandarin ;
Bib Gunhu , Southern Mandarin ; Nnb
Gunhuand Western Mandarin ; Xib Gun-
hu
2. Hakka dialect| Kjihu
3. Hangzhou dialect || Hngzhuhu
4. Mandarin of Hainan Island [ Hinn Gunhu
5. Others
II. Coastal dialects ;[, Ynhi Fngyn:
1. Wu dialect ) Wy:
Suzhou dialect j| Szhuhu
Shanghai dialect [ Shnghihu
Ningbo dialect Nngbhu
Taizhou dialect | Tizhuhu
Jinhua dialect ' Jinhuhu
Wenzhou dialect | Wenzhuhu
Others
2. Fukien dialect |) Mny:
Jianyang dialect [ Jinynghu
Jianning dialect Jinnnghu
Shaowu dialect ( Showhu
Fuzhou dialect || Fzhuhu
Tingzhou dialect ;| Tingzhuhu
Xinghua dialect Xinghuhu
Xiamen dialect ] Ximnhu
Hainan dialect [ Hinnhu
Others
3. Cantonese ) Yuy:
Shantou dialect ; Shntuhu
Hakka dialect | Kjihu
Sanjiang dialect (~Samkong) Snjinghu
Guangzhou dialect | Gungzhuhu
Others
It is not clear why the Hakka dialect was classified as a subgroup of two
different dialect groups: Mandarin as well as Cantonese. The classification
of the dialect of Shantou ; which, according to the list is classified
as belonging to the Cantonese subgroup, also raises a problem. In another
place in the book, the author writes that it is similar to the Fukien dialect (cf.
You Rujie 2002: 2526, 2004: 233).
The classifications made by non-Chinese scholars, i.e. by Mllendorf
and the one in The Christian Occupation of China, had no significant im-
pact on Chinese dialectologists at that time. However, it was later discov-
ered that they were much more scientific than the contemporary Chinese
classifications, and practically all later classifications took these two into
consideration (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi
2004: 12).
2.4. Li Jinxi \)[
In 1934, Li Jinxi published his book ])j, Guoyu Yundong Shi-
gang (The history of the National Language Movement). In this work he
classifies the Chinese dialects into 12 groups, and names them after the
river and water systems (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 5354; Zhan Bohui et al ed.
2004: 59; Yan, M. M. 2006: 8; Wang Futang 2004: 515):
1. Hebei group ]_ Hbix: Zhili Province ,, Shan-
dong Province, the northern part of Henan Province
2. Henan group ]_ Hnnx: the central part of Henan Prov-
ince, southern part of Shanxi Province, Jiangsu, Anhui Provinces,
the area north of the Huai River ] Hui Bi
3. Hexi group ]_ Hxix: Shaanxi, Gansu, Xinjiang Prov-
inces
4. Jianghuai group ]_ Jinghuix : the northern part of
Jiangsu Province, and Nanjing ;, Zhenjiang , in
the western part of Jiangsu Province, as well as Anqing ,
Wuhu in central Anhui Province and Jiujiang
in Jiangxi Province
5. Jianghan group _ Jinghnx: the southern part of He-
nan Province together with Hubei Province
6. Jianghu group _ Jinghx: the eastern part of Hunan
Province, the southeastern corner of Hubei Province, and the
southern part of Jiangxi Province
7. Jinsha group ;_ Jinshx: Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou
Provinces, the northern part of Guangxi Province, western part of
Hunan Province
8. Taihu group _ Tihx: Suzhou j|, Songjiang
|, Changzhou ;| along with Hangzhou ||,
Jiaxing , Huzhou | in Zhejiang Province
9. Zheyuan group ,_ Zhyunx: Jinhua ', Quzhou
@|, Yanzhou | in eastern Zhejiang Province, to-
gether with the eastern part of Jiangxi Province
10. Ouhai group [_ uhix: the southern part of Zhejiang
Province, close to the sea
11. Minhai group |[_ Mnhix: Fujian Province
12. Yuehai group [_ Yuhix: Guangdong Province

Li Jinxi quite evidently uses linguistic factors in his classification, as the
dividing lines do not simply follow the borders of provinces. Although the
first step towards a scientific classification has been made, Li did not break
completely free from the traditional geographical method of classification
(cf. Zhan Bohui et al. ed. 2004: 59; Wang Futang 2005: 54; Wang Futang
2004: 515).
2.5. Wang Li
In 1936, in his work entitled ],, Zhongguo Yinyunxue
27
(Wang Li
1936), Wang Li introduced a new classification of the Chinese dialects. On
the basis of phonetic criteria he divided the Chinese dialects into 5 groups,
similar to the ones in The Christian Occupation of China (see Chapter
5.2.3.). Not only does he give a detailed description, but he also lists the
characteristics of each group and selects cities, each with its phonetic sys-
tem regarded as representative for each of the groups. Wang himself states,
that until scientific research has been carried out throughout the country,
we are not able to say exactly how many dialects of Chinese there are;
however, the dialects can be roughly divided into five big phonetic groups
(Wang Li 1982: 563) in the following way:
28

1. Mandarin group ,_ Gunhu yinx, including Hebei,
Shanxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Shandong, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan,
Yunnan, Guizhou, Anhui Provinces, as well as the northern part of
Jiangsu, the northern part of Jiangxi and the northern part of
Guangxi Provinces
2. Wu group ,_ W yinx, including: Suzhou j|,
Changzhou ;|, Wuxi ,, Changshu ;;, Kun-
shan , Shanghai [, Songjiang |, Yixing
, Liyang ][, Jintan |, Danyang )[,
Jiangyin | and other places in Jiangsu Province, as well as
Ningbo , Jiaxing , Huzhou |, Hang-
zhou ||, Zhuji ,, Jinhua ', Quzhou @
|, Wenzhou | and other places in Zhejiang Province
3. Min group |,_ Mn yinx, including the major part of Fu-
jian Province and places like Chaozhou |, Shantou ;
and Hainan. Outside of China, it is most influential in the
Malaysian Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra, Siam, Philippines and
other places
4. Yue group ,_ Yu yinx, including the greatest part of
Guangdong Province and the southern part of Guangxi Province.
Outside of China it is most widespread in America (especially San
Francisco)
5. Hakka group |,_ Kji yinx, including Meixian ]
, Dabu ,, Huiyang [, Xingning
and other places in Guangdong Province, as well as Tingzhou ;
| in Fujian Province and the southern part of Jiangxi Province.
It has also penetrated through to the area around Gaozhou |
|, Qinzhou || and Lianzhou || in southern
Guangdong Province and to the southern part of Guangxi Province.
Outside of China, it is most influential in Indonesia (especially
Bangka)
(Wang Li 1982: 563564)

The main phonetic characteristics of the groups are:
29

1. Mandarin group ,_ Gunhu yinx:
It does not have the voiced initials [b], [d], [g], [v], [z]
It does not have the codas [-m], [-p], [-t], [-k]
It has up to six tonal categories
2. Wu group ,_ W yinx:
It does have the voiced initials [b], [d], [g], [v], [z], which
correspond to the voiced initials in Middle Chinese
It does not have the codas [-m], [-p], [-t], [-k]
It has more than six tonal categories; it has two kinds of the fal-
ling tone ,) qsheng
3. Min group |,_ Mn yinx:
Most of the Middle Chinese syllables in the level tone )
pngsheng with voiced initials have become unaspirated
Some of the ) zm ) (zh) | (ch) (chng) have pre-
served the plosive sounds [t], [t]
It does not have the labiodentals [f], [v]
It does have the codas [-m], [-p], [-t], [-k]
It has more than seven tonal categories, not all of them corre-
spond to the tones in Middle Chinese
4. Yue group ,_ Yu yinx:
It does not have the voiced initials [b], [d], [g], [v], [z]
It does have the codas [-m], [-p], [-t], [-k]
It has more than seven tonal categories, which in general corre-
spond to the ones in Middle Chinese
5. Hakka group |,_ Kji yinx:
It does not have the voiced initials [b], [d], [g], [z]
Middle Chinese voiced initials, regardless of being pronounced
in the level png or oblique ) z tones, are now all
pronounced as aspirated
Except for the following (iv), (v) features, the finals are gener-
ally similar to those of the Mandarin group
It has the codas [-m], [-p], [-t], [-k]
It does not have the ]| cukuh
The ) shngsheng and the ,) qsheng only have one cate-
gory each, the ) pngsheng and ) rsheng both have two
categories
(Wang Li 1982: 564565)

In his book entitled ])]| Zhongguo Yuwen Gailun
30
(Wang Li
1939), Wang Li divides the five dialect groups into various subgroups (see
Wang Li 2002b: 911):
1. Mandarin Dialect , Gunhu Fngyn, meaning
Northern China Dialect ', Hubi Fngyn, Lower
Yangtze Mandarin , Xijing Fngyn, Southwest
China Dialect , Xinn Fngyn:
Ji-Lu Group ,_ J-L X: Hebei, Shandong Provinces
and the Northeast China Dngbi, and other places
Jin-Shan Group |_ Jn-Shn Xi : Shanxi, Shaanxi,
Gansu Provinces, and other places
Yu-E Group )_ Y- X: Henan, Hubei Provinces
Xiang-Gan Group y_ Xing-Gn X: eastern Hunan,
western Jiangxi Provinces
Hui-Ning Group _ Hui-Nng X: Huizhou |,
Ningguo ], and other places
Jiang-Huai Group ]_ Jing-Hui X: Yangzhou |
|, Nanjing ;, Zhenjiang ,, Anqing,
, Wuhu , Jiujiang , and other places
Chuan-Dian Group )_ Chun-Din X: Sichuan, Yun-
nan, Guizhou Provinces, northern Guangxi Province, western
Hunan Province
2. Wu Dialect ) Wy:
Su-Hu Group j;_ S-H X: Suzhou j|, Shang-
hai [, Wuxi ,, Kunshan , Changzhou
;|, Huzhou |, Jiaxing , and other
places
Hang-Shao Group |,_ Hng-Sho X: Hangzhou |
|, Shaoxing ,, Yuyao _, Ningbo ,
and other places
Jin-Qu Group @_ Jin-Q X : Jinhua ',
Quzhou @|, Yanzhou |, and other places
Wen-Tai Group _ Wen-Ti X: Wenzhou |,
Taizhou |, Chuzhou |, and other places
3. Min Dialect |) Mny:
Minhai Group |[_ Mnhi X : Fuzhou ||,
Gutian ,!, and other places
Xia-Zhang Group ;_ Xi Zhng X: Xiamen
], Zhangzhou ;|, and other places
Chao-Shan Group ;_ Cho-Shn X: Chaozhou
|, Shantou ;, and other places
Qiongya Group )_ Qingy X: Qiongzhou )|,
Wenchang ;, and other places
Overseas Group [(_ Hiwi X: the Min dialect spoken
by Chinese abroad, in Singapore, Siam, the Malaysian Penin-
sula, and other places
4. Yue Dialect ) Yuy:
Yuehai Group [_ Yuhi X: Panyu (, Nanhai
[, Shunde [j, Dongguan , Xinhui
], Zhongshan , and other places
Tai-Kai Group ;_ Ti-Ki X: Taishan ,
Kaiping ;, Enping , and other places
Xijiang Group _ Xijing X: Gaoyao |], Luo-
ding , Yunfu .,, Yunan ), and other
places
Gao-Lei Group |,_ Go-Li X: Gaozhou ||,
Leizhou ,|, and other places
Qin-Lian Group ||_ Qin-Lin X: Qinzhou ||,
Lianzhou ||, and other places
Guinan Group |_ Gunn X: Wuzhou ||,
Rongxian {, Guixian , Yulin )[, Bo-
bai ]), and other places
Overseas Group [(_ Hiwi X: the Yue dialect spoken
by Chinese abroad, in America, Singapore, Vietnam, in areas
south beyond the South China Sea ,_ Nanyang Qun-
dao, and other places
5. Hakka Dialect | Kjihu:
Jia-Hui Group _ Ji-Hu X: Meixian ],
Huiyang [, Dabu ,, Xingning , Wu-
hua ', Jiaoling ), Fengshun =[, Long-
chuan ), Heyuan ], and other places
Yuenan (Southern Guangdong) Group _ Yunn X:
spread over the area around Taishan , Dianbai
), Huaxian , and other places
Yuebei (Northern Guangdong) Group _ Yubi X:
spread over the area around Qujiang ,, Ruyuan
, Lianxian
Gannan (Southern Jiangxi) Group y_ Gnnn X: in
the southern part of Jiangxi Province
Minxi (Western Fujian) Group |_ Mnxi X: spread
over the area of northwestern Fujian Province
Guangxi Group _ Gungxi X: spread over counties
in the area of eastern and southern Guangxi Province
Chuan-Xiang Group )_ Chun-Xing X: spread over
the area of Sichuan, Hunan Provinces, and other places
Overseas Group [(_ Hiwi X: the Hakka dialect spo-
ken by Chinese abroad, mostly in areas south beyond the South
China Sea, Indonesia

What follows this classification is a comment, that the boundaries of
each of the five big groups are rather clear, though with an annotation:
yet, some people classify the Xiang dialect as a separate group (Wang Li
2002b: 11).
The problem of whether or not to classify the Xiang dialect as a separate
group seems to be solved by Wang Li in his ),, Hanyu Qiantan,
published for the first time in 1964 (Wang Li 2002a). In the third chapter,
The dialects of Chinese )[, Hanyude Fangyan (Wang Li
2002a: 1932), Wang discusses the criteria of dialectal classification. He
says: Up to now, linguists usually [classify dialects] according to
phonological criteria. For example, one of the criteria of the Wu dialect is
that it has preserved the , qunzhuyin of Middle Chinese. Although
the Xiang dialect also generally has the , qunzhuyin, the method of
articulation is not the same as that of the Wu dialect, that is why the
Xiang dialect should be considered to be a separate dialect group. (Wang
Li 2002a: 19).
The author presents his new classification into six dialect groups:
1. Mandarin Dialect , Bifng Fngyn, lit. Northern
Dialect:
It covers the largest area. Although it is called Northern Dialect,
in reality it extends from the northeast down to the southwest,
including the area north of the Yangtze River, the area above
Zhenjiang , and below Jiujiang south of the
Yangtze River, Hubei Province (except for the southeastern corner),
Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou Provinces; the northwestern corner of
Hunan Province and the northern part of Guangxi Province.
2. Wu Dialect , W Fngyn:
Most of the area in Jiangsu Province south of the Yangtze River
and east of Zhenjiang ,, as well as the whole of Zhejiang
Province.
3. Xiang Dialect , Xing Fngyn:
Hunan Province (except for the northeastern part).
4. Gan-Hakka Dialect y|, Gn-K Fngyn:
This group can be divided into the Gan Dialect y, Gn
Fngyn and Hakka Dialect |, Kji Fngyn.
The Gan dialect includes most of Jiangxi Province and the
southeastern corner of Hubei Province.
The Hakka dialect is spread over Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian,
Jiangxi and other Provinces (or autonomous regions). There are
also minorities which speak Hakka in Hunan and Sichuan Prov-
inces.
5. Min Dialect |, Mn Fngyn:
This includes most of Fujian Province, Taiwan, the area around
Huzhou | and Shantou ; in Guangdong Province,
as well as Hainan Island.
The Min dialect can be further divided into Northern Min |
Mnbihu and Southern Min | Mnnnhu. The
representative dialect of Northern Min is that of Fuzhou ||,
of Southern Min Xiamen ].
6. Yue Dialect , Yu Fngyn:
It includes the central, western and southern part of Guangdong
Province, as well as the southern, eastern and western part of
Guangxi Province.
(Wang Li 2002a: 20)
2.6. Academia Sinica surveys
Between 1928 and 1946 the Institute of History and Philology of Academia
Sinica (Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Lishi Yuyan Yanjiusuo ,{|j)
,{] dispatched a team of linguists to conduct dialect surveys in
several provinces. The team was led by Zhao Yuanren and included Ding
Shengshu, Yang Shifeng, Wu Zongji, Dong Tonghe, Bai Dizhou among
other scholars. Eight large-scale surveys were accomplished during that
time, i.e. in Guangxi and Guangdong, as well as Hainan (19281929, 1930);
Central Shaanxi (1933); southern Anhui (1934); Jiangxi (1935); Hunan
(1935); Hubei (1936); Yunnan (1940); Sichuan (19411946). In addition,
Zhao Yuanren had carried out his own survey of the Wu dialect (on which
basis he published _|){ Xiandai Wuyu Yanjiu Studies in the
Modern Wu Dialects in 1928). (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 55; Yan, M. M.
2006: 2123).
On the basis of the information gathered during the surveys, several
classifications of the dialects were made. The classifications appeared in
the '[]]j Zhonghua Minguo Xin Ditu (Ding, Weng and Ceng
1934) and in ]]] Zhongguo Fensheng Xin Tu (a concise version
of '[]]j Zhonghua Minguo Xin Ditu (Ding, Weng and Ceng
1939, 1948). The maps were not accompanied by any explanation (cf.
Wang Futang 2005: 55; Wang Futang 2004: 515; Li Rong 1989a: 242, 243;
Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 13).

In 1934 the dialects were divided into 7 groups:
1. Northern China Mandarin ' Hubi Gunhu
2. Southern China Mandarin ' Hunn Gunhu
3. Wu dialect , W Fngyn
4. Hakka dialect |, Kji Fngyn
5. Yue dialect , Yu Fngyn
6. Min dialect |, Mn Fngyn
7. Hainan dialect [, Hinn Fngyn
Compared with Wang Lis classification, the Mandarin dialect was di-
vided into North-China Mandarin and South-China Mandarin, and the
Hainan dialect was separated from the Min dialect (cf. Beijing Daxue
Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 13).
In 1939 the dialects were reclassified into 9 groups:
1. Northern Mandarin Bifng Gunhu
2. Upper Yangtze Mandarin Shngjing Gunhu
3. Lower Yangtze Mandarin Xijing Gunhu
8. Anhui dialect ], Wn Fngyn
9. Chaoshan dialect ;, Choshn Fngyn
South-China Mandarin was further divided into upper Yangtze Manda-
rin, lower Yangtze Mandarin and the Anhui dialect. At the same time, the
Chaoshan dialect was separated from the Min dialect (cf. Beijing Daxue
Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 13).
In 1948 a reclassification into 11 groups took place:
2. Southwestern Mandarin Xinn Gunhu
3. Lower Yangtze Mandarin (Xiajiang Mandarin) Xi-
jing Gunhu
4. Xiang dialect ) Xingy
5. Gan dialect y) Gny
6. Wu dialect ) Wy
7. Hakka dialect |) Kjiy
8. Yue dialect ) Yuy
9. Southern Min dialect |) Mnnny
10. Northern Min dialect|) Mnbiy
11. Huizhou dialect |, Huizhu Fngyn
The Xiang dialect was extracted from the upper Yangtze Mandarin and
the Gan dialect from the lower Yangtze Mandarin. The Min dialect was
divided into Northern and Southern Min. The Anhui dialect ], Wn
Fngyn was renamed Huizhou dialect |, Huizhu Fngyn
(cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 13).

2.7. Li Fanggui |
In 1937 Li Fanggui in his article Languages and dialects (see Li Fanggui
1973) proposed a classification of Chinese dialects into 9 groups. These
groups were (see Li Fanggui 1973: 35; cf. Wang Futang 2005: 56; Wang
Futang 2004: 515; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 60; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi
Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 13):
1. Northern Mandarin [ Bifng Gunhu]
2. Eastern Mandarin [ Xijing Gunhu]
3. Southwestern Mandarin [ Xinn Gunhu]
4. Wu ) Wy
5. Gan-Hakka y| Gn-Kji
6. Min |) Mny (divided into Northern and Southern sub-
groups)
7. Cantonese or Yue )Yuy
8. Xiang ) Xingy
9. Certain isolated groups

The differences between his and the classification into 11 groups by
Zhao Yuanren and others in 1948 were that Southern and Northern Min
were treated as one group, Hakka and Gan were also treated as one group,
Huizhou dialect was not a separate dialect group. Lis article was reprinted
in 1973 in the Journal of Chinese Linguistics and was very influential over-
seas (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 13).
Jerry Norman (1988: 181) says Lis scheme has been widely accepted and
has become one of the main foundations on which Chinese dialectological
research has been based; it is essentially the classification employed by
Yuan Jiahua in his 1961 standard handbook Hanyu fangyan gaiyao [An
outline of Chinese dialects].
2.8. Zhao Yuanren |
In 1948 in the Mandarin Primer (Zhao Yuanren 1948)
31
, Zhao Yuanren
divided the Chinese dialects 9 groups (see Zhao Yuanren 1985: 189190; cf.
Wang Futang 2005: 56; Wang Futang 2004: 515):
4. Yue Yu
5. Gan-Hakka y| Gn-K
6. Southern Min|Mnnn
7. Northern Min|Mnbi
8. Wu W
9. Xiang Xing
2.9. R.A.D. Forrest
R.A.D. Forrest, in his book The Chinese Language (Forrest 1973), pub-
lished for the first time in 1948, presents his classification of the Chinese
dialects (Forrest 1973: 217218):
1. Northern Chinese Gunhu
2. Chin Jn
32

3. Cantonese
4. Wu
5. Min
6. Hakka
2.10. Dong Tonghe ]j
In 1953 Dong Tonghe (Tung Tung-ho) (1953) grouped the dialects into 9
groups. Contrary to Zhao Yuanren, he separated the Gan and Hakka dialects
and treated the Min dialects as one. His classification was as follows:
4. Wu dialect ) Wy
6. Hakka dialect | Kjihu
7. Gan dialect y, Gn Fngyn
9. Min dialect|) Mny
(cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 6263)
2.11. Ding Shengshu )| and Li Rong
In 1955 Ding Shengshu and Li Rong presented a new classification at the
Technical Conference on the Standardization of Modern Chinese _|
)|,], Xiandai Hanyu Guifan Wenti Xueshu Huiyi, held
in Beijing (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 56).
33
Not having enough data from field
investigations, they reclassified the Academia Sinica 11 dialect groups of
1948. They put the Northern Mandarin Bifng Gunhu,
Southwestern Mandarin Xinn Gunhu and lower Yangtze
Mandarin Xijing Gunhu into one dialect group called
the Mandarin dialect Gunhu. At the same time, they decided to
cancel the Huizhou dialect |, Huizhu Fngyn. This way
they obtained eight dialect groups (see Ding and Li 1956; cf. Li Rong
1989a: 243; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004:
13; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 62; Wang Futang 2005: 56; Wang Futang 2004:
519):
1. Mandarin Gunhu
2. Wu dialect ) Wy
5. Hakka dialect | Kjihu
6. Northern Min dialect| Mnbihu
7. Southern Min dialect | Mnnnhu
2.12. Luo Changpei ;) and L Shuxiang
In a report which was also presented at the Technical Conference on the
Standardization of Modern Chinese, Luo Changpei and L Shuxiang deliv-
ered their classification of the dialects (see [www 6]; cf. DeFrancis 1967:
142; DeFrancis 1984: 5758):
1. Mandarin dialect Bifnghu
2. Jiangsu-Zhejiang dialect (Wu) , Jing-Zh hu
3. Hunan dialect (Xiang) Hnn hu
4. Jiangxi dialect (Gan) Jingxi hu
5. Hakka dialect | Kji hu
6. Northern Min dialect | Mnbi hu
7. Southern Min dialect | Mnnn hu
8. Guangdong dialect (Yue) Gungdng hu
2.13. Pan Maoding (, et al.
The Technical Conference on the Standardization of Modern Chinese ad-
vised the Chinese Academy of Sciences ]|| Zhongguo Kexue-
yuan , the Ministry of Higher Education |{; Gaodeng
Jiaoyubu and the Ministry of Education {; Jiaoyubu to
jointly map out a draft plan in order to make an initial general investigation
of the Chinese dialects in two years time (see [www 9]). Following the
advice, in the years 19561958, 1849 out of the 2298 planned localities
were investigated (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 56, Yuan Jiahua 2003: 22).
Thanks to this, the dialectal situation began to be seen in a new perspective.
As an outcome of the surveys, Pan Maoding, Li Rulong, Liang Yuzhang,
Zhang Shengyu and Chen Zhangtai published an article in 1963 entitled |
),l| (Fujian Hanyu fangyan fenqu leshuo) (Pan Mao-
ding et al. 1963). The authors cancelled the division of the Min dialects into
two big groups of Southern Min and Northern Min, but considered them as
one big dialectal group. However, this group is highly diversified and can
be divided into five smaller groups: Eastern Min | Mndng,
Southern Min | Mnnn, Central Min | Mnzhng, North-
ern Min | Mnbi and Puxian ; Pxin (cf. Wang Futang
2005: 57, Wang Futang 2004: 519520).
This new way of looking at the Min dialects brought about a new
classification of the Chinese dialects in general, obtaining the following
seven groups (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 57, Wang Futang 2004: 520):
1. Mandarin Gunhu
3. Xiang dialect , Xing Fngyn

2.14. Yuan Jiahua ([
In 1960, under the leadership of Yuan Jiahua, who held a course in Chinese
dialectology at Peking University ;, Beijing Daxue, a hand-
book for the course was published ),]] (Hanyu Fangyan Gai-
yao) (Yuan Jiahua 2003, first edition in 1960). The book was re-edited in
1980 and reprinted several times and it still remains one of the most impor-
tant modern works on Chinese dialects.
34

The compilation of the book was made possible by the results of the
19561958 surveys (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003: 22). In the second edition, the
contents of the article by Pan Maoding et al. (see Chapter 5.2.13.) were
taken into consideration, and the dialects were classified into the following
seven groups
35
(the numbers in brackets indicate the estimated percentage
of speakers of the dialect in question) (see Yuan Jiahua 2003: 22):
1. Mandarin dialect , Bifng Fngyn (70%)
2. Wu dialect , W Fngyn (8.5%)
3. Xiang dialect , Xing Fngyn (5%)
4. Gan dialect y, Gn Fngyn (2.5%)
5. Hakka dialect |, Kji Fngyn (4%)
6. Yue dialect , Yu Fngyn (5%)
7. Min dialect |, Mn Fngyn (4%)

The geographical distribution of the dialects is as follows:
1. Mandarin dialect , Bifng Fngyn
Mandarin dialects are further divided into (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003:
24):
Northern Mandarin , Bifng Fngyn
Northwestern Mandarin , Xibi Fngyn
Southwestern Mandarin , Xinn Fngyn
Jianghuai Mandarin ], Jinghui Fngyn
The Mandarin dialects are spread over the area north of the Yangtze
River, the strip of land along the south bank of the Yangtze River
east of Jiujiang and west of Zhenjiang ,, Hubei
Province (excluding the southeastern corner), Sichuan, Yunnan,
Guizhou Provinces, the northwestern part of Guangxi A.R., the
northwestern corner of Hunan Province (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003: 23).
In Jiangsu Province: over the area south of the Yangtze River and
east of Zhenjiang , (excluding Zhenjiang itself), Chong-
ming Island |_ Chongming Dao, north of the Yangtze
River in Nantong j (its eastern suburbs), Haimen [
], Qidong ), Jingjiang _, as well as most of
Zhejiang Province (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003: 57).
3. Xiang dialect , Xing Fngyn
Depending on the presence or absence of voiced initials, the Xiang
dialect can be divided into New Xiang ] Xin Xing and
Old Xiang , G Xing. Because the differences between
the Old and the New Xiang are very big, and because the New
Xiang is very influenced by Southwestern Mandarin
Xinn Gunhu, some people tend to include the New Xiang
into the Southwestern Mandarin group. The author stated however,
that this classification lacks a historical basis (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003:
101).
The Xiang dialects are spread over the major part of Hunan Prov-
ince, as well as in northern Guangxi A.R. in Quanzhou |,
Guanyang ][, Ziyuan , Xingan (cf.
Yuan Jiahua 2003: 101).
The central and northern part of Jiangxi Province (cf. Yuan Jiahua
2003: 126).
Eastern and northern Guangdong Province, western Fujian Prov-
ince, southern Jiangxi Province, as well as parts of Taiwan,
Guangxi A.R., Hunan, Sichuan Provinces (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003:
146).
Central and southeastern Guangdong Province, southeastern
Guangxi A.R. It is also spoken by Chinese living abroad, mostly in
southeast Asia and North America (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003: 177).
The Min dialects are further divided into (cf. Yuan Jiahua 2003:
235):
Eastern Min | Mndng
Puxian ; Pxin
Southern Min | Mnnn
Central Min | Mnzhng
Northern Min | Mnbi
The Min dialects are spread over most of Fujian Province as well
as the Chaoshan ; area and the area around Haikang [
j and Xuwen ] on Leizhou Peninsula ,|_ Lei-
zhou Bandao in Guangdong Province, most of Hainan, in south-
ern Zhejiang the area around Wenzhou | and the Zhoushan
Archipelago )_ Zhoushan Qundao, most of Taiwan (cf.
Yuan Jiahua 2003: 235).
2.15. Zhou Zhenhe )|y and You Rujie ;,
Zhou Zhenhe and You Rujie (1986) divide the Chinese language into seven
groups (the numbers in brackets denote the estimated percentage of speak-
ers of the dialect in question) (Zhou and You 1986: 8):
1. Mandarin dialect , Bifng Fngyn (70%)
2. Wu dialect , W Fngyn (8%)
3. Gan dialect y, Gn Fngyn (2%)
4. Hakka dialect |, Kji Fngyn (4%)
5. Xiang dialect , Xing Fngyn (5%)
6. Min dialect |, Mn Fngyn (4%)
7. Yue dialect , Yu Fngyn (5%)

Concerning the Xiang dialect, there is a remark that it is traditionally di-
vided into Old and New Xiang. Yet, the authors claim that the New Xiang
can be classified as a part of the Southwestern Mandarin, whereas only the
Old Xiang should be treated as the Xiang dialect (cf. Zhou and You 1986: 8;
Knstler 2000: 252, see also Chapter 5.2.14.).
36

2.16. Li Rong
In 1987, with the publication of The Language Atlas of China (Zhongguo
Shehui Kexueyuan yu Aodaliya Renwen Kexueyuan 1987, 1989, hence-
forth called Atlas), a new classification was introduced by Li Rong. He
extracted the Jin dialect ) Jny out of the Mandarin dialect and
added the Hui ) Huiy, and Pinghua Pnghu dialects,
obtaining thus 10 groups of Chinese dialects (the numbers in brackets show
the percentage of speakers of each dialect group out of 977,270,000 speak-
ers of Chinese) (see Li Rong 1989a: 241; Atlas: A2):
37

1. Mandarin dialect Gunhu (67.8%)
2. Jin dialect ) Jny (4.7%)
3. Wu dialect ) Wy (7.1%)
4. Hui dialect ) Huiy (0.3%)
5. Gan dialect y) Gny (3.2%)
6. Xiang dialect ) Xingy (3.2%)
7. Min dialect |) Mny (5.6%)
8. Yue dialect ) Yuy (4.1%)
9. Pinghua dialect Pnghu (0.2%)
10. Hakka dialect | Kjihu (3.6%)

The new classification caused a lot of discussions on the topic, which
have continued to this day. The most controversial problem is the separa-
tion of the Jin dialect from Mandarin. Prof. Li Rong, in his article
,[l (Guanhua fangyande fenqu) (Li Rong 1985a), advocates this
division. The arguments for considering Pinghua and Hui as separate dia-
lect groups are also rejected by some scholars (see Chapter 5.2.18.; see also
Chapter 6.4.).

2.17. Jerry Norman
In his book Chinese (1988), Jerry Norman examines the seven dialectal
groups as classified by Yuan Jiahua (2003), proposing a new set of criteria
or diagnostic features for classifying the Chinese dialects (see Norman
1988: 181183; see also Chapter 5.1.2.3.). On the basis of these features, he
classifies the existing seven dialects into three groups (see Norman 1988:
182183):
1. Northern group the Mandarin group
2. Southern group:
Kejia (Hakka)
Yue
Min

3. Central group:
Wu
Gan
Xiang
2.18. Cao Zhiyun
In 2008 a project under the leadership of Professor Cao Zhiyun of the Bei-
jing Language and Culture University ;),, Beijing Yuyan
Daxue the Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects (Cao Zhiyun ed. 2008),
was published. It contains 510 maps divided into three volumes (Phonetics,
Lexicon and Grammar).
The Linguistic Atlas of Chinese Dialects does not draw the borders be-
tween dialects, the maps picture the distribution of dialect characteristics.
However, the 930 survey sites which have been selected for the project, are
classified into the ten dialect groups as presented in The Language Atlas of
China, without any comments or discussions on the topic (Cao Zhiyun ed.
2008: Phonetics vol., p. 9).
2.19. Conclusions: How many dialect groups are there?
At present, two classifications are the most popular. The division into seven
dialect groups seems to be more widely, though not fully, accepted while
the classification into ten dialects causes more controversies. The issues at
question are the following:
1. Whether the Min dialect should be classified as one group or divided
into Northern and Southern Min? (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 6364;
Li Rong 1989a: 252254)
2. Into how many groups should the Mandarin dialects be classified? (cf.
Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 6465; Li Rong 1989a: 245248; Ding
Bangxin 1998b: 212216)
3. Should the Gan and Hakka dialects be treated as one group or as two
separate groups? (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 65; Atlas: B8; Li Rong
1989a: 249252; Wang Futang 1998; Wang Futang 2005: 6777; Li
Rulong 2003a: 4042; Yan Sen 1986: 24)
4. Whether or not the Jin dialect should be separated from the Mandarin
dialects? (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 351; Ding Bangxin 1998b: 213; Wang
Futang 2004: 530531; Zou and You 2001: 31; Wen Duanzheng 1998;
Hou Jingyi ed. 2002: 1; Hou Jingyi 1999a: 12; Li Xiaofan 2005: 357;
Wang Futang 2005: 100108; Li Rulong 2003a: 4243; Li Rong 1989a:
245; Li Rong 1985a: 23; see also Chapter 6.4.1.)
5. Should Pinghua be treated as an independent group? (cf. Zhan Bohui
2002: 351; Hou Jingyi ed. 2002: 1; Zou and You 2001: 31; Wu Wei
2001; Wang Futang 2005: 117118; Li Rulong 2003a: 43; Li Rong
1989a: 249; see also Chapter 6.4.3.)
6. Should the Hui dialect be treated as an independent group? (Zhan Bo-
hui 2002: 351; Wang Futang 2005: 8487; Li Rong 1989a: 248, see
also Chapter 6.4.2.)

The classification into seven major dialect groups, i.e. Mandarin
Gunhu, Wu W, Xiang Xing, Gan y Gn,
Hakka | Kji, Yue Yu, Min | Mn, has been the
standard since the article of Pan Maoding (Pan Maoding et al. 1963) and it
has been applied in many authoritative works, such as Yuan Jiahuas second
edition of ),]] (Hanyu Fangyan Gaiyao) (Yuan Jiahua 2003; see
Chapter 5.2.14.), Zhan Bohuis _|), (Xiandai Hanyu fangyan)
(1981) as well as Zhan Bohui et al. Hanyu Fangyan ji Fangyan Diaocha
),,,j[ (2004), Zhou Zhenhes and You Rujies ,[
] (Fangyan yu Zhongguo wenhua) (1986), ],)|:),
(Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu. Yuyan Wenzi) (1988), Huang Jinghus
), (Hanyu Fangyanxue) (1987), etc. This classification is also
popular among scholars in Taiwan (cf. Ding Bangxin 1989a) and overseas
(cf. Norman 1988: 181, see also Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 6566).
The classification made by Li Rong in the Atlas is applied in The Great
Dictionary..., as well as in ),,,3 (Hanyu Fangyan Dacidian)
(Xu and Miyata ed. 2000). It is also assumed as obvious in the Linguistic
Atlas of Chinese Dialects (Cao Zhiyun ed. 2008).
There are also classifications which reject one or more of the controver-
sial groups. For example, in the work edited by Hou Jingyi (2002), Xiandai
Hanyu Fangyan Gailun _|),]|, nine dialect groups are
described, omitting the Pinghua dialect.
Table 7. (on the following pages) summarizes the history of dialect
classifications.
Generally, a tendency towards gradually dividing the dialects into an in-
creasing number of groups is visible. However, this trend is at present
changing, and Chinese linguists incline rather towards classifying the
groups into larger entities (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
Jiaoyanshi 2004: 13).
As the research of Chinese dialects is in constant progress, the
classification may be changing. One more big undertaking is carried out at
present: a new edition of the Language Atlas of China, by the scholars of
the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and
the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Chinese Academy of
Social Sciences ]1||[[{] Zhongguo
Shehui Kexueyuan Minzuxue yu Renleixue Yanjiusuo (cf. Xin bian
Zhongguo Yuyan Dituji yu fangyan fenqu taolun de gaoyue 2005). It is
already known that this new edition will keep the division into 10 dialect
groups, though with slight alterations (cf. Xiong and Zhang 2008).
Nevertheless, this project is awaited with great expectation by
dialectologists and it may cast a new light upon the classification of
Chinese dialects.
Chapter 6
The classification of Chinese dialects according to
The Language Atlas of China
39
The classification proposed by Li Rong and others in The Language Atlas
of China is applied in The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects;
therefore it will be described here in detail.
1. The Language Atlas of China
TheAtlas is a result of cooperation between Chinese and Australian scien-
tists. It appeared in two parts, both of which had an English and a Chinese
edition. It consists of 35 maps altogether, divided into three sections. Sec-
tion A includes general maps, B maps of Chinese dialects, C maps of
minority languages. Each of the maps is accompanied by a description (cf.
Zhongguo Yuyan Dituji chuban 1988; Zhang Zhenxing 1997: 241; Atlas:
[preface]; [www 1]).
2. Classification into smaller units
There exist two sets of terminology for the division of Chinese dialects into
smaller units. The genetic one is (cf. You Rujie 2004: 1, Li Rulong 2003a:
1):
1. Dialect ,fngyn
2. Sub-dialect ],c fngyn
3. Vernacular (Patois) )ty
4. Accent (Sub-patois) qing / ])c ty
The geographical hierarchy of division, as applied in the Atlas is as fol-
lows (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 243; You Rujie 2004: 12):
1. Supergroup ,ldq
2. Grouplq
3. Subgroup ) pin
4. Cluster ) xiopin
Classification according to The Language Atlas 64
5. Local dialect, dialect locality ) din
Among these, group and subgroup are the basic concepts. Groups are
usually divided into subgroups, which are sometimes further divided into
clusters. Some groups can be brought together into a supergroup. The lo-
cal dialects denote the dialect points which have been examined (cf. Li
Rong 1985b: 8182; Li Rong 1989a: 243244).
3. The classification
3.1. Mandarin supergroup ,lGunhu dq
40
3.1.1. Northeastern Mandarin group l Dngbi
Gunhuq (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 255; Atlas: B1)
Distribution:
41
The whole of Heilongjiang Province, J ilin Province, most of
Liaoning Province, part of eastern Inner Mongolia A.R.
1. J ishen subgroup )Jshn pin
a. J iaoning cluster |)Jionng xiopin
b. Tongxi cluster j)Tngxi xiopin
c. Yanji cluster )Ynj xiopin
2. Hafu subgroup ')Hf pin
a. Zhaofu cluster |)Zhof xiopin
b. Changjin cluster |))Chngjn xiopin
3. Heisong subgroup ;|)Heisng pin
a. Nenke cluster )Nnk xiopin
b. J iafu cluster ,)Jif xiopin
c. Zhanhua cluster ,)Zhnhu xiopin
3.1.2. Beijing Mandarin group ;l Bijing Gunhuq (cf.
Li Rong 1989a: 255; Atlas: B2, B5)
Distribution: Beijing Municipality area, a small part of Tianjin Municipality,
the eastern part of Hebei Province, the western part of Liaoning Province, a
small part of eastern Inner Mongolia A.R., the northern part of Xinjiang
A.R.
1. J ingshi subgroup ;[)Jingshi pin
2. Huaicheng subgroup )Huichg pin
The classification 65
3. Chaofeng subgroup )Chofeng pin
4. Shike subgroup )Shk pin
3.1.3. Jilu Mandarin group ,l Jl Gunhuq (cf. Li Rong
1989a: 255256; Atlas: B2, B3)
The group is also called Bifng Gunhu.
Distribution: Southern part of Hebei Province, northern part of Shandong
Province, most of Tianjin Municipality ,)Tinjin Sh.
1. Baotang subgroup ]j)Botng pin
a. Laifu cluster ;')Lif xiopin
b. Dingba cluster )Dngb xiopin
c. Tianjin cluster ,)Tinjin xiopin
d. J izun cluster |j)Jzn xiopin
e. Luanchang cluster ];)Lunchng xiopin
f. Fulong cluster |)Flng xiopin
2. Shiji subgroup )Shj pin
a. Zhaoshen cluster ,)Zhoshen xiopin
b. Xingheng cluster )()Xnghng xiopin
c. Liaotai cluster ]()Lioti xiopin
3. Canghui subgroup )Cnghu pin
a. Huangle cluster ,;)Hungl xiopin
b. Yangshou cluster [)Yngshu xiopin
c. J uzhao cluster ]|)Jzho xiopin
d. Zhanghuan cluster j)Zhnghun xiopin
3.1.4. Jiaoliao Mandarin group ]l Jiolio Gunhuq (cf.
Li Rong 1989a: 256; Atlas: B3, B1)
Distribution: J iaozhou Peninsula in Shandong Province, Liaodong Penin-
sula in Liaoning Province.
1. Qingzhou subgroup |)Qingzhu pin
2. Denglian subgroup )Denglin pin
3. Gaihuan subgroup j)Gihun pin
3.1.5. Central Plains Mandarin group )l Zhngyun
Gunhuq (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 256, Atlas: B3, B4, B5, B7)
Distribution: Most of Henan and Shaanxi Provinces, southern Shandong
Province, western corner of J iangsu Province, western Anhui Province,
southern Shanxi Province, southern Ningxia A.R., eastern corner of Qing-
hai Province, a small part in western Gansu Province, central and south-
western Xinjiang A.R.
1. Zhengcao subgroup )Zhngco pin
2. Cailu subgroup )Cil pin
3. Luoxu subgroup ])Lux pin
4. Xinbeng subgroup ]))Xnbng pin
5. Fenhe subgroup ,])Fnh pin
a. Pingyang cluster [)Pngyng xiopin
b. J iangzhou cluster |)Jingzhu xiopin
c. Xiezhou cluster |)Xizhu xiopin
6. Guanzhong subgroup )Gunzhng pin
7. Qinlong subgroup ,|)Qnlng pin
8. Longzhong subgroup |) Lngzhng pin
9. Nanjiang subgroup ])Nnjing pin
3.1.6. Lanyin Mandarin group |l Lnyn Gunhuq (cf. Li
Rong 1989a: 256; Atlas: B4, B5)
Distribution: most of Ningxia A.R. and Gansu Province, central and eastern
parts of Xinjiang A.R.
1. J incheng subgroup ,)Jinchng pin
2. Yinwu subgroup |)Ynw pin
3. Hexi subgroup ])Hxi pin
4. Tami subgroup ,)Tm pin
3.1.7. Southwestern Mandarin group l Xinn Gunhuq
(cf. Li Rong 1989a: 256257; Atlas: B6)
Distribution: Western part of Sichuan Province, almost the whole of Yun-
nan Province, the whole of Guizhou Province, most of Hubei Province, the
northwestern part of Hunan Province, northwestern Guangxi A.R., a small
part of southern Shaanxi Province.
1. Chengyu subgroup j)Chngy pin
2. Dianxi subgroup )Dinxi pin
a. Yaoli cluster |)Yol xiopin
b. Baolu cluster ]) Bol xiopin
3. Qianbei subgroup ")Qinbi pin
4. Kungui subgroup )Kngu pin
5. Guanchi subgroup ])Gunch pin
a. Minjiang cluster )Mnjing xiopin
b. Renfu cluster ,)Rnf xiopin
c. Yamian cluster |)Ymin xiopin
d. Lichuan cluster ))Lchun xiopin
6. Ebei subgroup )bi pin
7. Wutian subgroup )Wtin pin
8. Cenjiang subgroup )Cnjing pin
9. Qiannan subgroup ")Qinnn pin
10. Xiangnan subgroup )Xingnn pin
11. Guiliu subgroup ||)Guli pin
12. Changhe subgroup ;y)Chngh pin
3.1.8. Jianghuai Mandarin group ]l Jinghui Gunhuq
(cf. Li Rong 1989a: 257; Atlas: B3, B10, B11)
Distribution: mainly the area around the lower reaches of the Yangtze River
(in Hubei, Anhui, and J iangsu Provinces).
1. Hongchao subgroup ;)Hngcho pin
2. Tairu subgroup (;)Tir pin
3. Huangxiao subgroup ,)Hungxio pin
3.1.9. Unclassified (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 257)
Some dialects, which belong to the Mandarin supergroup are difficult to
classify into appropriate groups, therefore they remain unclassified.
1. Hubeihua Hbihu (cf. Atlas: B10), a migrational
dialect scattered over Anhui Province (Ningguo ],
Guangde j, Xuancheng ,, J ingxian ,
Langxi F), as well as in Anji in Zhejiang Prov-
ince.
2. Henanhua ] Hnnhu (cf. Atlas: B10), a migrational
dialect scattered over Anhui Province (Guangde j, Langxi
F, Xuancheng ,, Ningguo ]), as well as
Anji and Changxing | in Zhejiang Province.
3. Nanping dialect , Nnpng fngyn (cf. Atlas: B12),
an isolated Mandarin dialect in Fujian Province, spoken in the area
of Nanping city (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 1989: 55).
4. Yangyu ,| village in Changle |; county (cf. Atlas:
B12). A variety called Tu Mandarin T Gun-
hu is spoken in this area (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 1989: 55).
5. In Hainan Province a variety of Mandarin called Junhua
Jnhu (lit. the speech of the army) is spoken. Junhua is used
by the descendants of ancient troops dispatched here by the govern-
ment at the time of the Ming Dynasty (cf. Atlas: B12).
42
6. On Longmen island ]_Longmen Dao in the area of Qin-
zhou || in Guangxi A.R. a minority of inhabitants speak a
variety of Mandarin (cf. Liang Yougang 1986).
3.2. J in dialect group )lJny q (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 257; Atlas:
B7)
Distribution: most of Shanxi Province, the western part of Hebei Province
north of the Yellow River, the southern part of Inner Mongolia A.R. west of
the Yellow River, northern part of Shaanxi Province.
1. Bingzhou subgroup }|)Bingzhu pin
2. Lliang subgroup )Lling pin
a. Fenzhou cluster ,|)Fnzhu xiopin
b. Xingxi cluster |)Xingx xiopin
3. Shangdang subgroup )Shngdng pin
4. Wutai subgroup )Wti pin
5. Dabao subgroup ,j)Dbo pin
6. Zhanghu subgroup )|)Zhngh pin
7. Hanxin subgroup !])Hnxin pin
a. Cizhang cluster |;)Czhng xiopin
b. Huoji cluster )Huj xiopin
8. Zhiyan subgroup )Zhyn pin
3.3. Wu dialect group )l Wy q (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 257258;
Atlas: B9, B10)
Distribution: most of Zhejiang Province, the whole of Shanghai Municipal-
ity, southwestern part of J iangsu Province, a part of southern Anhui Prov-
ince, a tiny part of northern Fujian Province.
1. Taihu subgroup )Tih pin
a. Piling cluster ||)Plng xiopin
b. Suhujia cluster j;)Shji xiopin
c. Tiaoxi cluster ;)Tioxi xiopin
d. Hangzhou cluster ||)Hngzhu xiopin
e. Linshao cluster |,)Lnsho xiopin
f. Yongjiang cluster j)Yngjing xiopin
2. Taizhou subgroup |)Tizhu pin
3. Oujiang subgroup )ujing pin
4. Wuzhou subgroup |)Wzhu pin
5. Chuqu subgroup @)Chq pin
a. Chuzhou cluster |)Chzhu xiopin
b. Longqu cluster @)Lngq xiopin
6. Xuanzhou subgroup |)Xunzhu pin
a. Tongjing cluster ))Tngjing xiopin
b. Taigao cluster |)Tigo xiopin
c. Shiling cluster |)Shlng xiopin
3.4. Hui dialect group )lHuiy q (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 258;
Atlas: B10)
Distribution: the drainage area of the Xinan River ] Xinan
Jiang (the area of the former Huizhou Prefecture |] Huizhou
Fu) in southern Anhui Province, the area of former Yanzhou Prefecture
|] Yanzhou Fu in central-west Zhejiang Province, and a part of
northeastern J iangxi Province.
1. J ishe subgroup ,) Jsh pin
2. Xiuyi subgroup ))Xiyi pin
3. Qide subgroup [j)Qd pin
4. Yanzhou subgroup |)Ynzhu pin
5. J ingzhan subgroup ],)Jingzhn pin
3.5. Gan dialect group y)lGny q (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 258;
Atlas: B11)
Distribution: central and northern J iangxi Province, eastern part of as well
as a small part in southwestern Hunan Province, a small corner of south-
eastern Hubei Province, southern corner of Anhui Province, and a small
part of northwestern Fujian Province.
1. Changjing subgroup ;_)Chngjng pin
2. Yiliu subgroup ,)Yli pin
3. J icha subgroup )Jch pin
4. Fuguang subgroup |)Fgung pin
5. Yingyi subgroup (_)Yingy pin
6. Datong subgroup ,j)Dtng pin
7. Leizi subgroup )Lizi pin
8. Dongsui subgroup ]) Dngsu pin
9. Huaiyue subgroup )Huiyu pin
3.6. Xiang dialect group )l Xingy q (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 258;
Atlas: B11)
Distribution: central Hunan Province, northeastern part of Guangxi A.R.
1. Changyi subgroup |)Chngy pin
2. Loushao subgroup ()Lusho pin
3. J ixu subgroup [)Jx pin
3.7. Min dialect supergroup |),lMny dq (cf. Li Rong 1989a:
258 Atlas: B12, B13, B14, B10)
43
Distribution: most of Fujian Province, Taiwan, Hainan Province, a small
part of southwestern Guangdong Province. There are also minor Min-
speaking areas in other provinces (Zhejiang, Guangxi, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiang-
xi).
1. Southern Min group |l Mnnn q (southern part of Fu-
jian Province, the Min dialect area of Taiwan, southwestern Guang-
dong Province)
a. Quanzhang subgroup ;;)Qunzhng pin
b. Datian subgroup ,!)Dtin pin
c. Chaoshan subgroup ;)Choshn pin
2. Puxian group ;lPxin q (central-east Fujian Province)
3. Eastern Min group |l Mndng q (northeastern part of
Fujian Province)
a. Houguan subgroup ])Hugun pin
b. Funing subgroup |)Fnng pin
4. Northern Min group |lMnbi q (northern Fujian Prov-
ince)
5. Central Min group |lMnzhng q (central Fujian Prov-
ince)
6. Qiongwen group )lQingwn q (Hainan Province)
a. Fucheng subgroup ],)Fchng pin
b. Wenchang subgroup ;)Wnchng pin
c. Wanning subgroup ])Wnnng pin
d. Yaxian subgroup )Yxin pin
e. Changgan subgroup ;)Chnggn pin
7. Leizhou group ,|l Lizhu q
44
(Leizhou Peninsula ,
|_Leizhou Bandao in southwestern Guangdong Province)
8. Shaojiang group (l Shojing q (northwestern corner
of Fujian Province)
3.8. Yue dialect group )lYuy q (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 259;
Atlas: B13, B14)
Distribution: Southwestern half of Guangdong Province, eastern and south-
ern Guangxi A.R.
1. Guangfu subgroup ])Gungf pin
2. Yongxun subgroup )Yngxn pin
3. Gaoyang subgroup |[)Goyng pin
4. Siyi subgroup |)Sy pin
5. Goulou subgroup )Gulu pin
6. Wuhua subgroup )Whu pin
7. Qinlian subgroup ||)Qinlin pin
3.9. Pinghua dialect group l Pnghu q (cf. Li Rong 1989a:
259; Atlas: B14)
Distribution: central Guangxi A.R. and other areas spread over Guangxi.
1. Guibei subgroup |)Gubi pin
2. Guinan subgroup |)Gunn pin
3.10. Hakka dialect group |l Kjihu q (cf. Li Rong 1989a:
259 Atlas: B15)
Distribution: The Hakka dialect is spread over eight provinces. It is concen-
trated in central and eastern Guangdong Province, western Fujian Province
and southern J iangxi Province, and scattered over Hainan Province,
Guangxi A.R., Taiwan, Hunan Province and Sichuan Province.
1. Yuetai subgroup )Yuti pin
a. J iaying cluster )Jiying xiopin
b. Xinghua cluster ')Xinghu xiopin
c. Xinhui cluster ])Xinhu xiopin
d. Shaonan cluster )Shonn xiopin
2. Yuezhong subgroup )Yuzhng pin
3. Huizhou subgroup |)Huzhu pin
4. Yuebei subgroup )Yubi pin
5. Tingzhou subgroup ;|)Tingzhu pin
6. Ninglong subgroup )Nnglng pin
7. Yugui subgroup |)Ygu pin
8. Tonggu subgroup ))Tngg pin
3.11. Unclassified non-Mandarin dialects (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 259)
3.11.1. Shehua ,Shehu
The She nationality , Shez is scattered over Fujian, Zhejiang,
J iangxi, Guangdong, Anhui Provinces. Most of the She people speak Chi-
nese, with only a small percentage speaking their national language ,)
Shey, which belongs to the Miao-Yao (Hmong-Mien) Group ,))
Mioyo Yz.
45
The Chinese language spoken by the She people is
called Shehua , Shehu, to distinguish it from the She language
,)Shey. Shehua is often identified with Hakka.
46
3.11.2. Danzhou dialect j| Dnzhuhu
The Danzhou dialect is spoken in the area of Danzhou j|) Danzhou
Shi in Hainan Province. On map B12 in the Atlas, this dialect is classi-
fied as belonging to the Yue group, but currently it is treated as an unclassi-
fied non-Mandarin dialect.
47
3.11.3. Xianghua Xinghu
Xianghua is spoken in a small area in western Hunan Province (cf. Atlas:
B11).
48
3.11.4. Shaoguan Tuhua Shogun Thu
Shaoguan Tuhua (also called | Shozhu Thu) is spoken in
northern Guangdong Province, in areas bordering on J iangxi and Hunan
Provinces.
3.11.5. Southern Hunan Tuhua Thu
The area of southern Hunan Province is classified as belonging to the
Xiangnan subgroup of the Southwestern Mandarin group. However, simul-
taneously in sixteen cities and counties in this area, a speech called Tuhua
Thu is used (cf. Atlas: B11).
49
3.11.6. Chinese dialects spoken by the Miao nationality
The Miao people , Mioz in Guangxi A.R. and Guizhou Province
speak certain varieties of Chinese, which differ from the dialects spoken in
the area which they inhabit (cf. Atlas: C9).
4. Controversial issues
The criteria according to which the dialects have been classified are not
clarified anywhere in the Atlas in a definite manner, and can only be ex-
tracted while analysing the characteristics of the dialects. The main features
taken into consideration are phonological parameters, mostly diachronic.
Synchronic differences are taken into account while dividing the dialects
into smaller units (see Chapter 6.5.11.).
The only clearly defined criterion of division is for the grouping of
Mandarin dialects, i.e. the evolution of the Middle Chinese syllables in the
) rsheng (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 245248; see also Li Rong 1985a; Zhang
Zhenxing 1997: 244).
The second criterion, which becomes apparent after some analysis, is
the development of Middle Chinese qunzhu initials (cf. Zhang
Zhenxing 1997: 244245).
As was mentioned earlier (cf. Chapter 5.2.16.), the new classification as
presented in the Atlas has provoked many discussions. The most divisive
points are:
4.1. The separation of the J in dialect from the Mandarin supergroup
The main criterion according to which the J in dialect is treated as a separate
dialect group is the preservation of the Middle Chinese entering tone
)rsheng. The J ianghuai Mandarin group has also preserved the enter-
ing tone; nevertheless, it is not classified as independent from the rest of the
Mandarin dialects. The explanation of this fact is that the J in group also has
other characteristics, which distinguish it from the whole of the Mandarin
dialects (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 245; Zhang Zhenxing 1997: 243, 246; see also
Chapter 6.5.2.).
Ding Bangxin (1998b: 213) postulates that the argument for preserving
the entering tone is insufficient and that the J in dialect should be treated as
a subgroup of the Mandarin dialects. This is generally the idea which other
scholars put forward (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 351; Wang Futang 2004: 530
531).
The problem may also lie in the importance of the criterion in question.
As Li Xiaofan (2005: 357) points out, the criteria used at every level of
division should be the same for every dialect. The preservation of the enter
Controversial issues 75
ing tone, which is treated by Li Rong as the decisive factor for the separa-
tion of the J in dialect, is not equal in quality with the criteria used for the
classification into other major dialect groups, i.e. the development of Mid-
dle Chinese qunzhu initials (cf. Li Xiaofan 2005: 357). The modern
pronunciation of Middle Chinese syllables in the entering tone is the
parameter applied for the division of the Mandarin dialects into respective
groups (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 245246; Li Rong 1985a: 3; Wang Futang 2004:
530531; Wang Futang 2005: 100108).
However, not all scholars are against the concept of the autonomy of the
J in dialect. Wen Duanzheng (1998), Hou J ingyi (Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 46
48; Hou J ingyi 1999a: 12), Zhang Zhenxing (1997: 246247) support this
view and give reasons for the separation of the J in dialect. They state that it
has more characteristics than the entering tone (see Chapter 6.5.2.), which
are sufficient enough to declare independence and give the J in dialect a
status equal to the other major dialect groups. Li Rulong (2003a: 4243)
discusses the arguments for and against the separation of the J in dialect and
comes to the simple conclusion that this problem needs to be further
investigated.
4.2. The independence of the Hui dialect
The suggestion of separating the Hui dialect had been raised by Zhao Yuan-
ren in 1939 (see Chapter 5.2.6.). In 1962 in his article Jixi Lingbei Yinxi
,_ (Zhao Yuanren 2002), Zhao raises this problem anew,
admitting that the Hui dialect is difficult to classify, because it has features
both of the Wu dialect (the distinction between |, yinq and [,
yngq tones), as well as of the Mandarin dialect (absence of voiced plo-
sive initials). However, in order to avoid the trivialization of the classifica-
tion of Chinese dialects, Zhao tends rather to categorize the Hui dialect as a
part of the Wu group (Zhao Yuanren 2002: 578).
Li Rong (1989a: 248) advocates the autonomy of the Hui dialect, as it
cannot be fitted into either Mandarin, or Wu. This argument is not rejected
by Zhan Bohui (2002: 351), who only implies that this question needs
deeper research.
Wang Futang (2005: 8485) discusses the criterion of being difficult to
classify as the only argument for treating Hui as a disjoined dialect group.
Wang argues that it would be more appropriate to classify the Hui dialect as
a sub-dialect of Wu (cf. Wang Futang 2005: 8487).
On the other hand, Zhao Rixin (2005: 279) reckons that the question as
to whether or not the Hui dialect should be classified as an individual group
is not important. What matters is that thanks to the problem being raised,
the dialect has been subject to closer investigation.
4.3. The separation of Pinghua from the Yue group
In the Atlas, Pinghua has received the status of a separate dialect group,
which has sparked a number of controversies. Li Rong (1989a: 249)
justifies this classification by the fact that Pinghua has since long ago been
regarded as an individual dialect, especially in the popular saying that in
Guangxi there are five languages/dialects spoken, namely ])|
Gun, Png, Zhung, Bi, K Mandarin, Pinghua, Zhuang, Bai
(meaning Yue), Hakka (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 1997: 243).
The common feature of Pinghua is that Middle Chinese qunzhu
initials, pronounced today as plosives or affricates, are usually unaspirated.
This characteristic is also true for the Goulou subgroup of the Yue dialect,
which allows many scholars to treat Pinghua as a subgroup of Yue (cf. Hou
J ingyi ed. 2002: 1; Li Rulong 2003a: 43). Others tend to classify the Gui-
nan subgroup as a subgroup of Yue, while the Guibei subgroup seems to
cause more trouble (cf. Zhan Bohui 2002: 351; Wu Wei 2001: 133; Li Ru-
long 2003a: 43).
Zhang Zhenxing (1997: 247248) supports the reasons for separating
Pinghua from the Yue dialect, giving both linguistic and historical argu-
ments.
Wang Futang (2005: 117118) reminds us of the historical importance
of Pinghua, but at the same time admits that it is now rather tending to
disappear than gain strength. Therefore it should not be of equal status
with the large dialect groups, yet it is difficult to be classified merely as a
subgroup of a larger dialect. Apparently, this question also awaits further
investigation and more data.
Characteristics of dialect groups 77
5. General characteristics of the ten Chinese dialect groups
50
5.1. Mandarin supergroup ,l Gunhu dq (cf. You Rujie
2004: 78)
51

The common features of the Mandarin dialects are:
A. Most of the affricate and plosive initials are divided into voiceless
aspirated and voiceless unaspirated, there is no distinction between
voiceless and voiced.
B. There are comparatively few tones, usually four | yinpng,
[ yngpng, ) shngsheng, ,) qsheng. Few dialects
have preserved the ) rsheng.
C. The rules of tone sandhi are comparatively simple.
D. The use of specific measure words is becoming simplified, while
the use of the general classifier (g)` is expanding.
E. In word-building, the construction when the modified word stands
before the modifier is very rare.
F. The vocabulary and grammatical system are comparatively close to
the literary language.
5.1.1. Northeastern Mandarin group l Dngbi
Gunhuq (cf. Atlas: B1; You Rujie 2004: 7)
52

A. There are four tones: | yinpng, [ yngpng, ) shng-
sheng, ,) qsheng.
B. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with , qingyin
initials have developed into syllables in all the four tones.
C. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with , qingyin
initials have developed into syllables in the ) shngsheng more
often than in the Beijing dialect.
D. The tone values are similar to those of the Beijing dialect. However,
the value of the | yinpng tone is mostly lower than in Beijing
dialect.
E. Usually there is no [,] initial. Syllables, which have the [,] initial
in the Beijing dialect, are generally pronounced with a zero initial.
F. Syllables, which have the [o] final after [p, p, m, f] in the Beijing
dialect, end with [y], except for Zhanhua , Zhnhu.
G. Syllables which have the zero initial in the Beijing dialect, are pro-
nounced with a zero initial in the Jishen subgroup
53
, with [n] as the
initial in the Hafu subgroup, either with zero initial or with [n] as
initial in the Heisong subgroup.
H. Syllables with [t, t, ] initial in Beijing dialect are pronounced
[t, t, ] in some dialect clusters, [ts, ts, s] in others, or they can
be freely interchanged.
I. Zhanhua , Zhnhu is a dialect spoken by the descendants
of people based at post stations in the past. The Zhanhua cluster in
Heisong subgroup is scattered over the area of the Nenke cluster. In
Zhanhua there are [\, u\, \u, i\u] finals, which do not exist in the
other clusters of the Northeastern Mandarin group. The main
difference between Zhanhua and Nenke clusters lies in the tone
values of the | yinpng tone.

5.1.2. Beijing Mandarin group ;lBijing Gunhuq (cf.
Atlas: B2, B5; You Rujie 2004: 7)
A. There are mostly four tones: | yinpng, [ yngpng, )
shngsheng, ,) qsheng.
B. The development of the Middle Chinese tones into modern tones is
as follows:
Middle Chinese syllables in the ) pngsheng with ,
qingyin initials have developed into syllables in the | yin-
png tone; syllables with , zhuyin initials into ones in
the [ yngpng tone.
Middle Chinese syllables in the ) shngsheng with ,
qingyin initials, as well as ] czhu initials have developed
into syllables in the ) shngsheng tone.
Middle Chinese syllables in the ) shngsheng with
qunzhu initials as well as in the ,) qsheng have devel-
oped into syllables in the ,)qsheng.
Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with ] czhu
initials have developed into syllables in the ,) qsheng,
syllables with qunzhu initials have developed into
syllables in the [ yngpng tone.
initials have developed into syllables in all the four tones |
yinpng, [ yngpng, ) shngsheng, ,) qsheng.
D. The tone values are either the same or very close to those of the
Beijing dialect.
5.1.3. Jilu Mandarin group ,lJl Gunhuq (cf. Atlas:
B1, B2, B3, B7; You Rujie 2004: 7)
54

The A and B features of the Beijing Mandarin group are also true for the
Jilu Mandarin group. The main differences between the Beijing Mandarin
and Jilu Mandarin groups lie in the development of Middle Chinese sylla-
bles in the ) rsheng with , qingyin initials, as well as in the values
of modern tones.
A. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with , qingyin
initials have developed into syllables:
In the | yinpng tone in the Shiji subgroup
Mostly in the | yinpng tone, rarely in the ) shngsheng
in the Canghui subgroup; however, in the Zhanghuan cluster,
the ) rsheng has been preserved, and only a small amount
of syllables are pronounced in the | yinpng tone
In all the four tones | yinpng, [ yngpng, )
shngsheng, ,) qsheng in the Baotang subgroup, yet
they have developed into more syllables in the | yinpng
and ) shngsheng tones than in the Beijing dialect
B. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with ] czhu ini-
tials have developed into syllables in the ,) qsheng.
5.1.4. Jiaoliao Mandarin group ]lJiolio Gunhuq (cf.
A. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with , qingyin
initials have developed into syllables in the ) shngsheng.
B. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with ] czhu ini-
tials have developed into syllables in the ,) qsheng.
C. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with qunzhu
initials have developed into syllables in the [ yngpng tone.
D. Most of the dialect localities have four tones, others have three.
E. In places where there are only three tones, the Middle Chinese
tones have evolved in different ways. Nevertheless, their common
feature is that the Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng
with , qingyin initials have developed into the same tones as
Middle Chinese syllables in the ) shngsheng with , qing-
yin initials and with ] czhu initials.
5.1.5. Central Plains Mandarin group )l Zhngyun
Gunhuq (cf. Atlas: B3, B4, B5, B7; You Rujie 2004: 7)
55

A. There are mostly four tones: | yinpng, [ yngpng, )
shngsheng, ,) qsheng, except for two places Luoning
and Mianchi where there are three tones ) pngsheng,
) shngsheng, ,) qsheng.
B. The development of Middle Chinese syllables in the png,
shng and , q tones is the same as in the Beijing dialect.
and ] czhu initials have developed into syllables in the |
yinpng tone.
D. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with qunzhu
5.1.6. Lanyin Mandarin group |lLnyn Gunhuq (cf.
56

A. There are three or four tones (not taking the tone sandhi into
consideration). Places with four tones have | yinpng, [
yngpng, ) shngsheng, ,) qsheng. In other places, there is
no distinction between | yinpng and [ yngpng, [
yngpng and ) shngsheng or | yinpng and ) shng-
sheng.
B. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with , qingyin
initials have developed into syllables in the ,) qsheng.
C. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with qunzhu
5.1.7. Southwestern Mandarin group lXinn Gunhuq
(cf. Atlas: B6, B11, B14; You Rujie 2004: 7)
57

A. This is the most uniform group of the Mandarin dialects.
B. There are four tones: | yinpng, [ yngpng, ) shng-
sheng, ,) qsheng.
C. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng have developed into
syllables in the [ yngpng tone.
D. Most places do not distinguish between sharp and rounded initials
,[, jintunyin.
58

5.1.8. Jianghuai Mandarin group ] l Jinghui
Gunhuq (cf. Atlas: B3, B10; You Rujie 2004: 7)
The ) rsheng has been preserved.
5.2. Jin dialect group )l Jny q (cf. Atlas: B7; You Rujie 2004:
89)
59

A. The ) rsheng has been preserved.
B. Syllables in the ) rsheng usually end with a glottal stop [1].
C. Usually the following pairs of Beijing finals: [cn : cp, in : ip, ucn :
ucp, yn : yp] are not differentiated and are pronounced with [p] as
the coda.
D. In many places the affix |` [kc1] is used.
E. The ` suffix pronounced in the neutral tone in Beijing dialect,
is pronounced [tsc1] or [zc1 ,c1 tc1 lc1] in many areas of
the Jin dialect.
F. In most places there exists a phenomenon called ,, fenyinc
(syllable split).
60

5.3. Wu dialect group )l Wy q (cf. Atlas: B9, B10; You Rujie
2004: 910)
61

A. Middle Chinese qunzhu initials are at present usually still
voiced, and Middle Chinese , qingyin initials are at present still
voiceless. The Middle Chinese distinction between voiceless
unaspirated, voiceless aspirated and voiced initials is still present in
the Wu dialects. For example, the following Middle Chinese )
zm are still usually pronounced as [t, t, d] (which is the same as
in the reconstructions): (dun), (tu), (dng).
B. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ) zm ) (y),
at present have a nasal initial and have not merged with the )
zm (yng). ;, hngyin syllables have the [p-] initial, ;,
xyin syllables [-].
C. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ) zm ]
(wi), at present have two pronunciations, the literary , wn-
d with a [v-] initial, and colloquial ), bid with an [m-]
initial.
D. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ) zm (r),
today have two variant pronunciations, the literary , wn-
d with [z-] or [z-] initials and colloquial ), bid with
[-] or [n-] initials.
E. [m, n, p] can function as independent syllables.
F. The character _` (nio) has two variant pronunciations, the
literary with [-] as the initial, and colloquial with [t-] as the initial.
The colloquial pronunciation tallies with the Middle Chinese )
zm (dun).
G. Syllables belonging to the Middle Chinese | sh j (xin) and
(shn) usually do not end with a nasal coda, they have either an
oral or a nasalized sound as the final.
H. Syllables belonging to the second grade rdng of the
Middle Chinese | sh (xi) do not have an [-i] ending, but have
open finals.
I. The finals of the syllables belonging to the first and the second
grade yi, r dng of the Middle Chinese | sh j
(xin) and (shn) with the ) zm (jin), are distinct.
J. The finals in the colloquial pronunciation of the syllables belonging
to the second grade rdng of the | sh | (gng) have
not merged with those of the third and fourth grade | sn,
s dng of the same | sh and of the | sh (zng).
K. The pronunciation of the | (d)`character corresponds with
the final of | (gng)`, not that of (m)`.
L. All the four Middle Chinese tones, i.e. ) pngsheng, )
shngsheng, ,) qsheng and ) rsheng, are divided into |
yin and [ yng categories.
M. Syllables in the ) rsheng usually have a glottal stop coda. In
some localities the syllables are open, but they are never confused
with syllables deriving from the Middle Chinese ) pngsheng,
) shngsheng and ,) qsheng.
N. The character (b)` representing the negative particle is pro-
nounced with a labiodental initial.
O. The possessive particle [ (de)` is in most places expressed by
the word (g)` in the neutral tone, in some localities it is
pronounced in the entering tone.
5.4. Hui dialect group )lHuiy q (cf. Atlas: B10; You Rujie
2004: 1819)
62

A. Middle Chinese qunzhu initials are today all , qingyin,
in many dialect localities they are also aspirated.
B. Most nasal codas have disappeared. Syllables which carry the [-n]
ending are diminutives formed with the (r) suffix (see Chapter
7.1.4.2.).
C. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ;, hngyin
) zm (yng) have the initial [p-].
D. Initials of the syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ;,
hngyin ) zm (n) and (li) are not distinguishable.
E. Most syllables which belong to the ) zm (r) today have a
zero-initial.
5.5. Gan dialect group y)l Gny q (cf. Atlas: B8, B10, B11;
You Rujie 2004: 1517)
63

A. Present day plosive and affricate initials which have developed
from Middle Chinese qunzhu initials, regardless of the four
tones, are all pronounced as voiceless aspirated.
B. Syllables which derive from the following Middle Chinese sylla-
bles, have in many dialect localities [c] as the nucleus:
Second grade rdng of the , yn f (y) of the
| sh (y),
First grade yidng of the | sh (li),
First grade yidng of the ;| kikuh of the
| sh ) (zhng)
Second grade rdng of the ;| kikuh of
the | sh | (gng) (in the colloquial pronunciation).
C. Syllables belonging to the | sh | (gng) have [ap uap iap] finals
in the colloquial pronunciation.
D. Most initials of the syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese
;, hngyin ) zm (n) and (li) are not distinguishable.
E. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ;| kikuh
of the ) zm (yng) have the initial [p-].
F. The character | (gng)` (stalk or stem of some plants) is
pronounced with medial [u] in most dialect localities.
G. Most of the dialect localities have preserved the ) rsheng.
5.6. Xiang dialect group )lXingy q (cf. Atlas: B11, B14;
You Rujie 2004: 1012)
64

Present day plosive and affricate initials which have developed from Mid-
dle Chinese qunzhu initials, no matter if they are voiced ,
zhuyin or voiceless , qingyin, if the tones are level
png or oblique ) z, are all unaspirated.
5.7. Min dialect supergroup |),l Mny dq (cf. Atlas: B8, B12,
B13, B14; You Rujie 2004: 1213)
65

The Min dialects are quite diversified. Among the specified groups, the
homogeneity between the Southern Min group, the Puxian group and the
Eastern Min group is very high. The three can be combined as the three
eastern Min groups |)l Mny dng sn q. The Northern
Min group and the Central Min group are together called the two western
Min groups |)l Mny xi r q. The Qiongwen group is
rather close to the three eastern Min groups. The strip of land near the coast
in Fujian province is considered to be the centre of the Min dialect. The
further to the west, the more the influence of the Hakka dialect can be
found, and the western part of Fujian province is occupied by the Hakka
dialect only.
The common features of the Min dialects are:
A. Middle Chinese syllables with qunzhu initials no matter if
the tones were level png or oblique ) z, are today
usually pronounced as unaspirated voiceless affricates or plosives.
Few are pronounced as aspirated affricates or plosives.
B. The literary pronunciation of initials which derive from Middle
Chinese {| hkuh of the ) zm ( (fi), (f),
(fng) and | (xio), [ (xi) is [h-] or [x-].
C. The colloquial pronunciation of initials which derive from the Mid-
dle Chinese ) zm ) (zh), | (ch), (chng) is [t-, t-], the
same as of ) zm (dun), (tu), (dng).
D. A small part of the syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese
) zm [ (xi), have the initial [k-] at present in the colloquial
pronunciation. The rest have the zero initial.
E. In many dialect localities, the equivalents of the Beijing dialects
words (rzi)` (son), | (go)` (tall; high), )
(gu)` (pot; wok) are (jin)`, (xun)`, ,
(dng)` respectively.

5.7.1. Southern Min group |l Mnnn q
66

There are no ]| cukuh syllables.

5.7.2. Puxian group ;lPxin q
There are no voiceless fricative initials [s-] and [j-]. In their place, usually
the voiceless apical lateral fricative [I-] is used.

5.7.3. Eastern Min group |lMndng q
67

The word for ) (gu)` (dog) is (qun)`.
5.7.4. Northern Min group |lMnbi q
The character (h)` (tiger) is pronounced with a [k-] initial in
colloquial speech.
5.7.5. Central Min group |lMnzhng q
The word for (qzi)` (wife) is ( (ning)`.
5.7.6. Qiongwen group )lQingwn q
A. There are two implosive initials: [1b-] and [1d-].
68

B. Most places do not have the affricate and plosive aspirated initials
[p, t, ts, k].
5.7.7. Leizhou group ,|l Lizhu q (cf. Atlas: B13)
A. The codas include [-m / -p, -p / -k].
B. There are no nasalized finals.
C. The glottal stop coda [-1] does not exist.
D. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ) zm ( (fi),
(f) and (fng), in the literary pronunciation have the initials
[b-] or [h-], in the colloquial pronunciation [p-] or [p-].

5.7.8. Shaojiang group (lShojing q
A. The Shaojiang group has some of the characteristics of the Gan and
Hakka dialect groups, for example that the plosive and affricate ini-
tials which have developed from Middle Chinese qunzhu
initials are pronounced as voiceless aspirated.
B. This group also has many features characteristic of the Min dialects,
which is why it is regarded as a transitional dialect between the
Gan/Hakka and Min dialects.
5.8. Yue dialect group )lYuy q (cf. Atlas: B13, B14; You
Rujie 2004: 1315)
69

A. There are usually nine to ten tones. The ) pngsheng, )
shngsheng, ,) qsheng and ) rsheng are all divided into
| yin and [ yng categories. The | yinr tone is further di-
vided into high and low categories. The [ yngr tone is also
divided into high and low in some places.
B. Middle Chinese syllables in the ) pngsheng with
qunzhu initials have developed into syllables with aspirated
voiceless initials. Syllables in the oblique tones )) zsheng
are at present pronounced with unaspirated voiceless initials.
C. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese first grade
yidng and second grade rdng of the {| h-
kuh of the ) zm | (xio) today have the initial [f-].
D. Most of the syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese )
zm (jin) group are today pronounced with the velar [k-, k-] or
the guttural [h-] initials, no matter whether they belong to the ;
|kikuh, ,j|qchih, {|hkuh or ]|cukuh.
E. In most places, the nucleus [a] in syllables with compound finals,
as well as finals with a nasal or a plosive coda, is differentiated into
long [a] and short [n]. These two vowels are phonologically relevant
F. In many places there is a set of finals with [o] as the nucleus.
G. Most of the dialect localities have the plosive [-p, -t, -k] codas and
nasal [-m, -n, -p] codas.
H. There are many words specific for this dialect group, e.g. | [wan
35
]
(to search), | [lck
6
] (gifted; talented), etc.
I. The aspectual system is comparatively rich. Special particles are
used to express the various aspects, e.g.: (ql)` ingres-
sive aspect; (jn)`, ; (ki)` progressive aspect;
(l)` continuous aspect; | (zh)` perfective aspect;
(gu)` experiential aspect; (fn)` iterative aspect.
5.9. Pinghua dialect group l Pnghu q (cf. Atlas: B14; You
Rujie 2004: 1920)
70

Middle Chinese qunzhu initials, pronounced today as plosives or
affricates, are usually unaspirated.
5.10. Hakka dialect group |lKjihu q (cf. Atlas: B8, B11,
B13, B14, B15; You Rujie 2004: 1718)
71

A. The ) rsheng has been preserved. In places where the distinc-
tion between | yin and [ yng is present, the | yinr tone is
usually low, the [ yngr is usually high.
B. Some of the Middle Chinese syllables in the ) shngsheng with
zhu initials have developed into syllables in the | yinpng
tone.
C. Middle Chinese qunzhu initials, today plosive or affricate,
are mostly voiceless aspirated. However, there are cases when they
are unaspirated as well.
D. The Middle Chinese ) shsheng syllables can have the nasal
codas [-m, -n, -p].
E. The Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng can today have
the plosive codas [-p, -t, -k].
F. Syllables belonging to the | sh | (gng) have [ap uap iap] finals
in the colloquial pronunciation.
G. The character | (gng)` (stalk or stem of some plants) is
pronounced with medial [u].
H. Syllables which derive from the Middle Chinese ;| kikuh
of the ) zm (yng) have the zero initial, not [p-] as in the
Gan dialect.
I. The character j (k)` is pronounced with initial [f-].
J. The character | (f)` is pronounced with initial [p-].
K. Lexical characteristics include:
For the Beijing pronoun ] (w)` (I), the word 1;
(i)` is used
For Beijing ][ (wde)` (my) 1; (ige)`
For Beijing [, (chfn)` (to eat), (hch)` (to
drink tea) |, (shfn)`, | (shch)`
For Beijing (sh)` (to be) | (x)`
For Beijing (b)` (the negative particle) (m)`
For Beijing ,J (hu j)` (live chicken), ,f (hu
y)` (live fish) J (shng j)`, f (shng y)`
For Beijing j (cng)` (to hide) | (bng)`
5.11. Conclusions
As was mentioned earlier (6.4.), the two main parameters taken into
consideration for the grouping of Chinese dialects in the Atlas are the
evolution of the Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng (for the
Mandarin dialects, as well as for the separation of the Jin dialect) and the
development of Middle Chinese qunzhu initials (for the remaining
eight dialect groups). These characteristics are presented in Table 8. and
Table 9.:

Table 8. Development of Middle Chinese syllables in the )rsheng into mod-
ern Mandarin dialects (after Li Rong 1985a: 3).
MC
sylla-
ble in
)
r-
sheng
SW Central
Plains
Jilu Lanyin Beijing Jiao-
liao
Jiang-
huai

,
qingyin
initials

|
yinpng

,)
q-
sheng
|[
,
yin,
yng,
shng,
q

)
shng-
sheng

]
czhu
initials

|
yinpng

,)
qsheng

qun-
zhu
initials

[
yng-
png

[
yngpng

)
r
sheng

The Northeastern Mandarin group is not to be found in the table presented
by Li Rong in his article concerning the classification of Mandarin dialects
(1985a: 3). In the description accompanying map A2 in the Atlas, this
question is looked upon anew. In the dialects of Northeastern China,
Middle Chinese syllables in the ) rsheng with , qingyin initials
have, similarly to the Beijing Mandarin group, developed into syllables in
all the four tones, which is a reason for classifying these two groups to-
gether. Yet, due to the fact that these syllables are at present much more
often pronounced in the ) shngsheng, and that the tone values of the
| yinpng tone are lower than those in the Beijing dialect, as well as the
lack of the [,] initial (syllables, which have the [,] initial in Beijing dialect,
are generally pronounced with a zero initial), Li Rong decides to classify
the Northeastern Mandarin as an individual group (Li Rong 1989a: 247).

Table 9. Development of Middle Chinese qunzhu initials into modern dia-
lects (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 1997: 244-245).
Dialect
group/supergroup
Continuants of Middle Chinese
qunzhu initials
Wu usually still voiced
Hui all voiceless, in many dialect localities also
aspirated
Gan plosive and affricate initials voiceless aspi-
rated
Xiang plosive and affricate initials in some places
voiced, in other voiceless, all unaspirated
Min unaspirated voiceless affricates or plosives, in
some places also aspirated
Yue Middle Chinese qunzhu syllables in
the ) pngsheng aspirated voiceless
initials; in the oblique tones ))
zsheng unaspirated voiceless ini-
tials
Pinghua plosive and affricate initials usually voiceless
unaspirated
Hakka plosive or affricate, mostly voiceless aspirated

The Jin dialect is not included in the tables, as its distinctive feature the
preservation of the Middle Chinese ) rsheng does not agree with the
criterion for classifying the remaining dialects.

Chapter 7
Guidelines for field research of Chinese dialects
1. Phonetics
Differences between Chinese dialects are most evident in pronunciation.
That is why most dialectal research begins with the survey of the phonetic
system.
72

1.1. , j [ ( (Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao) [Questionnaire of
characters for dialect survey] (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan
Yanjiusuo 2002)
The most widely used manual for speech sound investigation is also based
upon the achievements of traditional Chinese phonology.
The questionnaire was written by the scholars of the Institute of
Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Zhongguo Shehui
Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo) in order to help dialectologists with the re-
search of Chinese dialects. Written on the base of ,j[(| (Fangyan
Diaocha Biaoge) [the table for dialect research], published in 1930 by the
Institute of History and Philology of Academia Sinica (Zhongyang Yanjiu-
yuan Lishi Yuyan Yanjiusuo ,{|j),{], it was issued
for the first time in 1955, and its revised edition was printed in 1981.
Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao includes over 3700 characters. The order of
characters is based on the sequence in Qieyun |, (see Chapter
4.6.1.), Guangyun , (see Chapter 4.6.2.) and other similar rhyme
books (see Chapter 4.6.).
1.1.1. The use of Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao
At the beginning of the book, there is a sheet where one can write down the
information about the interviewed informant or informants (Zhongguo She-
hui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: ix). The data includes his/her name,
age, ancestral home (place of descent), occupation, level of education,

92
linguistic environment during childhood, places where he/she has lived
afterwards, if he/she knows the speech of other places. On the sheet there is
also space to write down the number of accents of the given place and
which accents the informant speaks, as well as the time of writing down the
results. All this information is necessary for estimating the linguistic situa-
tion of the informant, all the possible influences on his/her speech.
The next part of the book includes a list of characters helpful in describ-
ing the rough draft of the phonetic system of the dialect in question. The list
consists of three parts: for describing the tones, initials and finals respec-
tively (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: xxii).
73

Differentiating the tones
74

In the first list of Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao, i.e. the list for describing the
tonal system (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: x), the
characters are listed according to their classical pronunciation, i.e. yinpng
|, yngpng [, yinshng |, yngshng [,
yinq |,, yngq [,, yinr |, yngr [
(see Chapter 4.2.).
The list for investigating the tones is divided into three parts. In the first
part there are four groups, and in each of them the characters differ only in
tone, the initials and finals being the same. This part allows to roughly indi-
cate if the tones are even, rising, falling, rising and falling or falling and
rising, whether or not they differ in length, and then to decide on the values
of the tones (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 120121).
The second part of the list focuses on the contrast between the voiceless
and voiced qingzhu initials of Middle Chinese (see Chapter
4.3.). The last part gives 150 more examples of characters arranged accord-
ing to their origin in order to make a final analysis.
The next step in describing the tones of a given dialect is to name them.
The names show the roots of the tones in Middle Chinese pronunciation, i.e.
yinpng |, yngpng [, yinshng |, yngshng
[, etc. If in a dialect the tones did not evolve into separate
subcategories, the names are simply the same as the Middle Chinese ones,
i.e. without the yin | and yng [ prefixes. For example, the
tones in the modern Beijing dialect are known as yinpng | (55);
yngpng [ (35); shngsheng ) (214) and qsheng ,
) (51) (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 122123).
Phonetics

93
Differentiating the initials
75

The characters in the list for investigating the initials (Zhongguo Shehui
Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: xi), are arranged according to the Bei-
jing pronunciation, but at the same time they concentrate on the origin of
the words. There are ten lines, each of them focusing on different
characteristics of the initials.
The first line examines labial sounds, its aim being to verify whether the
initials are voiced or unvoiced, aspirated or not. The second line looks for
apical sounds; the third line velar sounds and zero-initials; the fourth and
fifth lines sharp and rounded initials; sixth, seventh and eighth affricates;
the last two lines look for zero initials and initials like [n; p; ,].
Differentiating the finals
76

The list for investigating the initials (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan
Yanjiusuo 2002: xii) consists of fourteen lines. The characters are arranged
according to their pronunciation in the Beijing dialect.
The first four lines represent open finals in the Beijing dialect, while
investigating them one should pay special attention to the medial and nu-
clear vowel (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 126).
The four following lines all represent characters which were pronounced
as syllables in the entering tone ) rsheng in Middle Chinese. Not-
ing down these syllables, one should make sure whether or not the finals
end with a plosive and at the same time check if the syllable is pronounced
in the entering tone (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 126127).
In the next two lines there are syllables which have a vowel (either [i] or
[u]) as the end of the finals in the Beijing dialect; the aim is to find out if
these syllables also end with a vowel in the given dialect or if they end with
other vowels than [i] or [u] (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 127).
The last four lines all belong to the group of syllables whose finals
ended with nasal sounds in Middle Chinese (and still end with nasals in the
Beijing dialect). The purpose of researching these syllables is to find out if
the given dialect has preserved the nasal endings. If so, which nasals can be
found? Some dialects have nasalized endings or vowel endings, others have
compound endings consisting of a vowel and a nasal sound. In some dia-
lects, syllables from this group have finals made up of single nasal conso-
nants (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 127).

94
Having noted down the tones, initials and finals, one should prepare
rough tables of the phonetic system of the given dialect, in order to use it as
a reference and to correct it during further investigations by means of the
table proper (see Chapter 7.1.2.).
The structure of the table proper
The characters in the table are arranged according to sixteen | sh (see
Chapter 4.4.) in the following order:

1. gu 9. , shn
2. j ji 10. shn
3. y 11. ) zhng
4. xi 12. { dng
5. ) zh 13. jing
6. ; xio 14. zng
7. li 15. | gng
8. j xin 16. j tng
Figure 2. Order of the sixteen | sh in Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao.

Each | sh is then divided into ;| kikuh and {| hkuh (see
Chapter 4.4.), and these are further divided into the four grades |
sdng. Each unit (e.g. |; gush kiku yidng) is divided
into the four tones , png shng q r.
Vertically, in the first row on each page one finds thirty six initials,
based on the thirty six ) zm (see Chapter 4.3.). These come in the
following order:
77

1. bng((fi) 12. ) cng
2. png(f) 13. ( xn
3. } bng(fng) 14. ( xi
4. | mng](wi) 15. ) zh
5. dun 16. | ch
6. tu 17. chng
7. ding 18. zhung
8. n((ning) 19. | ch
9. li 20. chng
10. | jng 21. shng
11. qng 22. zhng
Phonetics

95
23. ;chng 30. qn
24. chuan 31. ) y
25. sh 32. | xio
26. chn 33. [ xi
27. r 34. yng
28. jin 35. . yn
29. x 36. ) y
Figure 3. Order of the thirty six ) zm in Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao.

Example characters have been placed in the table according to their phono-
logical features. The informant should read the separate characters. While
questioning the informant, one should note down (using the International
Phonetic Alphabet (see Chapter 7.1.5.) all the phonetic features of the given
character, i.e. the tone, the initial and the final. The informant should only
pronounce the characters in his/her vernacular. (cf. Zhongguo Shehui
Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: vi).
1.1.2. Shortcomings of Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao
Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao contains many characters which are rarely used.
Researching particular dialects, the informants may not be able to give the
pronunciation. For some dialects, the table is insufficient, there might be
syllables in the dialects which are impossible to find through Fangyan
Diaocha Zibiao. Thus, the table of single characters (see Chapter 7.1.2.3.)
may not include all the existing syllables. Therefore, a table consisting of
monosyllabic words which are in everyday use should be prepared with the
purpose of completing the deficiencies of Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao (cf. Li
Rulong 2003a: 10). The results can also be completed during further
research of vocabulary and grammar. One should continuously check and
compare the outcome and note down every new discovery.
1.2. Arrangement of the results of research
While writing down the results of ones investigation, one should continu-
ously verify and correct the rough table of the phonetic system, made
beforehand. Having noted down the pronunciation of the individual charac-

96
ters in the table, one should organize the results into specific tables. In this
section the most important kinds of tables will be presented.
1.2.1. Tables of the phonetic system
Table of tones
The table of tones should be divided into as many of the traditional eight
tone categories i.e. yinpng |, yngpng [, yinshng |
, yngshng [, yinq |,, yngq [,, yinr
|, yngr [ (see Chapter 4.2.), as there are in the given
dialect. The adequate tone values should be placed in the blanks, examples
should follow (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987: 220221; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
135137). For example, the table of tones of the Beijing dialect should look
like this:

Table 10. Tones of the Beijing dialect.
Tone
category
j
dioli

|
yinpng

[
yngpng

)
shng-sheng

,)
qsheng
Tone value
jj
diozh

55

35

214

51

Example

, shi
| ti

} sh
t

| sh
t

sh
t
Table of initials
The table of initials of a given dialect should be arranged according to the
features of the consonants, i.e. the place and the manner of articulation.
Horizontally, one should have the sounds with the same place of articula-
tion, vertically the same manner of articulation (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987:
220221; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 135137; You Rujie 2004: 6263). The
IPA should be used.

Phonetics

97
Table 11. Initials of the Beijing dialect (after You Rujie 2004: 63).
p p m
f
t t n l
ts ts s
t t ,
tc tc c
k k x
c
Table of finals
The table of finals should take the various features of the medial, nucleus
and coda into consideration (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987: 220223; Zhan Bohui
et al. 2004: 135137; You Rujie 2004: 6364). Also here, the IPA should be
used.

Table 12. Finals of the Beijing dialect (after You Rujie 2004: 64).
cr a o y e ai ei au ou
i ia ie iau iou
u ua uo ue uai uei
y ye
an cn ap cp
ian in iap ip
uan ucn uap ucp up
yan yn yp
1.2.2. Table of homophonic characters ],( tngyinzbio
Having written down the pronunciation of individual characters on the ba-
sis of Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao, one can organize the characters into a table
of homophonic characters. This kind of table arranges the characters
according to their pronunciation. Usually each final has its own table,
horizontally the table is divided into tones, vertically into initials. Charac-
ters are placed in their appropriate position, with all the ones pronounced in
exactly the same way being in one blank. It is not necessary to write all the
initials existing in a given dialect for each final, one can write only those,

98
which form syllables with the specified final (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987: 225
226; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 138140; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai
Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 33). For example, we can choose the [in] final in
the Beijing dialect:

Table 13. Table of homophonic characters for the [in] final in the Beijing dialect
(after Huang Jinghu 1987: 226).
in
|
yinpng
55
[
yngpng
35
)
shngsheng
214
,)
qsheng
51
p |]])|( ;
p ;| ] , ]]
m [] ||!
n
l [[;| ],[ |\
tc ),
{
|)'
~
j,
|~
~)
'~
tc _j|, ,{`}j)

j j]
c (])] ]{
c ,|||/ |;,| ,~;
[
|~_
|
1.2.3. Table of single characters ,( dnz yinbio
The table of single characters is also called the table of syllables ,(
yinjibio, or coordinative table of initials, finals and tones ),j
{( shengyndio pihbio. The table assembles the initials, finals and
Phonetics

99
tones with one single character as representative for each syllable. The
representative character can be chosen from the table of homophonic
characters (see Chapter 7.1.2.2.). The table is arranged similarly to the table
of homophonic characters (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987: 224225; Zhan Bohui et
al. 2004: 140142; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi
2004: 33).

Table 14. Table of single characters for the [an, ian, uan, yan] finals of the Beijing
dialect (after Zhan Bohui ed. 2004: 141142).
an ian uan yan
| [ , | [ , | [ , | [ ,
p | | )
p ( ) , )
m ] j ,
f ) ,
t | , { ) j ) |
t , ! ( | [
n ) + ] |
l , | ) ] , [ ]
ts ) ) j j \
ts _ ] )
s ,
t , | , ' j
t | ) \ `
[ j [ ,
, ]
tc , ) | j ;
tc j , [
c ] } _
k | ]
k | ] (
x ' |
c ] ) @ _ ] ] j |
1.3. ),j[]( (Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao) [Concise
table for the research of Chinese dialects] (Ding and Li ed. 1956a)
This table was edited in 1956 by Ding Shengshu and Li Rong, and pub-
lished by the Institute of Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social

100
Sciences (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo), with the inten-
tion of being used during the general dialectal surveys carried out through-
out China at that time.
The primary aim of the surveys was to promote Putonghua, therefore
the book focuses chiefly on phonetics, but it also contains some material
for the research of vocabulary and grammar. The part for the research of
phonetics includes five components: tones, initials, finals, basic characters
for the phonetic system, and table of single characters. Altogether there are
over 2500 characters. The order of characters both in the basic characters
for the phonetic system and the table of single characters is based on the
phonetics of the Beijing dialect. The part for the research of vocabulary and
grammar consists of 172 words or phrases and 37 example sentences.
To facilitate the use of the table, simultaneously ),j[,j
|) (Hanyu fangyan diaocha ziyin zhengli kapian) (Ding and Li ed.
1956b) was issued, holding 2136 cards. The characters in this work and in
Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao are numbered in corresponding order.
While researching dialects of Chinese, either Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao
or the Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao can be used. However, since
Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao is arranged according to the pronuncia-
tion of the Beijing dialect, it is more convenient while investigating dialects
of the Mandarin group. Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao is more useful for the
research of dialects from other groups (cf. Zhan Bohui ed. 2004: 171;
Huang Jinghu 1987: 208; You Rujie 2004: 59).
1.4. Variant pronunciations of one character [, yd
As a rule, one Chinese character is read in one way. Nevertheless, some
characters have more than one reading. There are two main types of variant
readings: one is when the variant readings carry different meanings (e.g. in
Putonghua the character | can be read as chng, meaning long or as
zhng older; senior); the second type is the opposite the meaning re-
mains the same despite different pronunciations. This latter type is called
[, yd and is the one which is especially important in the investigation
of dialects.
There are several kinds of [, yd. While researching dialects, one
should be careful to take notice and distinguish between them.
Phonetics

101
1.4.1. Research of sandhi
While researching the phonetic system, one has to bear in mind that it is not
sufficient to study separate syllables, but also to survey the changes which
appear in the course of speaking, the so-called sandhi. In some dialects
(especially Min), changes caused by sandhi are more common, in others
(like Hakka, Gan, Xiang ), they are quite rare (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
168).
The most frequent kind of sandhi is tone sandhi. To study the tone san-
dhi of a given dialect, a special list of characters needs to be prepared. The
list should include all possible tonal combinations, either only disyllabic
words and expressions, or both disyllabic and tri-syllabic ones. A universal
list can be made for the research of any dialect, or one can prepare a list for
each individual dialect.
The universal list should consist of all hypothetical tonal combinations,
i.e. of the eight Middle Chinese tones | yinpng, | yinshng, |,
yinq, | yinr, [ yngpng, [ yngshng, [, yngq, [
yngr. Thus, there should be 64 sets of disyllabic examples and 512 sets
of tri-syllabic ones (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 172; You Rujie 2004: 7677,
2000: 3234). Examples of such lists can be found in Zhan Bohui et al.
2004: 386393; You Rujie 2004: 247252; Huang Jinghu 1987: 241
(disyllabic); Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 394412 (trisyllabic).
The list for an individual dialect should include all possible tonal
combinations of the given dialect, i.e. if a dialect has 4 tones, there should
be 16 disyllabic combinations, if it has 5 tones 25, and so on. In such a
list, specific local words and expressions can be taken into account (cf. You
Rujie 2004: 76; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 172). These lists can be helpful in
researching both tone sandhi and sandhi of other kinds, checking for
changes which may occur in the initials and finals during the process of
speaking (cf. You Rujie 2004: 7879; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 172).
78

1.4.2. Phonetic changes of diminutives |,xiochng binyin
(cf. Huang Jinghu 1987: 236237)
In some dialects there are occasional specific sound changes as a means of
indicating diminutives. This kind of phonetic change usually concerns the
tones. E.g. in the dialect of Wenzhou |, besides the basic eight
tones, there are two tones which indicate the diminutives: 15 and 51. Thus,

102
the basic pronunciation of the character J` (chicken) is [ts
33
], the
changed form is [ts
15
], meaning small chicken.
79

rhu
One of the specific kinds of phonetic changes of diminutives is the
phenomenon of rhu, which is quite common in the dialects of Chi-
nese. In general, it consists of adding the (r) suffix which merges with
the syllable it attaches to (Duanmu, San 2002: 195), forming a retroflexed
final. For example in the Beijing dialect:
@ [ky] + [e] @ [gyr] (a song)
In most cases, adding the (r) suffix forms a diminutive, as the word
r means child; son, and thus denotes something small. It also indi-
cates endearment. However, the (r) suffix can also be added to adjec-
tives and some verbs (cf. Duanmu, San 2002: 195).
80

1.4.3. Alternative pronunciations ,,yud
There are cases when a character is pronounced in different ways with no
clear explanation (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyan-
shi 2004: 32). For example, the character in the Beijing dialect, besides
the regular pronunciation in the falling-rising tone (214) (f), is also pro-
nounced in the level (55) (f), as well as the rising tone (35) (f). E.g.:
(1) a. fr (method; way):
~ Zh k mi fr le.
There is no way of doing it.
b. fzi (method; way):
|~ Yu shnme fzi?
How to do it?
(Examples taken from Xu Shirong ed. 1996: 127)
1.4.4. The literary and colloquial variant pronunciations )[,
wnbi yd
The distinction between the pronunciation of the literary and of the collo-
quial language becomes visible depending on the circumstances in which
Phonetics

103
the specified character is being pronounced. The general rule is that the
literary pronunciation occurs when a book is read, and the vernacular one
while having a colloquial conversation. Yet, the situation is not at all as
straightforward as it may seem.
In some cases the two readings can be used alternatively. Usually, the
literary reading is then perceived as being more refined. In other in-
stances, the literary pronunciation is reserved for the official language,
while the vernacular one is used in colloquial speech only and both cannot
be freely interchanged (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 130; You Rujie 2000:
2728).
Most commonly, the dissimilarity between the two variant pronuncia-
tions lies in finals, but it can just as well happen between initials, tones or
all kinds of combinations of the three components of the syllable (cf.
Huang Jinghu 1987: 233234).
During the study of a dialect, one should take note of this occurrence
and describe it carefully. In order to explore the matter thoroughly, while
noting down the pronunciation of the individual characters, it is helpful to
put the characters into various words and phrases. At the end of the studies,
the diverse forms should be compiled so as to find existing rules of
differentiation (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 131132; 144145; Huang
Jinghu 1987: 234235).
Special care should be taken while interviewing the informant and
showing him/her characters in Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao. Seeing the written
form, the informant might give the literary pronunciation in a natural way.
That is why it is necessary to be very persistent while investigating the
subject, at times enquiring again and again (cf. You Rujie 2000: 27; Zhong-
guo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: vi).
1.4.5. Borrowing the pronunciation of a synonym ,xnd
, xnd is a specific phenomenon which can be quite confusing while
researching the phonetics of a dialect, especially for those who study the
historical sound changes. When a certain character is not used in colloquial
speech, its reading may be substituted by the reading of a synonym which
is in common use (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 132133; Huang Jinghu
1987: 235).

104
The Min dialect of Hainan is very rich in cases of , xnd. An
example of the phenomenon follows (taken from Chen Hongmai 1993:
45):
81

is read as (
and ( are synonyms. In the dialect of Qiongzhou )|, is
seldom read in its original reading [zi
33
] or [zui
33
], e.g.:
(2) ] [1dau
23
hu
23
zi
33
] or [1dau
23
hu
23
zui
33
]
fermented bean curd
More often is read as (, i.e. [ne
23
], especially in the colloquial lan-
guage, e.g.:
(3) a. [ne
23
ku
21
]
milch cow
b. [ [ne
23
1bap
21
]
breast; udder

1.4.6. Differences between the new and old varieties ];.;[,
xinpi, lopi yd
In the dialects of Chinese, some characters are read in a different way by
young and old speakers. This phenomenon is tending to become stronger
nowadays, since the beginning of the promotion of Putonghua in the 1950-
ies. Yet, some dialects, except for the influence of Putonghua, are also un-
der the pressure of neighbouring dialects (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 133
134; Huang Jinghu 1987: 235236).

1.4.7. Popular reading ],sd and misreading ,,wd
Some characters are often mispronounced ,, wd; for instance, in
the Beijing dialect, the word should be read [kan
55
ka
51
], but due to the
elements of the characters which suggest a different reading, it is often
mispronounced as [tcian
55
tcic
51
] (see Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai
Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 32). If the mispronunciation is widespread and has
become common practice, the reading is treated as a popular reading ]
, sd, not a mistake (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 134135).
Phonetics

105
1.4.8. Geographical differences
Evident differences between the pronunciation of some characters in the
city and in the suburbs or countryside ,[, chngxing yd are
also common. These variations are caused by sociological factors. For
example, in the Fuzhou dialect, the character = is pronounced [tsa] in the
city and [tsia] in the suburbs (see Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai
Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 33).

1.5. The usage of IPA in the research of Chinese dialects
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is currently generally applied for
recording the phonetics of Chinese dialects. However, Chinese dialectology
has also developed some specific symbols which are commonly used, as
well as adjusted some of the IPA symbols to its own needs (cf. You Rujie
2000: 2226):
The implosives are written down as [b, o, g] in the IPA, but in the field
of Chinese dialectology, they are usually written as [1b, 1d, 1g]. Yet, where
the injection is light, consonants are noted down as [b, d], etc.
The retroflex vowels [ ], frequent in Chinese dialects, are not
listed in the basic IPA, but can be found in the IPA extensions.
The IPA uses the symbol
[h]
to indicate aspiration. Chinese dialectology
generally notes down the aspiration with [], for instance [p, t, ts].
The tone values are described according to the five point scale, with 1 as
the lowest and 5 as the highest point. The tones can be represented by num-
bers and also by fixed symbols of IPA, e.g. the tones of the modern Beijing
dialect are shown as 55 , 35 , 214 , 51 1 (cf. You Rujie 2000: 23; Bei-
jing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 28).
82

To represent the tones, there is also a set of special symbols applied to
denote the traditional Middle Chinese names of tones. This method is
called [ fqunf. Semicircles are placed in respective corners of the
character to indicate the png, shng,, q, r tones. If the
tones are divided into | yin and [ yng categories, the symbols for the [
yng-tones are underlined semicircles. The set of symbols is (the square
representing a character):


106
|yinpng [yngpng
|yinshng [yngshng
|,yinq [, yngq
|yinr [yngr
Figure 4. Symbols of [fqunf.

For example, the tones of the Beijing dialect are:
|yinpng (e.g. [tiau
55
])
[yngpng (e.g. j [tiau
35
])
shng (e.g. ] [tiau
214
])
,q (e.g. l [tiau
51
])
(cf. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: v; Lin and
Geng 2004: 5960; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi
2004: 2829; You Rujie 2000: 25).
The IPA does not provide any symbols to represent the light tone j
j qingdio. Customarily, syllables in the light tone are not labelled with
any numbers or symbols. One other solution is to mark them with a dot on
their left-hand-side. E.g., the Beijing syllables ]| [ti
55
ta].
To record the pronunciation, the narrow transcription ]|, yn-
sh bioyin or the broad transcription ]|,kunsh bioyin are
to be used. While recording the speech sounds on the spot, the narrow
transcription should be applied. Later, when describing the phonetic system
and the phonemes, the broad transcription is to be employed. The narrow
transcription shows the minute differences between the speech sounds,
while the broad transcription is sufficient to indicate the distinctive features
(cf. You Rujie 2000: 2526; Zhou Dianfu 2001: 1115).
2. Vocabulary
The research of Chinese dialectal vocabulary, has long been neglected, as is
the case with grammar, since linguists concentrated on the phonetic
differences rather than on the lexicological or grammatical diversity. This
probably happened because of the mistaken idea that surveying dialects
was equal to surveying the dialectal phonetics. Also, the promotion of
Putonghua in the beginning focused mainly on the teaching of Beijing
phonetics. Since the 1980s the interest in dialect vocabulary and grammar
has increased (cf. Zhai Shiyu 2003: 271273).
Vocabulary 107
In the foreword to ,j[,,( Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Biao
(Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyanzu 1981) (see Chapter 7.2.1.2.), the scholars
state that the research of dialects should include all three aspects, i.e.
phonetics as well as vocabulary and grammar or even concentrate on the
survey of vocabulary and grammar, naturally without neglecting phonetics.
This is primarily justified by the duty of improving the promotion of
Putonghua, but is also important for the sake of compiling dialect
dictionaries (Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyanzu 1981: 161162).
The influence of the national standard on dialectal vocabulary is im-
mensely strong. The promotion of Putonghua and the standardization of the
language are changing the local lexicons in a natural way. That is why the
research of dialectal vocabulary seems to be even more significant (cf. Bei-
jing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 39; Zhan Bohui
et al.2004: 174, see also Chapter 3.3.).

2.1. Lists for the research of dialectal vocabulary
Depending on the conditions and the purpose of research, various kinds of
vocabulary lists can be used. There are two main kinds of such lists:
sketchy, for a general survey (such as ,j[,,) (Fangyan
Diaocha Cihui Shouce) (Ding Shengshu 1989; see Chapter 7.2.1.1.); ,
j[,,( (Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Biao) (Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyanzu
1981; see Chapter 7.2.1.2.) and detailed for a thorough investigation (cf.
You Rujie 2000: 35, 2004: 103; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 230234; Huang
Jinghu 1987: 246248).
For specific research of dialect vocabulary, individual lists can be pre-
pared according to needs. One can, for example, investigate the speech of
the suburbs of a certain city (see You Rujie 2004: 103104). Or else, one
can concentrate on some particular field of vocabulary, e.g. the names of
plants in some region or the influence of neighbouring languages on a dia-
lect, etc. (see Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 233).
This chapter concentrates on some of the commonly used lists for gen-
eral surveys of the vocabulary of dialects.
Guidelines for field research of Chinese dialects 108
2.1.1. ,j[,,)(Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Shouce) [A selected
word list for Chinese dialectal survey]
This list was published for the first time in 1955 by the Institute of Linguis-
tics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences ]||),{]
Zhongguo Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo and reprinted in 1989 in the
periodical Fangyan, with a few entries added (Ding Shengshu 1989). The
original included also a sheet to fill in the data about the informants, the
same as in the Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan
Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: ix), which has been omitted in the version printed
in Fangyan.
This list was created with the purpose of preparing ground for making a
language atlas of China. The list is short, containing just over 300 entries.
The entries are arranged according to their meaning, divided into 18
categories, of which the last one is a set of grammatical example sentences.
Next to each entry, examples of synonyms in various dialects are given for
reference (e.g. [ (tiyng) (sun) (rtou), } (rtou),
(loyr), Ding Shengshu 1989: 92, cf. Chapter 9.3.1.).
The entries were chosen with the intention of making a general
investigation, therefore there are only colloquial words and expressions. No
specialized terms have been used. To show the close and distant relation-
ships between dialects, words which are divergent in various dialects have
been selected; those words which only differ from the national standard in
pronunciation have been omitted. To make it easier to arrange the results
and make comparisons, only words with clear meaning and definite scope
of meaning have been chosen; that is why there are mostly names of spe-
cific objects and a lesser amount of abstract words, verbs, adjectives, etc.
(cf. Ding Shengshu 1989: 91).
This word list should be used together with the Fangyan Diaocha
Zibiao (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002). Having
investigated the phonetics of a dialect, one should not have problems with
writing down the words from the list (cf. Ding Shengshu 1989: 91).
2.1.2. ,j[,,( (Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Biao) [A word list for
the survey of Chinese dialects] (Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyanzu 1981)
This word list was compiled by the Dialect Section of the Institute of
Linguistics of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]1||
Vocabulary 109
),{], Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fang-
yanzu in 1958 with the aim of investigating the dialects of Hebei prov-
ince. It was printed in Fangyan in 1981.
The list is rather detailed; it includes over 4000 entries, divided into 31
categories, of which the last one is again a set of sentences for grammatical
research. The 30 lexical categories are: (1) astronomy; (2) geography; (3)
season, time; (4) agriculture; (5) flora; (6) animals; (7) houses and utensils;
(8) people; (9) kinship; (10) body; (11) diseases, medical treatment; (12)
clothing; (13) food and drink; (14) weddings and funerals; (15) supersti-
tions; (16) litigation; (17) daily life; (18) communication; (19) commerce;
(20) culture and education; (21) recreation; (22) movement; action; (23)
positions; (24) pronouns, etc.; (25) adjectives; (26) adverbs; (27) preposi-
tions, etc.; (28) examples of rhu (see Chapter 7.1.4.2.); (29) meas-
ure words (classifiers); (30) numerals, etc.

2.1.3. Handbook of Chinese Dialect Vocabulary ,,,j[)
Fangyan Cihui Diaocha Shouce (Chinese Linguistics Project 1972)
Published by the Chinese Linguistics Project at Princeton University, the
handbook includes 4348 vocabulary entries and 132 example sentences for
the research of grammar. It was based on the ),,, (Hanyu Fang-
yan Cihui) (Beijing Daxue Zhongguo Yuyan Wenxuexi Yuyanxuejiao Yan-
jiushi 2005). It has been used by many researchers outside of China in their
fieldwork (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 232).

2.1.4. ),,)j[( (Hanyu Fangyan Ciyu Diaocha
Tiaomu Biao) [A list of items for the lexical investigation of Chinese
dialects]
The contents of the list (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo
Fangyan Yanjiushi Ziliaoshi 2003) is primarily based upon ,j[,,
( (Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Biao) (Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyanzu 1981) (see
Chapter 7.2.1.2.). It is also a revised edition of the list used for the specific
purpose of compiling The Great Dictionary..., i.e. ),,,j[(
(Hanyu Fangyan Cihui Diaochabiao). The entries are divided into 29
categories, the same as those in the basic version of ),,,j[(
(Hanyu Fangyan Cihui Diaochabiao) (see Chapter 8.2.3.) (cf. Zhongguo
Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyan Yanjiushi Ziliaoshi 2003: 6).

2.1.5. ),,,j[) (Hanyu Fangyan Cihui Diaocha Shouce)
(Handbook for Lexicon Based Dialect Fieldwork)
The handbook (Simmons, Gu and Shi 2006) is an outcome of the Ameri-
can-Chinese cooperation during the Project for the Investigation of the
Boundary between Wu and Jiang-Hwai Dialects. The project was funded
by the Henry Luce Foundation U.S. China Cooperative Research Program
and the Chinese Foundation for the Social Sciences (cf. Simmons, Gu and
Shi 2006: Frontispiece).
This handbook does not concentrate solely on nouns, but it also pays
attention to verbs and adjectives as well as function words. It also includes
a list for the research of tone sandhi (Simmons, Gu and Shi 2006: 179183).
The lists for the research of vocabulary are preceded by tables for the re-
search of phonetics (Simmons, Gu and Shi 2006: 414), as well as a sheet
to be filled in with data about the time and place of the investigation and
about the informant (Simmons, Gu and Shi 2006: 3). This sheet is similar to
the one found in the Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao (Zhongguo Shehui
Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: ix, see also Chapter 7.1.1.1.).
There are three lists for the research of isoglottic lines of dialects: a de-
tailed list, a brief list and a short list, each of them can be used depending
on the purpose of the investigation. The entries are arranged alphabetically
according to the pinyin transcription of Putonghua pronunciation.
The detailed list (Simmons, Gu and Shi 2006: 15140) includes 1900
entries and is sufficient for thorough investigation. The brief list (Simmons,
Gu and Shi 2006: 141174) holds 450 entries which are more crucial and
can be used for a general survey of a number of dialect localities, with the
intention of comparing their vocabulary before a thorough investigation.
The short list (Simmons, Gu and Shi 2006: 175178) is made up of 60
items, which are the most crucial, and it can be helpful while drawing maps
of dialects and depicting isoglosses.
Vocabulary 111
2.2. Definition of dialectal word and dialectal vocabulary
The terms dialectal word ,, fngync and dialectal vocabu-
lary ,,, fngynchu are always used in comparison with
Putonghua. A dialectal word is one which differs from the national standard
language in the meaning and morphology. Dialectal vocabulary is a collec-
tion of words which differ from Putonghua in these aspects (cf. Beijing
Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 39; Huang Jinghu
1987: 242243).

2.3. Characteristics of Chinese dialectal vocabulary
Chinese dialectal vocabulary is utterly diverse, though some common fea-
tures can be found. Usually, the differences are listed in comparison with
the national standard. Except for words which vary only in pronunciation,
numerous kinds of disparities occur.

2.3.1. Different origins
Archaisms
Putonghua is based mainly on the northern, i.e. Mandarin dialects, which
have evolved faster than the southern dialects. That is why many southern
dialects have preserved ancient words, which nowadays exist only in the
formal or literary language of Putonghua, or are known as ,|) Gdi
Hny classical Chinese
83
(cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai
Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 39; Huang Jinghu 1987: 245; Zhan Bohui et al.
2004: 199201; Li Rulong 1997: 3840). For example:
Guangzhou | dialect:
(1) a. | [hap
21
]
to walk (Putonghua: _ zu)
b. _ [tsnu
35
]
to run (Putonghua: | po)

Xiamen ] dialect:
(2) [bak
5
]
eye (Putonghua: [ ynjing)
(Examples taken from Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
Jiaoyanshi 2004: 39)
Loan words from other languages
Many dialects have absorbed words from other languages; either from
nationalities living in the same area, or from foreign languages (mostly
English) (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987: 245246; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi
Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 40; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 201; Zhan
Bohui 1981: 5455; Li Rulong 1997: 40). Here are a few examples:
Northeastern Mandarin group borrowing from Manchurian (Shenyang
[dialect):
(3) |*,* [mai
35
tai]
dirt, filth
Northeastern Mandarin group borrowing from Russian (Shenyang
[ dialect):
(4) ]*]* [lie
53
pa]
bread (Russian xne [xlcp])
Yue dialect borrowing from English (Guangzhou | dialect):
(5) * [p5
55
]
ball
Southern Min dialect borrowing from Malaysian (Xiamen ]
dialect):
(6) *F* [to
33
11
l5p]
help (Malaysian tolong)
2.3.2. Partial differences
Some dialectal words denoting the same thing differ partly from each other
as regards the morphemes used to form these words. These dissimilarities
can be divided into three categories:
Vocabulary 113
Polysyllabic words partially different
A number of polysyllabic dialectal words are both partly similar to and
partly different from Putonghua. This is because one (or more) of the mor-
phemes used to form them is different from those in other dialects and in
the national standard (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
Jiaoyanshi 2004: 40; Huang Jinghu 1987: 244245; Zhan Bohui 1981: 50
51). For example, the word denoting the palm of the hand is:
(7) a. In Putonghua: shuzhng
b. In Beijing dialect: ] [pa
55
tap]
c. In Suzhouj|dialect: ( [s.
52
sin
44
23
]
d. In Shuangfengdialect: | [io
31
p
31
]
e. In Chaozhou|dialect: [ [tsiu
53
34
toi
53
21
]
f. In Meixian]dialect: ] [su
31
pa
44
45
ts5p]
Presence and absence of affixes; distinct affixes
In various words, the root is the same in different dialects, though in some
localities, the words are formed with affixes, and in others without them (cf.
Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 40; Zhan
Bohui 1981: 51; Huang Jinghu 1987: 244). E.g.:
(8) a. In Putonghua:
) zo (cooking stove)
^ che (car; vehicle)
b. In Suzhou j| dialect:
) [tsa
513
55
d.]
^ [tso
55
ts]

Other words have different affixes in different dialects (cf. Beijing
Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 40; Zhan Bohui 1981:
51; Huang Jinghu 1987: 244), e.g.:
(9) a. In Putonghua: , bzi (nose)
b. In Shanghai[dialect: , [bie1
13
11
dr
13
12
]
c. In Guangzhou|dialect: , [pei
22
k5
55
]
d. In Meixian]dialect: ,, [pi
53
kup
44
]
Differences in sequence
Multiple polysyllabic words are built up of the same morphemes in a vari-
ety of dialects, but sometimes in an inverted order (cf. Beijing Daxue
Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 40; Zhan Bohui 1981: 50;
Huang Jinghu 1987: 245). For instance:
84

(10) a. Putonghuas | krn (guest)
in Yue, Min and Hakka dialects is |
b. Putonghuas } rnao (lively; bustling with activity)
in Wu, Min, Gan, Hakka dialects is }.
c. Putonghuas , xhuan (to like; be fond of)
in Yue, Wu, Gan dialects is ,.
2.3.3. Semantic differences
Some words are built up of the same morphemes, but denote different
things in various dialects (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
Jiaoyanshi 2004: 41; Zhan Bohui 1981: 4850; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
196197; Huang Jinghu 1987: 244; Li Rulong 1997: 4042).
Meaning broader than in Putonghua
A part of the dialectal vocabulary differs from Putonghua in regard to the
scope of the meaning. Sometimes words which denote a certain thing in the
national standard, can have a broader sense in certain dialects (cf. Beijing
Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 41; Zhan Bohui 1981:
49; Huang Jinghu 1987: 244). E.g.:
(11) a. |
Putonghua: wnzi mosquito
Changsha |; dialect: [mcn
33
ts
3
] mosquito; fly
Vocabulary 115
b. ,
Putonghua: bzi nose
Yangzhou || dialect: [pie1
4
tsc] nose; nasal mucus
Meaning narrower than in Putonghua
Sometimes the scope of the meaning is narrower than that of Putonghua (cf.
Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 41; Zhan
Bohui 1981: 49; Huang Jinghu 1987: 244), e.g.:
(12) ; in unsimplified characters
Putonghua: min flour; powder; noodles
In many dialects, among others: Wuhan [micn
35
];
Changsha |; [mie
11
]; Guangzhou | [min
22
] noo-
dles
(Examples taken from Zhan Bohui 1981: 49 and Li Rong ed. 2002, 6:
6211)
(13) ;/
Putonghua: zmi sisters; elder and younger sisters
Changshu ;; dialect: [tsi
44
me
213
21
] younger sister
(Example taken from Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiao-
yanshi 2004: 41)
Shifted meaning
There are also words, with the same origin, but where the meaning has
changed in a different way in various dialects (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhong-
wenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 41; Zhan Bohui 1981: 4950). For
example:
(14) a. )_j
Putonghua: bi wgui white turtle
Shanghai dialect: [bo1
13
1
u
53
11
ty
53
11
] goose
b. ,,
Putonghua: gnggong husbands father; father-in-law
Yangzhou | | dialect: [kop
21
kop] maternal
grandfather
Swapped meaning
In some cases, the signification of a dialectal word can be swapped with the
signification of another word in the national standard (cf. Beijing Daxue
Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 41; Zhan Bohui 1981: 49;
Huang Jinghu 1987: 244). E.g.:
(15) In the dialect of Guangzhou |, the word [ [f5p
21
35
] is
translated into Putonghua as wzi room (in a house),
whereas the word [ok
5
] is [ fngzi house in Putonghua.
2.3.4. Different conceptualization with the same referential frame
Due to cultural disparities, numerous words referring to the same objects or
concepts are completely different in various dialects (cf. Zhan Bohui 1981:
5153; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi 2004: 4142;
Huang Jinghu 1987: 243244).
Different ways of describing objects
Various objects are perceived and described in a different way. For example,
the word denoting sunflower is described as:
(16) a. In Putonghua: ] xingrku
flower facing the sun ku certain herbaceous plants
with big flowers
b. In Beijing dialect: [tuan
51
,
51
lian
35
]
lotus turning towards the sun
c. In Jinan dialect: [ [t5
42
45
iap xua
213
]
flower facing the sun
d. In Kunming | dialect: [, [tau
31
ia
31
pir
53
]
round cake facing the sun
Vocabulary 117
e. In Wenzhou | dialect: [] [ta
42
ni
31
21
vci
212
31
ho
44
33
]
Buddhas flower of the sun

Another example is the word for kerosene; paraffin:
(17) a. In Putonghua: ), miyu
coal oil
b. In Wenzhou | dialect: ,, [ji
31
21
jiau
31
22
]
oil from overseas; imported oil
c. In Guangzhou | dialect: , [f5
35
joy
35
]
fire-water
d. In Chaozhou | dialect: ,, [hue
53
24
iu
55
]
fire-oil
Jiaoyanshi 2004: 42; Beida Zhongwenxi Yuyanxuejiao Yanjiushi 2005: 185)

Fear of breaking a taboo
Some words sound the same as words which are believed to be inauspi-
cious. In order to avoid bringing bad luck, other words are chosen to de-
scribe those objects. For example:
In the word, which in Putonghua is called zh shtou pig
tongue (as food), the syllable , sh calls up bad associations, because it
is homophonous with the word | sh, as in |7 shbn to lose
money in business. That is why it is replaced by various words, such as:
(18) a. In Beijing dialect: [kou
214
21
tiau
35
]
mouth-strip
b. In Nanchang ; dialect: |[ [tscu
42
tsai
24
]
bringing in money
(Examples taken Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu Jiaoyanshi
2004: 41)
2.3.5. Words specific to particular dialects
There are a certain number of dialectal words, used only in a certain area,
and their origin is as yet not known. These words are traditionally called
specific dialectal words ,|/,) fngyn tsh cy or ,|
, fngyn tzheng c. They are colloquial, frequently used every-day
words, mostly monosyllabic These kinds of words are especially common
in the Southern dialects (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
Jiaoyanshi 2004: 42; Zhan Bohui 1981: 5354 Li Rulong 2003a: 37; see
also Chapter 5.1.2.1.).
85
For example:
Yue dialect (Guangzhou | pronunciation):
(19) a. [jc
23
]
thing, object dngxi in Putonghua
b. ] [mnt
5
]
what shnme in Putonghua

Min dialect (Xiamen ] pronunciation):
(20) a. [kia
51
]
son rzi in Putonghua
b. [*|* [tik
11
kuat
11
]
pleased with oneself | dy in Putonghua

2.4. Noting down the results
2.4.1. Choosing the characters
Characters used for writing down dialectal words, often cannot be found in
the national standard, or they do not function in every-day use. One of the
reasons is that the dialects have preserved many ancient words (see Chapter
7.2.3.1.) and, naturally, still use the adequate characters to write them down.
Sometimes dialects use characters which exist in Putonghua, but under a
different meaning. In such cases, there is no problem in noting down the
words, one uses the characters which are known (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987:
248; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 193). However, it is not always easy to find an
appropriate Chinese character.
86

Vocabulary 119
Dialectal characters , fngynz
Many dialectal words have adequate dialectal characters , fng-
ynz, also called non-standard characters ] stz or ]
sz (cf. You Rujie 2004: 207).
Often the dialectal characters exist concurrently with original characters
7 bnz. For instance, when a Chinese character has a literary and a
colloquial pronunciation )[, wnbi yd (see Chapter 7.1.4.4.),
sometimes they differ so much, that people invent a new character (usually
for the colloquial pronunciation) which renders the reading more accurately.
At other times, the character is created to clarify the meaning. For example,
in Guangzhou | dialect the word for mud and for dry soil is the
same: [nni
21
]. In order to differentiate the two meanings, dry soil is writ-
ten down as |. There is also a group of dialectal characters, which are
constructed on the basis of the original ideogram. For example, a part can
be altered or added (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 193).
When the dialectal character is used beside the original one, it is not
necessary to note down the local variety, but it may be interesting to show
the atypical popular forms. If the dialectal shape has already become so
popularized as to enter the dictionaries, it is advised to use it (cf. Zhan Bo-
hui et al. 2004: 193).
At times, the dialectal variations do not have an evident origin, still they
are commonly applied. For example, the character [m
21
] which denotes
negation, is widespread in the Yue language area (cf. Zhan Bohui et al.
2004: 193194). These types of ideograms should be taken into account
and noted down.
87

Borrowing homophonic characters
There are many dialectal words which cannot be written down in the exist-
ing characters, neither standard, nor non-standard. If in a dialect there is a
word which is homophonic with the word in question, this homophone is
used to write it down, though usually with an asterisk [*] or some other
symbol (cf. Huang Jinghu 1987: 248249; Ding Shengshu 1989: 91; Zhan
Bohui et al. 2004: 194195; You Rujie 2004: 207). For example, in Suzhou
j| dialect, the word for child is pronounced [si
31
ko
33
35
], and
can be written down as *, as the word pronounced as [ko
33
] does not
have a character to represent it (example taken from Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
194).
Sometimes the homophonic characters become widely used and finally
enter the dictionaries. This has happened for instance with the word
[ma
23
tni
21
35
], meaning water chestnut in the dialect of Guangzhou
|. It is commonly written as _ (see Bai Wanru ed. 2003: 3), which
in Putonghua is pronounced mt and means horses hoof. However, it
can also be found in The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary (Zhongguo
Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo Cidian Bianjishi 2002: 1290), with the
annotation (Fng) dial.`and the meaning of water chestnut.

The usage of symbols
If there is no homophone which could substitute for a given syllable, an
empty square [] is used instead. This method can cause some confusion,
as it indicates neither the reading, nor the meaning. That is why it is neces-
sary to always write down the pronunciation next to the word (cf. Huang
Jinghu 1987: 248249; Ding Shengshu 1989: 91; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
194195). For example:
(21) Meixian ] dialect:
] [nem
53
55
i
31
]
unbroken spell of wet weather
(Example taken from Li Rong ed. 2002, 6: 6515).

2.4.2. Transcription
At present, the characters or symbols, which have been noted down, should
be supported by an IPA transcription of the pronunciation.
88
While
researching the vocabulary, one can discover more sounds and occurrences
of sandhi than during the research of phonetics (see Chapter 7.1.4.1.).
Every new phenomenon is to be recorded, and the tables of the phonetic
system completed (cf. You Rujie 2004: 106; Huang Jinghu 1987: 249; Zhan
Bohui et al. 2004: 185186).

Grammar 121
Explanation of the meaning
Usually the meaning of the dialectal words is explained either in Putonghua
or in the literary language ) shminy. Equivalents in the na-
tional standard or literary language are to be used if possible, or else con-
cise definitions should be formed. Examples should also be presented, in
order to clarify the meaning (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 186193, You
Rujie 2004: 105106; Huang J inghu 1987: 249250).
3. Grammar
The grammar of dialects is still the least explored area in Chinese dialectol-
ogy. For a very long time a misconception has dominated, namely that the
grammar of all dialects is generally the same. This was also stated by Zhao
Yuanren in his Grammar of Spoken Chinese (first published in 1968):
Apart from some minor divergencies, one can say that there is practi-
cally one universal Chinese grammar (Zhao Yuanren 2004a: 41). This
statement was based upon the fact that it is in matters of grammar that the
greatest degree of uniformity is found among all the dialects of the Chinese
language (Zhao Yuanren 2004a: 41). This is true with phonetics and
vocabulary, but it does not mean that the grammar of dialects is homogene-
ous.
Bao Houxing (cf. 2003: 34) mentions two main reasons for the disregard
of dialectal grammar. One is that it is in phonetics that the dialectal differ-
ences are most visible; the phonetic divergence has for a long time been the
indicator for the classification of dialectal groups, as well as the means for
qualitative analysis. The other reason is the great degree of difficulty of
dialectal research, including field research. The investigation of phonetics
has a long tradition and much experience has been accumulated in this area
of knowledge, while the research of grammar still needs to be given much
more attention. Turning the focus towards dialectal grammar should be
considered both by dialectologists and by researchers of the grammar of
Putonghua.
It is only since the 1980s that more attention has been paid to this aspect
of Chinese dialectology (cf. Wang Futang 2004: 524; J in and J in 2004: 242;
Zhan Bohui 2001: 23). By 1991, over 400 different papers had been pub-
lished on this topic.
The investigation of dialectal grammar is much more difficult than the
research of phonetics and vocabulary. It is not easy to prepare a table for a
systematic research of grammar, and the existing tables consist of a limited
number of entries. The investigation of dialectal grammar should be carried
out on the basis of the results of the research of phonetics and vocabulary.
To be able to register all the features of a given dialect, the researcher
should be very well acquainted with the speech; the best situation is when
the researcher is a native of the area (cf. Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xian-
dai Hanyu J iaoyanshi 2004: 47; You Rujie 2004: 106; Zhan Bohui et al.
2004: 239).
3.1. Questionnaires
As was mentioned above, the grammar of a dialect is usually researched in
comparison with Putonghua, but can also be analysed in opposition with
other dialects, especially neighbouring ones (cf. You Rujie 2004: 107).
Before starting the investigation of the grammar of a given dialect, it is
necessary to prepare a questionnaire. This should include all the items one
wants to research. Depending on the purpose of investigation, various kinds
of tables can be prepared. It is sufficient to do only some brief research,
examine the grammar thoroughly, or one can investigate a special
grammatical topic (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 287289).
Most of the questionnaires which are commonly available are not per-
fect, but can be helpful either as a means for a rough investigation, or as a
basis for creating more accurate questionnaires (cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004:
288). A list of the most commonly used questionnaires follows:
3.1.1. ),j[]( (Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao) [Concise
table for the research of Chinese dialects]
Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao (Ding and Li ed. 1956a) (see Chapter
7.1.3.) includes 37 example sentences for the research of dialectal grammar.
It consists of sentences and phrases in Putonghua which are to be translated
into the given dialect, with special attention being given to the underlined
words or phrases. The examples are supposed to show the special
grammatical features of a dialect (see also Huang Borong et al. 2001: 126
127).
Grammar 123
3.1.2. ,j[,,) (Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Shouce) [Word list
for Chinese dialectal surveys]
The list (Ding Shengshu 1989) (see Chapter 7.2.1.1.) holds 53 grammatical
examples, placed at the end of the list. It is similar to the above-mentioned
list in Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao (Ding and Li ed. 1956a). The
researcher should again focus on the underlined parts; their aim is to reveal
such problems as different word-order, usage of particles, etc. Several of
the items are meant to show differences in vocabulary used in some
grammatical constructions (cf. Ding Shengshu 1989: 92).
3.1.3. ,j[,,( (Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Biao) [A word list for
the survey of Chinese dialects]
This list (Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyanzu 1981) (see Chapter 7.2.1.2.) has over
300 grammatical entries. The entries are divided into the following catego-
ries: word order, comparison, sample sentences, particles le, ( zhe, |
de, [ de, elements placed at the end of a construction, elements placed at
the beginning of a construction.
3.1.4. A questionnaire in ),,,j[ (Hanyu Fangyan ji
Fangyan Diaocha) [Chinese dialects and the study of dialects]
One of the most important books in modern Chinese dialectology, (Zhan
Bohui et al. 2004), also provides its readers with a list for the investigation
of grammar (Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 464470). It contains more than 70
entries, each of them followed by examples in Wu, Min, Yue and Hakka
dialects.
3.1.5. ),)j[) (Hanyu Fangyan Yufa Diaocha Shouce)
[a handbook for the research of Chinese dialectal grammar] (Huang
Borong et al. 2001)
This handbook is the first systematic manual for the investigation of Chi-
nese dialectal grammar. It was written on the basis of the results of )
,), (Hanyu Fangyan Yufa Leibian) (Huang Borong ed. 1996). It
applies the materials collected in the work mentioned, i.e. data from over
250 dialect localities. Thanks to the fact that the data comes from all cor-
ners of China, the handbook can be used as an aid in research on every
dialect locality in the country.
The book is divided into twelve chapters, of which the first three con-
cern syntax (sentence patterns; syntactic structures; word-order and ellipsis),
and the remaining chapters are on morphology (nouns; verbs; adjectives;
numerals and measure words; adverbs; pronouns; prepositions and conjunc-
tions; onomatopoeias and exclamations). Each of the chapters is further
divided into detailed parts.
The entries are all written in the national standard. They are followed by
examples of translations into respective dialects; every example has its
place of origin noted down, e.g. in the first subchapter (passive sentences)
of the first chapter (sentence patterns), the first group of sentences are
examples which in some dialects may differ in word-order from Putonghua.
For instance:
][)|)]y (Wde gu miyu bi Zhng Sn zp.
My pot was not broken by Zhang San.)
is followed by the translation:
][)l)|]y
and the dialect locality it comes from:
[ Shandong Zaozhuang]
(Huang Borong et al. 2001: 1)
As appendices, the book supplies lists for the research on dialects from
three important works in the field of dialectal grammar research, namely:
Hanyu Fangyan Diaocha Jianbiao (Ding and Li ed. 1956a; see Chapter
7.3.1.1.); ,j[,,(Fangyan Diaocha Cihui Biao (Yuyan Yanjiusuo
Fangyanzu 1981; see Chapter 7.3.1.3.); ),,,j[ (Hanyu
Fangyan ji Fangyan Diaocha) (Zhan Bohui et al. 2004) (see Chapter
7.3.1.4.). These lists are meant to complete the handbook itself (cf. Huang
Borong et al. 2001: 2).
3.1.6. Comparative Chinese Dialectal Grammar: Handbook for
Investigators.
Thehandbook (Yue-Hashimoto 1993) constitutes part of a research project
on Comparative Chinese Dialectal Grammar (Yue-Hashimoto 1993: i).
The Project was set up at the University of Washington under the leadership
Grammar 125
of Anne Yue Hashimoto. At the time of the Handbook being published, the
Project had accumulated computerized data on syntactic constructions of
over one hundred dialects (see Yue-Hashimoto 1993: ii; cf. Yan, M. M.
2006: 5758).
As the author says in the acknowledgement, the aim of publishing this
handbook is to encourage the study of dialectal grammar and to draw atten-
tion to the syntactic differences across dialects (Yue-Hashimoto 1993: ii).
The book consists of fourteen chapters, each of which is meant to
investigate a certain grammatical feature. Every chapter is made up of a
theoretical part, followed by a set of example sentences (for a detailed
explanation of the structure of the book, see Yue-Hashimoto 1993: ivv).
The content is supplemented by three appendices: Informant Back-
ground (Yue-Hashimoto 1993: 263264), Sources (265268) and
Bibliography of Chinese Dialectal Syntax (269312). The Informant Back-
ground is more detailed than the one included in Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao
(Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: ix, cf. Chapter
7.1.1.1.). The Sources list the origin of unpublished data. The Bibliography
gives an exhaustive record of works concerning Chinese dialectal grammar,
divided into several categories.
3.2. Relevant dialectal features
Dialectal grammar in China is, as a matter-of-course, multifarious.
Grammatical characteristics are usually looked for in comparison with
Putonghua. It would be very difficult to research every grammatical feature
of a dialect. That is why one can choose to look for the most important
aspects, commonly found in various dialects. He Wei (1992: 170171) pro-
poses the following aspects:
89
Reduplication
Use of measure words
Pronouns
Forms and usage of adjectives
Types of verb-complement phrases
Patterns of sentences
Usage of specific dialectal words
Geographical distribution of grammatical characteristics.
There are, naturally, many more features which can be taken into
consideration, such as the relationship between grammar and pronunciation,
affixes, auxiliary words, etc.
3.3. Different sources
As is suggested by many authors (cf. You Rujie 2000: 3839, 2004: 108;
Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu J iaoyanshi 2004: 4748; Zhan
Bohui et al. ed. 2004: 241242; Huang J inghu 1987: 277278), in
preparing the research on dialectal grammar, one should remember to use
different linguistic sources for the research. One important factor is to
prepare a questionnaire of sample sentences and phrases (see Chapter
7.3.1.). Nevertheless, the list should never be the only basis for the
investigation. The necessary materials should also include various forms of
longer samples to put the issues into context. You Rujie (2000: 3839) lists
the following four sources of linguistic samples:
3.3.1. Samples of colloquial speech
A lot of linguistic data can only be discovered during the investigation of
natural colloquial speech. Asking the informants for example sentences and
phrases, one must keep in mind that the answers may not be fully natural.
That is why it is important to investigate everyday conversations and listen
for special grammatical features.
There are two methods of noting down the materials. One is to directly
write down what one has heard, though this is rather problematic and re-
quires high-level skills. The other way is to record samples of speech and
write them down afterwards. However, in order to make the samples natu-
ral and reliable, one should make sure that the people, whose speech is
being recorded, are not aware of this fact.
3.3.2. Samples of folklore
Folklore includes proverbs, riddles, folk songs, tongue twisters, folk tales,
folk performing art, local opera, etc. This kind of data can either be re-
corded on the spot, or one can use the material collected in book-form. For
Grammar 127
comparative purposes, the informants can, for example, be asked to trans-
late a story into their dialect.
3.3.3. Samples of language spoken on radio and television
One can also collect samples of speech from local radio and television. This
can be useful while researching social dialects, for instance comparing the
official broadcasting language with colloquial speech.
3.3.4. Samples of dialectal literary language
The dialectal literary language includes dialectal literature, translations of
the Bible into the vernacular, local textbooks, etc. These materials can be
used while investigating the historical dialectal grammar.
Chapter 8
Analysis of The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese
Dialects
1. Introduction
The project of creating The Great Dictionary... was decided upon during
the second meeting of the Press and Publication Administration ]
[ Xinwen Chubanshu on the planning of issuing dictionaries and
reference books in 1988 (cf. Chen Fengying 1995: 107).
The Great Dictionary... is a result of the work of over sixty linguists
over a period of more than ten years. The convener of this project was Li
Rong, other members of the leadership group included Rong Wenmin,
Xiong Zhenghui, Xu Zongwen, Yang Muzhi, Zhang Zhenxing and Zhou
Fang. The undertaking was supervised by the Institute of Linguistics of the
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (cf. Chen Fengying 1995: 107; Yan,
M. M. 2006: 33).
The authors compiled the data for the dictionary through on-the-spot re-
search. The work was divided into two steps. Firstly, they were going to
compile forty dictionaries of dialects of individual localities, although in
the end there were forty two volumes.
90
Secondly, on the basis of these
forty two volumes, a comprehensive edition was published. The whole
dictionary, i.e. the dictionaries of individual local dialects and the
comprehensive dictionary, were published by the J iangsu Educational Press
j{[1 Jiangsu Jiaoyu Chubanshe (cf. Li Rong 1993: 1;
Chen Fengying 1995: 103).
The work on the project of The Great Dictionary... began in the spring
of 1991, and in the autumn of 1992 the first dictionaries started being
printed. By the end of 1998 the compilation of the individual local dialect
dictionaries was completed, excluding Jixi Fangyan Cidian (,,3)
[J ixi Dialect Dictionary] (Zhao Rixin 2003). After another four years, the
comprehensive edition was published (cf. Li Rong 2002: 1).
The two aims of writing the individual dialect dictionaries were to pre-
pare conditions for editing the comprehensive volume, and to reflect the
characteristics of the local dialects (see Li Rong 1992: 246, 1993: 1).
Introduction 129
The Chinese characters in The Great Dictionary... are the unsimplified
characters fntz. For the most part, regular characters are
used, though sometimes the non-standard forms are applied (see Li Rong
1992: 253254, cf. [www 10]).
91
If a character is not possible to write down
(i.e. a word or a part of it does not have an existing character to write it
down), then a square () is used to represent it (cf. Chapter 7.2.4.1.).
The pronunciation is written down in the IPA. The tones are also noted
down according to the IPA transcription, i.e. by the fixed symbols based on
the five point scale (cf. Chapter 7.1.5.).
1.1. The composition of the individual local dialect dictionaries
92
The forty two individual dialect dictionaries are as follows (in alphabetical
order according to the places names in pinyin, mentioning all names of
authors):
Changsha Fangyan Cidian |;,,3 [Changsha dialect diction-
ary] ed. Bao Houxing, Cui Zhenhua, Shen Ruoyun and Wu Yunji
(1998).
Chengdu Fangyan Cidian j,,3 [Chengdu dialect dictionary]
ed. Liang Deman and Huang Shangjun (1998).
Chongming Fangyan Cidian |,,3 [Chongming dialect
dictionary] ed. Zhang Huiying (1998).
Danyang Fangyan Cidian )[,,3 [Danyang dialect dictionary]
ed. Cai Guolu (1998).
Dongguan Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [Dongguan dialect diction-
ary] ed. Zhan Bohui and Chen Xiaojin (1997).
Fuzhou Fangyan Cidian ||,,3 [Fuzhou dialect dictionary] ed.
Feng Aizhen (1998).
Guangzhou Fangyan Cidian |,,3 [Guangzhou dialect
dictionary] ed. Bai Wanru (2003).
Guiyang Fangyan Cidian [,,3 [Guiyang dialect Dictionary]
ed. Wang Ping (1998).
Haikou Fangyan Cidian [,,3 [Haikou dialect dictionary] ed.
Chen Hongmai (1996).
Hangzhou Fangyan Cidian ||,,3 [Hangzhou dialect diction-
ary] ed. Bao Shijie (1998).
Analysis of The Great Dictionary 130
Haerbin Fangyan Cidian ],,3 [Harbin dialect dictionary]
ed. Yin Shichao (1997).
Jianou Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [J ianou dialect dictionary] ed.
Li Rulong and Pan Weishui (1998).
Jinan Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [J inan dialect dictionary] ed.
Qian Zengyi (1997).
Jinhua Fangyan Cidian ',,3 [J inhua dialect dictionary] ed.
Cao Zhiyun (1998).
Jixi Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [J ixi dialect dictionary] ed. Zhao
Rixin (2003).
Leizhou Fangyan Cidian ,|,,3 [Leizhou dialect dictionary]
ed. Zhang Zhenxing and Cai Yeqing (1998).
Lichuan Fangyan Cidian \),,3 [Lichuan dialect dictionary]
ed. Yan Sen (1995).
Liuzhou Fangyan Cidian ||,,3 [Liuzhou dialect dictionary]
ed. Liu Cunhan (1998).
Loudi Fangyan Cidian [,,3 [Loudi dialect dictionary] ed.
Yan Qinghui and Liu Lihua (1998).
Luoyang Fangyan Cidian [,,3 [Luoyang dialect dictionary]
ed. He Wei (1996).
Meixian Fangyan Cidian ],,3 [Meixian dialect dictionary]
ed. Huang Xuezhen (1998).
Muping Fangyan Cidian ",,3 [Muping dialect dictionary]
ed. Luo Futeng (1997).
Nanchang Fangyan Cidian ;,,3 [Nanchang dialect diction-
ary] ed. Xiong Zhenghui (1998).
Nanjing Fangyan Cidian ;,,3 [Nanjing dialect dictionary]
ed. Liu Danqing (1995).
Nanning Pinghua Cidian ,3 [Nanning Pinghua Dictionary]
ed. Qin Yuanxiong, Wei Shuguan and Bian Chenglin (1997).
Ningbo Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [Ningbo dialect dictionary] ed.
Tang Zhenzhu, Chen Zhongmin and Wu Xinxian (1997).
Pingxiang Fangyan Cidian ,,,3 [Pingxiang dialect diction-
ary] ed. Wei Gangqiang (1998).
Shanghai Fangyan Cidian [,,3 [Shanghai dialect dictionary]
ed. Xu Baohua and Tao Huan (1997).
Suzhou Fangyan Cidian j|,,3 [Suzhou dialect dictionary] ed.
Ye Xiangling (1998).
Introduction 131
Taiyuan Fangyan Cidian ),,3 [Taiyuan dialect dictionary]
ed. Shen Ming (1998).
Wanrong Fangyan Cidian ],,3 [Wanrong dialect dictionary]
ed. Wu J iansheng and Zhao Hongyin (1997).
Wenzhou Fangyan Cidian |,,3 [Wenzhou dialect dictionary]
ed. You Rujie and Yang Ganming (1998).
Wuhan Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [Wuhan dialect dictionary] ed.
Zhu J iansong (1998).
Wulumuqi Fangyan Cidian _Z,,,3 [rmqi dialect
dictionary] ed. Zhou Lei (1998).
Xian Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [Xian dialect dictionary] ed.
Wang J unhu (1996).
Xining Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [Xining dialect dictionary] ed.
Zhang Chengcai (1998).
Xiamen Fangyan Cidian ],,3 [Xiamen dialect dictionary]
ed. Zhou Changji (1998).
Xinzhou Fangyan Cidian |,,3 [Xinzhou dialect dictionary]
ed. Wen Duanzheng and Zhang Guangming (1998).
Xuzhou Fangyan Cidian ]|,,3 [Xuzhou dialect dictionary]
ed. Su Xiaoqing and L Yongwei (1996).
Yangzhou Fangyan Cidian ||,,3 [Yangzhou dialect diction-
ary] ed. Wang Shihua and Huang J ilin (1996).
Yinchuan Fangyan Cidian |),,3 [Yinchuan dialect dictionary]
ed. Li Shuyan and Zhang Ansheng (1996).
Yudu Fangyan Cidian ,,3 [Yudu dialect dictionary] ed. Xie
Liuwen (1998).
These dictionaries are all arranged according to the same pattern, how-
ever aberrations can be found. At the very beginning of each volume, there
is a general introduction by Professor Li Rong (which can also be found in
Fangyan [Li Rong 1993]). The rest is composed of three parts: an introduc-
tion, the dictionary proper and indexes (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 2000b: 99).
The introduction usually includes eight parts (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 2000b:
108109; Li Rong 1992: 246247; [www 10]):
1. A brief description of the geographical features of the place, its his-
tory and population, i.e. various factors which have an influence on
the linguistic situation.
2. Internal differences of the local dialect, including geographical dif-
ferences and differences depending on the age of the users. The
question of age divergence is closely bound with the dissimilarities
between the language of the younger and the older generations.
The geographical differences include disparities between the city
and the suburbs or countryside, as well as between various parts of
the town.
3. A description of the phonetic system of the dialect, i.e. the initials,
final and tones; including tone sandhi and other phenomena.
4. Table of single characters ,( dnz yinbio (see Chap-
ter 7.1.2.3.). Each syllable is represented by one character. If an
existing syllable does not have a character to represent it, an empty
circle is placed in its place
93
All the syllables written down as cir-
cles, as well as non-standard characters, are explained below the ta-
ble.
5. The characteristics of the given dialect, in pronunciation, vocabu-
lary and grammar. This is the most important part of the introduc-
tion.
6. A guide to the use of the dictionary, the explanation of symbols
used etc.
7. An annotation of the characters frequently used in the examples in
the dictionary. This part is intended to be a help to the user, so that
there is no need to search the dictionary for every word in the
examples.
8. A list of syllables of the given dialect. The syllables written down
in the IPA are arranged according to the order in the table of single
characters (see above). Next to each syllable, the number of the
page on which it appears in the dictionary is given.
The entries in the dictionary proper are arranged phonetically according
to the final, initial and tone. The order of the syllables is written down in
point (3) of the introduction. Entries with the same pronunciation are ar-
ranged according to the number of strokes.
To make it easier to look up words, there are two indexes at the end of
each volume. The first one arranges the entries in thematic order. In the
other one the entries are put in the order according to the number of strokes
of the first character.
The average number of entries is 8000, though the largest number is
around 10000 (the dictionaries of Guangzhou and Fuzhou), the smallest
one is 7000 (Xining and J ianou) (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 2000b: 99).
In order to make comparisons possible, the Committee of the Dialect
Dictionary Compilation prepared a list especially for the study of dialects
Introduction 133
for The Great Dictionary... Chinese Dialect Lexicon Survey List )
,,,j[( Hanyu Fangyan Cihui Diaochabiao , containing
around 2000 entries (for further details concerning the Lexicon Survey List,
see also Chapter 8.2.3.) (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 2000b: 109110). The
Committee decided on 3500 obligatory entries for each dictionary, the rest
of the entries are specific local words (cf. [www 10]; Zhang Zhenxing
2000b: 99). Entries in the thematic index are arranged roughly according to
the list, taking the specific local words into consideration.
If the meaning of an entry does not differ from the standard use i.e. from
the meaning the characters have in Putonghua, then the explanation is
based on the Xiandai Hanyu Cidian_|),3 (The Contempo-
rary Chinese Dictionary) (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo
Cidian Bianjishi 2002).
94
If the meaning of an entry differs from the stan-
dard one, the explanation is given in Putonghua. If the entry is specific to
the region, the explanation also comes in Putonghua (see Li Rong 1992:
251252).
1.2. The composition of the comprehensive edition
The comprehensive edition of The Great Dictionary... (Li Rong 2002) con-
sists of six volumes. Beside the preface and the guide to the use of the
dictionary, there are three main parts: introductions to all the forty two local
dialects which were investigated for the project (pp. 1263); an index of
characters, arranged according to the number of strokes (pp. 133); the
dictionary proper (pp. 16556).
The introductions to the individual dialects include uniformed points 1,
2, 3, 5 and 7 from the separate volumes:
1. A brief description of the geographical features of the place, its his-
tory and population
2. The geographical differences and differences between generations
within the dialect of the place
3. A description of the phonological system of the dialect
4. The characteristics of the given dialect in pronunciation, vocabu-
lary and grammar
5. A list of the characters frequently used in the examples in the
dictionary.
The entries in the dictionary proper are arranged according to the num-
ber of strokes. If an entry has the same meaning in several dialects, first the
pronunciation in each of them is given, then the explanation in Putonghua.
The entries are collected from all the separate volumes.
The comprehensive edition is a collection of the individual dictionaries,
but improvements have been made. A few years had passed between the
publication of the individual dictionaries, especially the earliest ones, and
the comprehensive edition. Naturally, the linguistic situation of the dialects
had already changed by then, and so the comprehensive edition takes this
fact into account. Most of the explanations in the comprehensive edition
remain the same as in the individual dictionaries, but some have been cor-
rected and improved. Over 500 entries have been added compared with the
separate volumes (cf. Xiandai Hanyu Fangyan Da Cidian zongheben chu-
ban 2003: 197).
2. Methods of research for The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese
Dialects
95
Most of the authors of The Great Dictionary... are either native speakers of
the dialect they have described, or they have lived in the place for a long
time and are well acquainted with the local speech. In this way, they have
been able to study the dialect thoroughly (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 2000b: 99).
The list of authors includes probably all of the outstanding modern Chinese
dialectologists.
2.1. The choice of informants
Questionees were chosen according to the following rules: One could
choose individuals belonging to different age groups, to make the results
more accurate. Elderly people were rather supposed to be chosen for
describing the phonetic system, as they are believed to preserve the local
characteristics of the dialect, while younger generations tend to succumb to
influences of the outer world, especially to the influence of Putonghua (cf.
Li Rong 1992: 243). The best type of informant was to be of rather old age.
He/she should not have experienced a lot of influence of other dialects and
should be able to speak an unadulterated variety of the particular dialect.
96
A note about the main informants can usually be found at the end of the
second part (or at other places, including postscripts) of the introductions to
the individual dialect dictionaries and in the collected introductions in the
Methods of research for The Dictionary 135
comprehensive edition. Unfortunately, nearly half of all the dictionaries do
not contain this information (Harbin, Wuhan, Guiyang, Liuzhou, Xian,
Xining, Xinzhou, J ixi, Chongming, Hangzhou, Changsha, Nanchang,
Pingxiang, Guangzhou, Dongguan, J ianou, Xiamen, Haikou). Where the
information exists, the number of main informants listed varies from one
(Xuzhou, J inhua, Loudi) to five (Nanjing).
The version of a certain dialect which has been chosen for the descrip-
tion is usually that of the urban area, the oldest part of town, and at the
same time of the old generation (Wenzhou, where the language of the new
generation is the basis, is an exception, cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 166; You
and Yang ed. 1998: 6).
The informants belong generally to the old generation; nevertheless
younger varieties are also taken into consideration, especially for the analy-
sis of vocabulary. Most of the informants are of Han nationality, though in
some dictionaries, other Chinese-speaking nationalities have been inter-
viewed in addition (the Hui in J inan, Nanjing, Yinchuan, rmqi).
Some of the introductions include additional information about the
informants background, such as place of residence, place of birth and
where he/she has lived, if not ones whole life was spent in the same place
(which is the most frequent situation), education and occupation.
The professions of the informants include teachers, medical doctors,
folk-art performers, workers, housewives, office workers, farmers,
businessmen, a hairdresser. There are both men and women, with a slight
majority of men.
What raises some doubts is the number of people interviewed. Where
the names are mentioned, only one to five are listed as main informants,
which might mean that they are dictionaries of idiolects, not dialects. The
choice of elderly people who have not spent much time outside their place
of living, seems rational as the aim was to record the oldest and most
genuine variety, although Chambers and Trudgill (2003: 47) suggest that
this group of informants does not necessarily represent the most typical
dialect of a place, but the most conservative variety. On the other hand, the
description of the cross-section of the language can be found in the chapters
about internal diversification.
Analysis of The Great Dictionary
136
2.2. Phonetics
The foundation for the research of the phonetic system of the local dialects
was Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao (Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yan-
jiusuo 2002, see Chapter 7.1.1.).
The phonetic system was described on the basis of consultations with
native speakers of the given speech. To begin with, the method of writing
down what one had heard was to be used. Gradually, this turned into a
systematic method, but one had to complement the system permanently, as
new phenomena could appear (cf. Li Rong 1992: 244245).
2.3. Vocabulary
As was mentioned above (see Chapter 8.1.1.), a special list was made for
the purpose of studying the vocabulary of the dialects, ),,,j[
( (Hanyu Fangyan Cihui Diaochabiao) [Chinese dialect lexicon survey
list]. The list consists of around 2000 entries, which were mainly words in
common use (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 2000b: 109). It included all the entries
from Ding Shengshu 1989 (see Chapter 7.2.1.1.), the main entries from
Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyanzu 1981 (see Chapter 7.2.1.2.), as well as new
entries (cf. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo Fangyan Yan-
jiushi Ziliaoshi 2003: 6).
Authors were allowed to extend the list with entries characteristic for
the given dialect. The basic list included 29 categories (see Zhang Zhen-
xing 2000b: 112): (1) astronomy; (2) geography; (3) season, time; (4)
agriculture; (5) flora; (6) animals; (7) houses, buildings; (8) utensils; (9)
terms of address; (10) kinship; (11) body; (12) diseases, medical treatment;
(13) clothing; (14) food and drink; (15) weddings and funerals; (16) daily
life; (17) litigation; (18) communication; (19) commerce, transportation;
(20) education; (21) recreational and sport activities; (22) movement; action;
(23) positions; (24) pronouns and the like; (25) adjectives; (26) adverbs,
prepositions and the like; (27) measure words; (28) affixes; (29) numerals
and the like.
These categories were further divided into subcategories and comple-
mented with local features. The authors were at liberty to add categories, as
long as the order was not changed too much. The list was also used as the
thematic index (see Chapter 8.1.1.; Chapter 9.3.1.).
The choice of dialect localities 137
2.4. Grammar
The grammatical system of dialects was not analysed according to any spe-
cific guidelines, there was no list which was to be used as a model, and thus
there is a lack of a common paradigm. The authors designed the materials
for research in grammar to suit their particular needs. Generally, the
characteristics of Putonghua served as the base, and special features of the
dialect in question were added. One could also study the grammar through
recordings of linguistic material.
97
3. The choice of dialect localities for The Great Dictionary of Modern
Chinese Dialects
The number of local dialects included in one dictionary is truly impressive
and there is no doubt about the monumental role which The Great Diction-
ary... plays in the course of Chinese dialectology. However, some deficien-
cies are also perceptible.
The forty two local dialects ,) fngyndin chosen for The
Great Dictionary... are to be representatives of the most important dialect
groups and subgroups as divided in the Language Atlas of China (cf. Zhang
Zhenxing 2000b: 98; Xiandai Hanyu Fangyan Da Cidian fenjuanben chu-
ban zuotanhui 1999: 8788). For big dialect groups, usually three or four
dialect localities were chosen, in order to make comparisons possible (cf.
[www 10]).
Originally there were also plans to compile a dictionary of the Beijing
dialect to cover the Beijing Mandarin group, and of Shexian , in
Anhui Province as a representative of the Hui dialect group, but due to
some mishap, this never happened (cf. Zhang Zhenxing 2000b: 98). Later,
the J ixi dialect was added to cover the latter of these gaps (cf.
Zhao Rixin ed. 2003: 410).
The places were also chosen according to the actual situation and
possibilities. Surely, many more localities could be found and their dialects
described, but there were not enough specialists who could do this
appropriately, mainly because of the Cultural Revolution, which has left a
gap in the continuation of Chinese dialectology.
A question which can cause some trouble to the reader of The Great
Dictionary... is that the linguistic affiliation of each dialect locality is not
always clearly defined. A large number of the descriptions seem to take it
for granted that everybody knows which dialect group and subgroup the
local dialect belongs to. Such is the case with the descriptions of Harbin,
Xuzhou, Liuzhou, Luoyang, Xining, Wanrong, Taiyuan, Xinzhou, J ixi,
Ningbo, Pingxiang, Haikou. In other introductions only an unspecified
affiliation can be found (or guessed at), for example indicating the dialect
group only, not the subgroup (Nanjing, Wuhan, Chengdu, Guizhou, Dan-
yang, Chongming, Shanghai, Suzhou, Meixian, Nanning, Dongguan,
Fuzhou). When the dialectal affiliation of a locality is fully defined, it does
not appear at the same place in all the introductions, it can be found either
in the first, second or fifth part, which may be confusing. In a work strictly
concerning dialects, such relevant information should rather be stated in a
definite manner, preferably at the same place in all the introductions.
3.1. Representativeness of dialect localities included in The Great
Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects
While referring to such an extraordinary work as The Great Dictionary...,
the question arises whether or not the described local dialects are
representatives of their groups and subgroups, and if they fully cover the
dialectal areas of China.
3.1.1. Proportion between representatives of various dialect groups
The following table pictures the number of local dialects chosen for each of
the groups and subgroups. The dialect localities are written next to each
subgroup into which they have been classified according to the Atlas (see
Chapter 6.3.):
98

Table 15. Dialect groups and subgroups and their representatives in The Great
Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects.
Dialect group/subgroup Representatives of dialects in The
Great Dictionary...
Northeastern Mandarin group
J ishen subgroup -
Hafu subgroup Harbin ]
Heisong subgroup -
[Table 15. cont.]
Great Dictionary...
Beijing Mandarin group
J ingshi subgroup -
Huaicheng subgroup -
Chaofeng subgroup -
Shike subgroup -
J ilu Mandarin group
Baotang subgroup -
Shiji subgroup J inan
Canghui subgroup -
J iaoliao Mandarin group
Qingzhou subgroup -
Denglian subgroup Muping "
Gaihuan subgroup -
Central Plains Mandarin group
Zhengcao subgroup -
Cailu subgroup -
Luoxu subgroup Xuzhou ]|
Luoyang [
Xinbeng subgroup -
Fenhe subgroup Wanrong ]
Guanzhong subgroup Xian
Qinlong subgroup Xining
Longzhong subgroup -
Nanjiang subgroup -
Lanyin Mandarin group
J incheng subgroup -
Yinwu subgroup Yinchuan |)
Hexi subgroup -
Tami subgroup rmqi _Z,
Southwestern Mandarin group
Chengyu subgroup Chengdu j
Dianxi subgroup -
Qianbei subgroup -
Kungui subgroup Guiyang [
Guanchi subgroup -
Ebei subgroup -
Wutian subgroup Wuhan
Cenjiang subgroup -
[Table 15. cont.]
Great Dictionary...
Qiannan subgroup -
Xiangnan subgroup -
Guiliu subgroup Liuzhou ||
Changhe subgroup -
J ianghuai Mandarin group
Hongchao subgroup Nanjing ;
Yangzhou ||
Tairu subgroup -
Huangxiao subgroup -
J in dialect group
Bingzhou subgroup Taiyuan )
Lliang subgroup -
Shangdang subgroup -
Wutai subgroup Xinzhou |
Dabao subgroup -
Zhanghu subgroup -
Hanxin subgroup -
Zhiyan subgroup -
Wu dialect group
Taihu subgroup Danyang )[
Suzhou j|
Shanghai [
Chongming |
Hangzhou ||
Ningbo
Taizhou subgroup -
Oujiang subgroup Wenzhou |
Wuzhou subgroup J inhua '
Chuqu subgroup -
Xuanzhou subgroup -
Hui dialect group
J ishe subgroup J ixi
Xiuyi subgroup -
Qide subgroup -
Yanzhou subgroup -
J ingzhan subgroup -
[Table 15. cont.]
Great Dictionary...
Gan dialect group
Changjing subgroup Nanchang ;
Yiliu subgroup Pingxiang ,
J icha subgroup -
Fuguang subgroup Lichuan \)
Yingyi subgroup -
Datong subgroup -
Leizi subgroup -
Dongsui subgroup -
Huaiyue subgroup -
Xiang dialect group
Changyi subgroup Changsha |;
Loushao subgroup Loudi [
J ixu subgroup -
Min dialect supergroup
Southern Min group Xiamen ]
Puxian group -
Eastern Min group Fuzhou ||
Northern Min group J ianou
Central Min group -
Qiongwen group Haikou [
Leizhou group Leizhou ,|
Shaojiang group -
Yue dialect group
Guangfu subgroup Dongguan
Guangzhou |
Yongxun subgroup -
Gaoyang subgroup -
Siyi subgroup -
Goulou subgroup -
Wuhua subgroup -
Qinlian subgroup -
Pinghua dialect group
Guibei subgroup -
Guinan subgroup Nanning
Hakka dialect group
Yuetai subgroup Meixian ]
Yuezhong subgroup -
[Table 15. cont.]
Great Dictionary...
Huizhou subgroup -
Yuebei subgroup -
Tingzhou subgroup -
Ninglong subgroup -
Yugui subgroup Yudu
Tonggu subgroup -
The rough percentage of subgroups of each group covered by The Great
Dictionary... is shown in the following diagram:
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. Northeastern Mandarin group 10. Wu dialect group
2. Beijing Mandarin group 11. Hui dialect group
3. J ilu Mandarin group 12. Gan dialect group
4. J iaoliao Mandarin group 13. Xiang dialect group
5. Central Plains Mandarin group 14. Min dialect supergroup
6. Lanyin Mandarin group 15. Yue dialect group
7. Southwestern Mandarin group 16. Pinghua dialect group
8. J ianghuai Mandarin group 17. Hakka dialect group
9. J in dialect group 18. Overall
Diagram 1. Percentage of subgroups of each dialect group covered by The Great
Dictionary...
The Mandarin supergroup has 16 representative dialects altogether, de-
scribed in The Great Dictionary.... Percentage-wise, the best described
Mandarin group is the Lanyin group (50% of all subgroups are covered).
Of all the dialects, the Xiang dialect group is best covered in terms of
percentage. Two out of three subgroups have their representatives in The
Great Dictionary....
The dialect group, which has the smallest percentage of subgroups de-
scribed, is Yue. Only one of seven subgroups is taken into account. Even
though there are two dialect localities in The Great Dictionary..., they be-
long to the same subgroup.
Some of the subgroups have more than one exemplary dialect included
in the dictionary. For example, the Luoxu subgroup of the Central Plains
Mandarin group, the Hongchao subgroup of the J ianghuai Mandarin group,
the Guangfu subgroup of the Yue dialect group, each has two dialect locali-
ties described.
The best described subgroup is clearly the Taihu subgroup of the Wu
dialect group it has six representatives, of which the Suhujia cluster has
three dialect localities, Piling, Hangzhou and Yongjiang clusters one each.
Overall, 34 out of 97 of all the existing subgroups, which constitutes
35%, have been included in the dictionary.
The maps on the following pages show the distribution of the examined
localities. Map 1. and Map 2. are a compilation of two sources: The Great
Dictionary... and the Atlas. The distribution of the ten main dialect groups
has been drawn in accordance with the Atlas (map A2) and the forty two
dialect localities of The Great Dictionary have been placed within the
borders. An analysis of these maps denotes forthcoming conclusions on the
imperfect correlation between three factors: territorial extent, number of
speakers and density of the forty two dialect localities.
11144 Anal ysi s of the Great Di cti onar y44
Map 1. Distribution of the forty two dialect localities of The Great Di cti onar y of
Moder n Chi nese Di al ects
Map 1. Distribution of the forty two dialect localities of The Great Di cti onaty of
Moder n Chi nese Di al ects
The choi ce of di al ect l ocal i ti es 145
Map 2. Distribution of the dialect localities of The Great Di cti onar y of Moder n
Chi nese Di al ects in southern China
The absence of the Beijing dialect
The lack of an example of the Beijing Mandarin group constitutes a large
deficiency. Zhang Zhenxing (2000b: 98) claims, that this shortcoming can
be overcome by existing dictionaries of the Beijing dialect, of which he
lists a few. Nevertheless, it is a serious shortcoming that it has not been
added to this large-scale project, especially as the Beijing dialect is used as
a point of reference for describing the characteristics of many of the forty
two dialects in The Great Dictionary....
3.1.2. Geographical coverage of The Great Dictionary of Modern
Chinese Dialects
Table 16. illustrates the geographical coverage of The Great Dictionary of
Modern Chinese Dialects.
Table 16. Provinces/A.R./Municipalities/S.A.R. and their representatives in The
Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects.
Province/A.R./Municipality/S.A.R. Dialect localities
Anhui Province J ixi
Beijing Municipality -
Chongqing Municipality -
Fujian Province Fuzhou
J ianou
Xiamen
Gansu Province -
Guangdong Province Dongguan
Guangzhou
Leizhou
Meixian
Guangxi Zhuang A.R. Nanning
Liuzhou
Guizhou Province Guiyang
Hainan Province Haikou
Hebei Province -
Heilongjiang Province Harbin
Henan Province Luoyang
Hong Kong S.A.R. -
[Table 16. cont.]
Province/A.R./Municipality/S.A.R. Dialect localities
Hubei Province Wuhan
Hunan Province Changsha
Loudi
Inner Mongolia A.R. -
J iangsu Province Danyang
Nanjing
Suzhou
Xuzhou
Yangzhou
J iangxi Province Lichuan
Nanchang
Pingxiang
Yudu
J ilin Province -
Liaoning Province -
Macau S.A.R. -
Ningxia Hui A.R. Yinchuan
Qinghai Province Xining
Shaanxi Province Xian
Shandong Province J inan
Muping
Shanghai Municipality Chongming
Shanghai
Shanxi Province Taiyuan
Wanrong
Xinzhou
Sichuan Province Chengdu
Taiwan -
Tianjin Municipality -
Tibetan A.R. -
Xinjiang Uygur A.R. rmqi
Yunnan Province -
Zhejiang Province Hangzhou
J inhua
Ningbo
Wenzhou
Not every province (or other provincial-level administrative unit) has a
representative in The Great Dictionary..., while others have several each.
Most of the provinces covered by The Great Dictionary... have their capi-
tals included in the descriptions.
It is a shame that the dialects of Hong Kong and Macau S.A.R., as well
as of Taiwan, have not been included on the list, as these regions are, due to
their specific status, without doubt a very interesting field of investigation
for dialectologists.
There are unquestionably regions which still need to be explored and
their dialects described. On the other hand, some areas are portrayed in
great detail. This may, however, be explained in part by the diversity of
some dialectal areas, and general uniformity of others. The Mandarin dia-
lect is comparatively uniform in nature, disregarding the large expanse,
while the dialects in the southeast are much more diversified. Most of the
non-described provinces (Beijing, Chongqing, Gansu, Hebei, J ilin, Liao-
ning, Tianjin, Yunnan) belong either wholly or in the largest part to the
Mandarin dialect area. The Inner Mongolia and Tibetan A.R. belong (ex-
cept for minor regions in Inner Mongolia) to areas of non-Chinese lan-
guages (cf. Atlas: A1, A2).
3.1.3. Proportions between number of speakers and number of described
dialect localities
The following diagram illustrates the comparison between the percentage
of users of each dialect group and the percentage of dialect localities (i.e.
volumes of the Dictionary) belonging to each group out of the forty two
included in The Great Dictionary.... The columns on the left-hand-side
represent the volumes in The Great Dictionary..., the columns on the right-
hand-side the percentage of speakers. The percentage of speakers has
been calculated according to the data found in Li Rong 1989a: 241, out of
977,270,000 speakers of the Chinese language.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Mandarin (16 localities)
2. J in (2 localities)
3. Wu (8 localities)
4. Hui (1 locality)
5. Gan (3 localities)
6. Xiang (2 localities)
7. Min (5 localities)
8. Yue (2 localities)
9. Pinghua (1 locality)
10. Hakka (2 localities)
Diagram 2. Percentage of volumes in The Great Dictionary... against the percent-
age of speakers of each dialect group.

The Mandarin dialect, which is spoken by 67.8% of all users of Chinese,
has also the most representatives in The Great Dictionary.... Although there
is a disproportion between the two numbers in terms of percentage, it is
justified by the general uniformity of Mandarin dialects. The two smallest
dialect groups (Hui and Pinghua) have only one representative dialect de-
scribed in The Great Dictionary.... The Wu, Min and Gan dialects have
proportionally the most dialect localities included in The Great Diction-
ary....
3.2. Representatives of dialects in previous surveys
Authors who describe the characteristics of Chinese dialect groups choose
representative places as the basis for their description. In Table 17. a choice
of the most prominent works, in which such descriptions are present, is
included and the portrayed dialect localities are listed. The chosen works
are as follows:
1. Wang Li 1982. Hanyu Yinyunxue ),,) [Chinese
Phonology]
See Chapter 5.2.5.
Yuan J iahua 2003. Hanyu Fangyan Gaiyao (Dier Ban) )
,]][ [An Outline of Chinese Dialects (Second edi-
tion)] See Chapter 5.2.14.
2. Beijing Daxue Zhongguo Yuyan Wenxuexi Yuyanxuejiao Yanjiushi
2003. Hanyu Fangyin Zihui. Dier Ban Chongpai Ben. )
,,[|7 [Dictionary of pronunciation of charac-
ters in Chinese dialects. Second edition recomposed]
and
Beijing Daxue Zhongguo Yuyan Wenxuexi Yuyanxuejiao Yanjiushi
2005. Hanyu Fangyan Cihui. Dier Ban. ),,,
[ [Lexicon of Chinese dialects. Second edition].
Two classic works in the field of Chinese dialectology. They con-
sist of a large amount of data for the comparison of dialect
pronunciation of characters and vocabulary. The first editions (
),, Hanyu Fangyin Zihui in 1962, ),,, Hanyu
Fangyan Cihui in 1964) were compiled under the leadership of
Yuan J iahua, the re-editions (first published in 1989 and 1995
respectively) led by Wang Futang (cf. Gan Yuen 2005: 238239).
3. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004. Hanyu Fangyan ji Fangyan Diaocha
),,,j[ [Chinese Dialects and the Study of Dialects].
One of the basic handbooks for the students of Chinese dialects (cf.
Gan Yuen 2005: 234, see also Chapter 5.1.1.2.).
4. You Rujie 2004. Hanyu Fangyanxue Jiaocheng ),{
| [A Course in Chinese Dialectology].
A popular manual in Chinese dialectology.
5. Hou J ingyi ed. 2004. Xiandai Hanyu Fangyan Yinku_|)
,, [Sound database of Chinese dialects].
A sound database of 40 dialect localities.
Compared with the earlier works, The Great Dictionary..., apart from in-
cluding a larger number of dialect localities, differs somewhat in the choice
of representatives.
The Beijing dialect has been described by all the six authors in question
as an example of the Mandarin group, but has been omitted in The Great
Dictionary... (see Chapter 8.3.1.1.). All the places, except for Hefei {
|, chosen by Beijing Daxue Zhongguo Yuyan Wenxuexi Yuyanxuejiao
Yanjiushi, are listed in The Great Dictionary.... The Taiyuan )
dialect, due to a different classification in The Great Dictionary..., belongs
to the J in group.
Suzhouj| is the most often chosen representative of the Wu dia-
lect, also included in The Great Dictionary.... Wenzhou |, men-
tioned by Beijing Daxue Zhongguo Yuyan Wenxuexi Yuyanxuejiao Yan-
jiushi, as well as Shanghai [, by Zhan Bohui, are also part of The
Great Dictionary.... The Yongkang ,j dialect, selected by Yuan
J iahua in order to supplement the description of the dialects of southern
Zhejiang (Yuan J iahua 2003: 57), is not listed in The Great Dictionary....
The authors seem to agree about the importance of Nanchang ;,
Changsha |;, Xiamen ], Fuzhou ||, Guangzhou
|, and Meixian ] as representatives of their respective
dialect groups. Shuangfeng which seems to play an important
role in other classifications as an example of the Xiang group (in the earlier
works it was to represent the Old Xiang variety), is not mentioned by The
Great Dictionary..., nor by Hou J ingyi ed. 2004.
Wang Li (1982) uses the classification into five dialect groups; Yuan J ia-
hua (2003), Beijing Daxue Zhongguo Yuyan Wenxuexi Yuyanxuejiao Yan-
jiushi (2003, 2005), Zhan Bohui et al. (2004) into seven. Therefore there
is no comparison with respect to the J in, Pinghua and Hui groups. You
Rujie (2004) is of the same opinion as The Great Dictionary... regarding
Taiyuan ) as the model dialect for the J in group, J ixi
for Hui and Nanning for Pinghua.
Hou J ingyis edition (2004) portrays a comparative number of dialect
localities as The Great Dictionary..., namely 40. Both works share ten of
the local dialects chosen for the Mandarin supergroup. Regarding the J in
dialect, Taiyuan ) is the common choice, while the remaining
localities are not the same. The cities chosen by Hou J ingyi ed. for the Wu
dialect are all included in The Great Dictionary..., though the latter does
contain a bigger number of them. Concerning the Hui dialect, there is a full
discrepancy: The Great Dictionary... has chosen J ixi, while Hou J ingyi
Shexian, and Tunxi . Nonetheless, as mentioned previ-
ously (see Chapter 8.3.), Shexian , was originally supposed to be
included in The Great Dictionary.... There is no big disagreement as re-
gards the Min dialect. Only the absence of a representative of the dialects
of Taiwan in The Great Dictionary... can cause some feeling of regret. Hou
J ingyi does not take into account the classification of Pinghua as a separate
group (cf. Chapter 6.4.3.), hence the Nanning dialect appears as
an example of Yue. The dialect of Hong Kong Xianggang is an
interesting representative of this dialect group, which has not been de-
scribed in The Great Dictionary.... The Meixian ] dialect is se-
lected by both works as representative for Hakka, however the second
choice is different Taoyuan | in Hou J ingyis work and Yudu
in The Great Dictionary....
3.3. Conclusions
The forty two local dialects chosen for The Great Dictionary... give the best
panoramic overview hitherto of the linguistic situation in China, though not
without some shortcomings.
One of the decisive factors for choosing the dialect localities for The
Great Dictionary... was the availability of specialists. Most of the places
which are commonly considered as the models for particular dialects have
been included. At the same time, prominent dialectologists were asked to
describe their native dialects and thus these localities also became a part of
the project.
99
Once the dialectal affiliation is defined, it becomes clear that almost all
of the dialect groups have been covered by The Great Dictionary.... The
only deficiency is the Beijing Mandarin Group. The proportions between
the numbers of representatives of various subgroups are not even, mostly
because of the number of specialists who were at hand. And thus for
example the Wu dialect has the most representatives, simply because there
are comparatively many specialists in this particular dialect group.
100
Geographically, not all the provinces have been included in the project, but
this problem is of secondary importance, as the linguistic factors are deci-
sive. Nonetheless, the lack of representatives of some of the geographical
areas, such as Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau, leave some feeling of regret
because of their importance in the communication with the outside world.
Background overview of explored places 157
The proportion between the number of speakers and number of dialect
localities described in The Great Dictionary... has been essentially kept,
with the exception of the Wu dialect which has proportionally the most
representatives.
In comparison with earlier dialectologists, most of the dialect localities
regarded by them as models of the groups in question have been included in
The Great Dictionary..., yet some important ones have been omitted (see
Table 17).
4. Background overview of explored places
In this section, territorial guidelines of the places whose dialects have been
chosen for The Great Dictionary... are presented, on the basis of introduc-
tions to individual volumes.
The information which can be found in the introductions (both in the
individual volumes and in the comprehensive edition) lacks uniformity. The
data about the population, for example, comes from very different periods
of time and different sources. The percentage of various nationalities is not
always given. In some of the dictionaries a lot of linguistically relevant
information is provided (e.g. about migrations, influence of minorities, etc.),
while others do not give a clear account of the factors which have shaped
the dialect.
The places are arranged in the same order as in the first volume of the
comprehensive edition of The Great Dictionary.... The data concerning
population is also given according to the information in the comprehensive
edition (Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 1263); it may differ slightly from the figures
found in the individual dictionaries. Where it is not stated otherwise, the
Han is the major nationality, constituting over 99% of the population. In
such cases the ethnic minorities are not listed, as they do not have a great
influence on the dialect of the place.
The numbers of the populations are most often outdated, yet they were
more or less valid at the time of the compilation of the dictionaries.
101
Only the most important facts which could have an impact on the dia-
lects in question are described below, based on the introductions to the
individual dictionaries (also found in the comprehensive edition, Li Rong
ed. 2002, 1: 1263). Due to the diversity of the introductions, the amount of
information put forward here varies. For more details, especially regarding
the history of the places, the reader is referred to the introductions.
4.1. Harbin] (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 1; Yin Shichao ed.
1997: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Northeastern Mandarin group, Hafu subgroup,
Zhaofu cluster l')|) Dngbi Gunhuq
Hf pin Zhof xiopin
Administrative affiliation: Heilongjiang Province, Harbin Municipality
])Haerbin Shi
102
Status: provincial capital
Population of the whole municipality in 2001: 9,270,000 inhabitants
Major nationalities: Han Hnz, Manchu Mnz,
Hui } Huz, Korean = Choxinz, Mongolian
,Mnggz
As the capital of Heilongjiang, Harbin is the cultural, economical and
political centre of the Province (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 1; Yin Shichao ed.
1997: 3).
Compared with all the varieties of Chinese, the Harbin dialect is the
closest to the Beijing dialect, both in the aspect of phonetics, and of
vocabulary and grammar (cf. Yin Shichao ed. 1997: 12; Li Rong ed. 2002,
1: 2).
Being a point of connection between China and Russia (later the Soviet
Union), Harbin has incorporated both Chinese and Western elements (cf.
Dai Zhaoming 1998: 192193). In the linguistic aspect, this becomes
apparent especially while analysing the vocabulary of the dialect of Harbin,
where the Russian influence is clear.
The ethnical diversity is not very large, yet noticeable. In 1990, the Han
nationality constituted 94.28% of the population (cf. Yin Shichao ed. 1997:
3).
4.2. J inan (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 45; Qian Zengyi ed. 1997:
34)
Dialect affiliation: J ilu Mandarin group, Shiji subgroup, Liaotai cluster
,l)]()Jl Gunhuq Shj pin Lioti xio-
pin
Administrative affiliation: Shandong Province, J inan Municipality
)Jinan Shi
Status: provincial capital
Major nationalities: Han Hnz (98%), Hui }Huz,
ManchuMnz
In J inan, the roads between north and south, east and west of China inter-
sect, therefore the capital of Shandong Province is the communication hub
of eastern China (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 5; Qian Zengyi ed. 1997: 3).
The dialect of J inan is the standard of central-western Shandong. It
plays an important role as the basic language of two forms of folk art: ]
kuish clapper ballad
103
, and L Opera [Lj one of the local
operas in Shandong
104
(cf. Qian Zengyi ed. 1997: 16; Li Rong ed. 2002, 1:
9).
4.3. Muping " (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 1415; Luo Futeng ed.
1997: 3)
Dialect affiliation: J iaoliao Mandarin group, Denglian subgroup ]
l)Jiolio Gunhuq Denglin pin
Administrative affiliation: Shandong Province, Yantai Municipality
))Yantai Shi, Muping District "lMuping Qu
Population of the whole district in 2000: 490,000 inhabitants
Muping lies on the route between Yantai ) and Weihai [
on the Shandong Peninsula _Shandong Bandao. In the past it
was a place of military importance, today it is still a significant point in the
transportation between the main cities of the peninsula. The dialect of Mu-
ping is said to be representative of the area (cf. Muping Fangyan Cidian
chuban 1998: 278279).
4.4. Xuzhou]| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 23; Su and L ed. 1996:
34)
Dialect affiliation: Central Plains Mandarin group, Luoxu subgroup
)l])Zhngyun Gunhuq Lux pin
Administrative affiliation: J iangsu Province, Xuzhou Municipality ]
|)Xuzhou Shi
Located in the northwestern corner of J iangsu Province, on the intersection
of the railroad connecting the north with the south and the east with the
west, Xuzhou is one of the communication hubs of China (cf. Li Rong ed.
2002, 1: 23; Su and L ed. 1996: 34).
4.5. Yangzhou|| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 3031; Wang and
Huang ed. 1996: 34)
Dialect affiliation: J ianghuai Mandarin group, Hongchao subgroup
]l;)Jinghui Gunhuq Hngcho pin
Administrative affiliation: J iangsu Province, Yangzhou Municipality
||)Yangzhou Shi
Yangzhou lies in the central part of J iangsu Province, on the northern bank
of the Yangtze River and by the Grand Canal ,j]Da Yunhe.
The dialect of Yangzhou has been shaped essentially by three events in
the history of China. One was the migration caused by the Yongjia Turmoil
, Yongjia zhi luan (which started in 311 A.D. during the rule
of the J in Emperor Huai Huai Di), when the people moved
southwards. Many of them settled in the area of todays Yangzhou (cf. Li
Rong ed. 2002, 1: 31; Wang and Huang ed. 1996: 4; Ge, Cao and Wu 1993:
612613).
The second wave of migration which reached Yangzhou was at the end
of the Northern Song Dynasty. Emperor Huizong built a temporary palace
in the city. The emperor and his entourage stayed in Yangzhou for a year
and a half and thus many northern people settled down in the area (cf. Li
Rong ed. 2002, 1: 31; Wang and Huang ed. 1996: 4; Ge, Cao and Wu 1993:
613614).
The third moment in history which had an impact on the Yangzhou dia-
lect was the massacre conducted by the Yuan army on Ming rebels at the
end of the reign of the Yuan Dynasty. Records reveal that only eighteen
families had survived (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 31; Wang and Huang ed.
1996: 4).
4.6. Nanjing; (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 3738; Liu Danqing ed.
1995: 34)
Dialect affiliation: J ianghuai Mandarin group, Hongchao subgroup
]l;)Jinghui Gunhuq Hngcho pin
Administrative affiliation: J iangsu Province, Nanjing Municipality
;)Nanjing Shi
Status: Provincial capital
Nanjing is the capital of J iangsu Province, located at the southern bank of
the Yangtze River. It has played a particularly important role in Chinese
history. Not only has it been the capital city of the country several times,
but it has also served as a cultural, political and economic centre.
The modern dialect of Nanjing is an outcome of many historical events,
of which some had the strongest influence on both the people as well as the
language. The records show that during the time of Eastern J in
Dong Jin (317420), the dialect spoken in this area was Wu. When the
J in Dynasty escaped southwards, it settled down in the area of
modern Nanjing and established its capital J iankang j at the site.
Together with the Emperor, many soldiers and ordinary people migrated to
the new capital, and thus the people from the north outnumbered the local
residents and the language of Nanjing began to change from Wu into
Mandarin (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 37; Liu Danqing ed. 1995: 4; Ge, Cao
and Wu 1993: 612613).
During the reign of Emperor Wu Wu Di of the Liang
Dynasty (one of the Southern Dynasties), the rebellion of Hou J ing ]
Hou Jing zhi luan ruined most of J iankang. When the Sui Dynasty
was overthrowing the Chen | Dynasty in 589, the Sui Emperor Wen
Wen Di commanded that the capital be destroyed. In 1129 the J in
troops invaded J iankang and the next year the city was burnt down
(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 37; Liu Danqing ed. 1995: 4).
At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Taizu re-
established the capital in Nanjing (under the name ] Yingtianfu
responding to Heaven), bringing with him many craftsmen and other
people from south of the Yangtze River.
From 1853 until 1864, the Taiping Kingdom ] Taiping Tian-
guo set up its capital in Nanjing, giving it the name Tianjing ;.
Once again Nanjing became the victim of war and the people were deci-
mated. In 1937 the J apanese invaded the then capital of China and carried
out yet another massacre (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 37; Liu Danqing ed.
1995: 4).
The present dialect of Nanjing is much diversified internally. In various
districts of the town, different influences are salient. Therefore it is believed
that the speech of only three districts in the southern part of the city can be
representative of the Nanjing dialect. But also here, a strong effect of the
Beijing dialect and Putonghua is visible, especially since the time when
Nanjing was declared the capital of the Republic of China (cf. Li Rong ed.
2002, 1: 3738; Liu Danqing ed. 1995: 4).
4.7. Wuhan (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 49; Zhu J iansong ed.
1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Southwestern Mandarin group, Wutian subgroup
l)Xinn Gunhuq Wtin pin
Administrative affiliation: Hubei Province, Wuhan Municipality
)Wuhan Shi
Wuhan is a hub of land and water communication and the largest economic
centre of central China. It is often referred to as the thoroughfare of nine
Provinces ]j@ Ji shng tngq. The present city of Wuhan
was established in 1949 out of three towns: Wuchang ;, Hankou
and Hanyang [ (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 49; Zhu J ian-
song ed. 1998: 3).
The Wuhan dialect is the easternmost point of the Southwestern Manda-
rin group, from the north, east and south it is encircled by the region of
J ianghuai Mandarin (cf. Hu Huibin 1995: 110).
4.8. Chengduj (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 5253; Liang and
Huang ed. 1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Southwestern Mandarin group, Chengyu subgroup
lj)Xinn Gunhuq Chngy pin
Administrative affiliation: Sichuan Province, Chengdu Municipality
j)Chengdu Shi
Population of the whole municipality in 2000:10,040,000 inhabitants
As the capital of Sichuan, Chengdu is the political, economic, cultural and
communications centre of the Province (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 5253;
Liang and Huang ed. 1998: 3).
4.9. Guiyang [ (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 60; Wang Ping ed. 1998:
34)
Dialect affiliation: Southwestern Mandarin group, Kungui subgroup
l)Xinn Gunhuq Kngu pin
Administrative affiliation: Guizhou Province, Guiyang Municipality
[)Guiyang Shi
Major nationalities: Han Hnz, Bouyei | Byiz,
Miao,Mioz
In the past, the inhabitants of Guiyang were mostly non-Chinese, but since
the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Han people began to settle down in this
area. The Han people living in Guiyang believe that their ancestors mi-
grated from the area of Yingtianfu ] (present day Nanjing, see
Chapter 8.4.6.) (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 60; Wang Ping ed. 1998: 3).
During the War of Resistance against J apan (19371945), refugees from
the north and the coastal areas moved to Guiyang. After the war, many of
them went back to their homes, but a large number settled down. A large
proportion of the inhabitants of Guiyang today are those (or their descen-
dants) who arrived during that period from many parts of China. Among
them, most came from Sichuan and Hunan (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 60;
Wang Ping ed. 1998: 3).
In the 1950s, as a result of the countrys efforts to minimize the differ-
ences between the inland and coastal areas, numerous enterprises were
established in Guiyang and the whole of Guizhou, bringing quick develop-
ment, and at the same time many new inhabitants (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1:
60; Wang Ping ed. 1998: 34).
The urban area is mostly populated by the Han nationality, while a
comparatively large number of people from the Bouyei and Miao nationali-
ties live in the suburbs. The minorities usually use their own languages, but
to communicate with the Han, they speak the colloquial dialect of Guiyang
(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 60; Wang Ping ed. 1998: 4).
4.10. Liuzhou|| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 6566; Liu Cunhan ed.
1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Southwestern Mandarin group, Guiliu subgroup
l||)Xinn Gunhuq Guli pin
Administrative affiliation: Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region,
Liuzhou Municipality ||)Liuzhou Shi
Major nationalities: Han Hnz (84%), Zhuang ]
Zhungz, Hui }Huz, Yao )Yoz, Dong ]
Dngz, Mulam || Mloz, Miao , Mioz,
ManchuMnz
Liuzhou is an important communications link between the provinces of the
central-south and southwest as well as the major industrial base of Guangxi
Province (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 65; Liu Cunhan ed. 1998: 3).
The inhabitants of Liuzhou are mostly descendants of migrants from
different historical periods. Since the Qin and Han dynasties, soldiers from
the area of Hunan, Hubei and the Central Plains have been immigrating to
the region. In the times of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, Liuzhou served as
a military base. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, troops which were
meant to open up the wasteland were stationed in the city. Many of the
soldiers settled in the area (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 65; Liu Cunhan ed.
1998: 4).
Liuzhou has long been an industrial and commercial centre of the region
covering todays Guangxi and Guangdong Provinces. During the Qing Dy-
nasty, a large number of industrialists and traders from other provinces
arrived in Liuzhou. Presently, there are many guilds associating traders
from various places outside of Guangxi (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 65; Liu
Cunhan ed. 1998: 4).
Due to the frequent migration waves, a choice of variants of Chinese is
spoken in Liuzhou: Mandarin, Yue, Hakka, Xiang, Pinghua, Min. Besides
the speakers of Chinese, which include the Hui and Man nationalities, other
ethnic minorities speak their own languages. There are also many speakers
of Putonghua, these are military men and workers of the railways, large
factories and building companies (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 65; Liu Cunhan
ed. 1998: 4).
4.11. Luoyang [ (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 70; He Wei ed. 1996:
34)
Dialect affiliation: Central Plains Mandarin group, Luoxu subgroup
)l])Zhngyun Gunhuq Lux pin
Administrative affiliation: Henan Province, Luoyang Municipality
[)Luoyang Shi
Luoyang has a history dating back to 770. It has been the capital of many
dynasties, and as such a political, economic, cultural and communications
centre (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 70; He Wei ed. 1996: 3).
4.12. Xian(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 76; Wang J unhu ed. 1996: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Central Plains Mandarin group, Guanzhong subgroup
)l)Zhngyun Gunhuq Gunzhng pin
Administrative affiliation: Shaanxi Province, Xian Municipality
)Xian Shi
In the area Xian is located in today, capitals of ancient Chinese dynasties
(Zhou, Qin, Han among others) were established since the eleventh century
B.C. (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 76; Wang J unhu ed. 1996: 3). At present it is
the capital of Shaanxi Province.
4.13. Xining (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 82; Zhang Chengcai ed.
1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Central Plains Mandarin group, Qinlong subgroup
)l,|)Zhngyun Gunhuq Qnlng pin
Administrative affiliation: Qinghai Province, Xining Municipality
)Xining Shi
Major nationalities: Han Hnz (85.1%), Hui }
Huz, Tibetan j Zngz, Manchu Mnz, Tu
Tz, Mongolian , Mnggz, Salar j
Slz
Xining is the capital of Qinghai Province, which was created in 1928. Ly-
ing on the routes connecting Qinghai with Gansu and with Tibet, it is an
important communications centre. The city is ethnically very diversified (cf.
Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 82; Zhang Chengcai ed. 1998: 3).
4.14. Yinchuan|) (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 8788; Li and Zhang
ed. 1996: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Lanyin Mandarin group, Yinwu subgroup |
l|)Lnyn Gunhuq Ynw pin
Administrative affiliation: Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Yinchuan
Municipality |))Yinchuan Shi
Status: Capital of the autonomous region
Population of the whole municipality in 1992: 501,332 inhabitants
Major nationalities: Han Hnz (80.08%), Hui }
Huz, Manchu Mnz
When the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region was established in 1958,
Yinchuan became the capital. Since then it developed a great deal, and a
large number of immigrants began to inhabit the city. The Hui nationality
constitutes a large percentage of the population (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1:
8788; Li and Zhang ed. 1996: 34).
4.15. rmqi _Z, (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 94; Zhou Lei ed.
1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Lanyin Mandarin group, Tami subgroup |
l,)Lnyn Gunhuq Tm pin
Administrative affiliation: Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, rmqi
Municipality _Z,)Wulumuqi Shi
Status: Capital of the autonomous region
Major nationalities: Han Hnz (72.7%), Uygur ;
Wiwrz, Hui } Huz, Kazak } Hskz,
Manchu Mnz, Mongolian , Mnggz, Xibe
,|Xibz, Russian ])lusiz
In 1884 Xinjiang was established as a province with rmqi as the capital
(under the name Dihua ). In 1954, the name was changed into
rmqi and in 1955 the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region was estab-
lished, rmqi remaining the capital. The city is ethnically heterogeneous,
with the Uygur nationality as the biggest minority (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1:
94; Zhou Lei ed. 1998: 3).
4.16. Wanrong] (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 9899; Wu and Zhao
ed. 1997: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Central Plains Mandarin group, Fenhe subgroup,
Xiezhou cluster)l,])|)Zhngyun Gunhuq
Fnh pin Xizhu xiopin
Administrative affiliation: Shanxi Province, Yuncheng Municipality
j,) Yuncheng Shi , Wanrong County ] Wanrong
Xian
Population of the whole county in 1990: 376,445 inhabitants
The Wanrong County was established in 1954, as the result of a fusion of
Wanquan County ]; Wanquan Xian and Ronghe County ]
Ronghe Xian (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 9899; Wu and Zhao ed. 1997:
3). It is located in Shanxi Province, very close to the area of the J in dialect
(cf. Atlas: B7).
4.17. Taiyuan ) (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 106107; Shen Ming ed.
1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: J in dialect group, Bingzhou subgroup )l}|
)Jny q Bingzhu pin
Administrative affiliation: Shanxi Province, Taiyuan Municipality
))Taiyuan Shi
The history of the city started around 2400 years ago, with the founding of
J inyang [. During the Qin Dynasty, the name was changed to Tai-
yuan. The city is quite homogeneous ethnically (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1:
106107; Shen Ming ed. 1998: 3).
4.18. Xinzhou| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 112; Wen and Zhang ed.
1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: J in dialect group, Wutai subgroup )l)
Jny q Wti pin
Administrative affiliation: Shanxi Province, Xinzhou Municipality
|)Xinzhou Shi
Major nationalities: Han Hnz, Manchu Mnz,
Mongolian , Mnggz, Hui } Huz, Tu
Tz, Korean =Choxinz
Xinzhou has traditionally been a crossroads between the south and the
north. It is still a very important communication hub of Shanxi (cf. Li Rong
ed. 2002, 1: 112; Wen and Zhang ed. 1998: 3).
The ethnic minorities living in Xinzhou all speak only the Xinzhou dia-
lect, not their native tongues (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 112; Wen and Zhang
ed. 1998: 3).
4.19. J ixi (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 115116; Zhao Rixin ed.
2003: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Hui dialect group, J ishe subgroup )l,)
Huiy q Jsh pin
Administrative affiliation: Anhui Province, Xuancheng Municipality
,)Xuancheng Shi, J ixi County Jixi Xian
J ixi is divided by a mountain ridge into a northern and a southern part. This
natural barrier has caused not only social differences, but also disparities in
language (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 115; Zhao Rixin ed. 2003: 3, 4).
The dialect of J ixi has been the focus of attention of Luo Changpei,
Zhao Yuanren, Yang Shifeng in the 1930s and 40s. Hirata Shoji has also
taken the dialect into consideration in his research during the 1990s (cf. Li
Rong ed. 2002, 1: 116; Zhao Rixin ed. 2003: 4).
4.20. Danyang )[ (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 121122; Cai Guolu ed.
1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Wu dialect group, Taihu subgroup, Piling cluster
)l)||)Wy q Tih pin Plng xiopin
Administrative affiliation: J iangsu Province, Zhenjiang Municipality
,)Zhenjiang Shi, Danyang City )[)Danyang Shi
Population of the whole city in 1992: 800,854 inhabitants
Danyang is a city with its history reaching back to the times of the Qin
Dynasty. It lies on the borderland between the Wu and J ianghuai Mandarin
dialects, which is why the speech of Danyang is internally much diversified
(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 121122, 126; Cai Guolu ed. 1998: 34, 19).
4.21. Chongming | (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 130; Zhang Huiying
ed. 1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Wu dialect group, Taihu subgroup, Suhujia cluster
)l)j;)Wy q Tih pin Shji xiopin
Administrative affiliation: Shanghai Municipality [) Shanghai
Shi, Chongming County |Chongming Xian
Chongming lies within the administrative borders of Shanghai Municipality.
The county governs the Chongming Island |_ Chongming Dao
and some small neighbouring islands. The dialect of Chongming is rather
homogeneous (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 130; Zhang Huiying ed. 1998: 3).
4.22. Shanghai [(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 133; Xu and Tao ed.
1997: 34)
Administrative affiliation: Shanghai Municipality [) Shanghai
Shi
Shanghai is one of the largest cities in China and one of the biggest eco-
nomic, communications and cultural centres of the country. Shanghai has
experienced a very dynamic growth, from around 500,000 inhabitants in
1852, over 2,500,000 in 1927 up to 13,000,000 in 1993.
105
The growth of
population has been caused mostly by a wave of immigrants to this eco-
nomic mecca. In 1934 the indigenous people constituted only 25% of the
population. Most of the new settlers came from J iangsu and Zhejiang (cf.
Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 133; Xu and Tao ed. 1997: 34).
The surge of incomers has induced great changes in the language spoken
in the district. The strongest is the influence of the dialects of northern
J iangsu, especially of Ningbo and Suzhou j|, as well as
the Beijing dialect and foreign languages. The impact of the Beijing dialect
has increased since the founding of Peoples Republic of China, while the
remaining sources were strongest before 1949 (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 133;
Xu and Tao ed. 1997: 4).
Besides the Shanghai dialect, other forms of Chinese are used in Shang-
hai, mainly Yue, Ningbo dialect and J ianghuai Mandarin (cf. Li Rong ed.
2002, 1: 134; Xu and Tao ed. 1997: 5).
4.23. Suzhouj| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 143144; Ye Xiangling
ed. 1998: 34)
Administrative affiliation: J iangsu Province, Suzhou Municipality j
|)Suzhou Shi
The ancient name (dating back to the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty) of
Suzhou is Wu , which is the present name of the dialect spoken in
the surrounding area(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 143; Ye Xiangling ed. 1998:
3). Suzhou is located by the Grand Canal, as well as on other major
communication routes.
4.24. Hangzhou|| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 149150; Bao Shijie
ed. 1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Wu dialect group, Taihu subgroup, Hangzhou cluster
)l)||)Wy q Tih pin Hngzhu xiopin
Administrative affiliation: Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Municipality
||)Hangzhou Shi
Hangzhou is one of the ancient capitals of China and a city with a very long
history (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 149150; Bao Shijie ed. 1998: 34). Lo-
cated in the delta of the Yangtze River, it has for a long time been an impor-
tant communication point. Several important traffic routes pass through the
city.
The region in which the Hangzhou dialect is spoken is rather small and
it covers only the urban area (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 150; Bao Shijie ed.
1998: 4).
4.25. Ningbo (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 156; Tang, Chen and Wu
ed. 1997: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Wu dialect group, Taihu subgroup, Yongjiang cluster
)l)j)Wy q Tih pin Yngjing xiopin
Administrative affiliation: Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Municipality
)Ningbo Shi
Ningbo is located in the northeastern part of Zhejiang, south of Hangzhou
Bay ||] Hangzhou Wan. It has a history going back to the Spring
and Autumn Period (722481 B.C.) (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 156; Tang,
Chen and Wu ed. 1997: 3).
4.26. Wenzhou| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 164165; You and
Yang ed. 1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Wu dialect group, Oujiang subgroup )l
)Wy q ujing pin
Administrative affiliation: Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou Municipality
|)Wenzhou Shi
Wenzhou is located in the southeastern part of Zhejiang, near the border
with Fujian and, at the same time, on the borderland between the Wu and
Min dialects (cf. Atlas: A2).
4.27. J inhua'(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 171; Cao Zhiyun ed. 1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Wu dialect group, Wuzhou subgroup )l|
)Wy q Wzhu pin
Administrative affiliation: Zhejiang Province, J inhua Municipality
')Jinhua Shi
J inhua is situated in central Zhejiang, near the area of the Hui dialect (cf.
Atlas: A2). It lies on important communication routes.
4.28. Changsha|; (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 176177; Bao
Houxing et al. ed. 1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Xiang dialect group, Changyi subgroup )l|
)Xingy q Chngy pin
Administrative affiliation: Hunan Province, Changsha Municipality
|;)Changsha Shi
Population of the whole municipality: 5,200,000 inhabitants
As the capital of Hunan, Changsha is a political, economic and cultural
centre of the Province. The dialect of Changsha is regarded as one of the
most representative of the Xiang dialect group (cf. Table 17.).
4.29. Loudi[(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 181; Yan and Liu ed. 1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Xiang dialect group, Loushao subgroup )l
()Xingy q Lusho pin
Administrative affiliation: Hunan Province, Loudi Municipality [
)Loudi Shi
Loudi is located in the central part of Hunan Province. The city is divided
into northern and southern parts by the railroad linking Hunan with
Guizhou. The southern part was built after 1978; the northern part is the
original site of the town (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 181; Yan and Liu ed.
1998: 3).
4.30. Nanchang; (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 185186; Xiong
Zhenghui ed. 1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Gan dialect group, Changjing subgroup y)l;
_)Gny q Chngjng pin
Administrative affiliation: J iangxi Province, Nanchang Municipality
;)Nanchang Shi
Population of the urban area in 1990: 1,369,125 inhabitants
The history of Nanchang reaches back to 201 B.C. It became the provincial
capital after 1949. During the Second Sino-J apanese war (19371945),
Nanchang was attacked and many residents fled from the city. After the war,
a large number of people from the rural areas moved into town. The city
has been developing rapidly since it became the capital of J iangxi (cf. Li
Rong ed. 2002, 1: 185186; Xiong Zhenghui ed. 1998: 34).
4.31. Pingxiang , (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 189; Wei Gangqiang
ed. 1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Gan dialect group, Yiliu subgroup y)l,)
Gny q Yli pin
Administrative affiliation: J iangxi Province, Pingxiang Municipality
,)Pingxiang Shi
Population of the urban area in 1990: 1,388,427 inhabitants
Pingxiang is situated near the border with Hunan and on the railroad route
between Zhejiang and J iangxi. At the turn of the Ming and Qing Dynasties,
people from the area of Fujian and Guangdong used to move to Hunan and
J iangxi to set up sheds to cultivate the land. In the beginning, they only
stayed for the season, but later many of them settled down at their place of
work and were called Pengmin j[ Pngmn (lit. shed people).
Present day Pingxiang lies close to the Hakka-speaking region, however in
the city itself there are no people who refer to themselves as Hakkas (cf. Li
Rong ed. 2002, 1: 189; Wei Gangqiang ed. 1998: 3).
4.32. Lichuan\) (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 195196; Yan Sen ed.
1995: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Gan dialect group, Fuguang subgroup y)l|
)Gny q Fgung pin
Administrative affiliation: J iangxi Province, Fuzhou Municipality |
|)Fuzhou Shi, Lichuan County \)Lichuan Xian
Lichuan is located in western J iangxi, very close to the border with Fujian
and with the area of the Min dialect. It is a rather small county, ethnically
homogeneous, with only a small percentage of ethnic minorities. The main
industries are agriculture and forestry (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 195196;
Yan Sen ed. 1995: 34).
4.33. Yudu (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 200201; Xie Liuwen ed.
1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Hakka dialect group, Yugui subgroup |l
|)Kjihu q Ygu pin
Administrative affiliation: J iangxi Province, Ganzhou Municipality
y|)Ganzhou Shi, Yudu County Yudu Xian
Population of the whole county in1985: 678,029 inhabitants
Located in southern J iangxi, Yudu is a county whose economy is based
mainly on agriculture and farming as well as traditional handicraft indus-
tries. Most of the ancestors of present residents of the county settled down
in the area after moving from the north since the Tang Dynasty. Yet not
many came directly from the north, most of the settlers wandered around
different places before they stayed in Yudu (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 200
201; Xie Liuwen ed. 1998: 34).
4.34. Meixian] (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 206207; Huang
Xuezhen ed. 1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Hakka dialect group, Yuetai subgroup, J iaying cluster
|l)) Kjihu q Yuti pin Jiying xio-
pin
Administrative affiliation: Guangdong Province, Meizhou Municipality
]|)Meizhou Shi, Meixian County ]Meixian
Meixian lies in northeastern Guangdong Province, near the borders with
Fujian and J iangxi, in the central part of the Hakka dialect area.
The Meixian dialect is considered to be the most representative of the
Hakka group (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 209; Huang Xuezhen ed. 1998: 16;
Table 17.).
4.35. Nanning (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 213214; Qin, Wei and
Bian ed. 1997: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Pinghua dialect group Guinan subgroup l|
)Pnghu q Gunn pin
Administrative affiliation: Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Nan-
ning Municipality )Nanning Shi
Status: Capital of the Autonomous Region
Major nationalities: Zhuang ] Zhungz (63.6%), Han
Hnz (35.6%)
In Nanning, three varieties of the Chinese language are spoken: Yue
(known here as ) bihu), Southwestern Mandarin and Pinghua.
Pinghua is distributed mainly in the suburbs and the area surrounding the
city. The language of the Zhuang people is also an important factor, as they
constitute the largest part of the population (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 214;
Qin, Wei and Bian ed. 1997: 4).
4.36. Guangzhou| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 218; Bai Wanru ed.
2003: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Yue dialect group, Guangfu subgroup )])
lYuy q Gungf pin
Administrative affiliation: Guangdong Province, Guangzhou Municipal-
ity|)Guangzhou Shi
Population of the whole urban area in 1996: 3,853,000 inhabitants
Guangzhou has been a trading port since the times of the Qin and Han
Dynasties and still remains one of the most important ports in China (cf. Li
Rong ed. 2002, 1: 218; Bai Wanru ed. 2003: 3).
The dialect of Guangzhou is regarded as the standard form of the Yue
dialect. Due to ongoing social changes, the circulation of residents and of
functionaries, the dialect is going through changes. Since the implementa-
tion of the policies of Reform and Openness [;jGig Kifng,
more people from the rural areas have been moving into town (cf. Li Rong
ed. 2002, 1: 218; Bai Wanru ed. 2003: 34).
4.37. Dongguan (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 224; Zhan and Chen
ed. 1997: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Yue dialect group, Guangfu subgroup )])
lYuy q Gungf pin
Administrative affiliation: Guangdong Province, Dongguan Municipal-
ity)Dongguan Shi
Dongguan is located about 50 km southeast of the capital of Guangdong
Province Guangzhou. The number of people residing in Dongguan is only
the official statistical data. It is very difficult to estimate the real number of
inhabitants, as many of them are unregistered migrant workers; in some
areas of the municipality they even outnumber the native residents by far
(cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 224; Zhan and Chen ed. 1997: 3).
A number of inhabitants of Dongguan speak the Hakka dialect; however
Hakka is spoken only in a relatively small area of the municipality with
speakers who constitute around 16% of the population (cf. Li Rong ed.
2002, 1: 224; Zhan and Chen ed. 1997: 34).
4.38. J ianou (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 229230; Li and Pan
ed.1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Min dialect supergroup, Northern Min group |)
,l|lMny dq Mnbi q
Administrative affiliation: Fujian Province, Nanping Municipality
)Nanping Shi, J ianou City )Jianou Shi
Population of the whole city in 1992: 489,300 inhabitants
J ianou is the largest city in Fujian Province as regards area. It is located in
northern Fujian (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 229, 230; Li and Pan ed. 1998: 3,
4).
The northern part of Fujian started to develop first of all as the whole
Province and J ianou has been the political, economic and cultural centre of
this part of Fujian up till the time of the Republic of China (cf. Li Rong ed.
2002, 1: 229230; Li and Pan ed.1998: 3).
4.39. Fuzhou|| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 235; Feng Aizhen ed.
1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Min dialect supergroup, Eastern Min group, Houguan
subgroup |),l|l])Mny dq Mndng q Hugun
pin
Administrative affiliation: Fujian Province, Fuzhou Municipality |
|)Fuzhou Shi
Fuzhou is located in the eastern part of Fujian, at the lower reaches of the
Min River | Min Jiang. It has a long history, reaching back to the
times of the Spring and Autumn Period (722481 B.C.). Ethnically, it is not
very diversified (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 235; Feng Aizhen ed. 1998: 34).
The dialect of Fuzhou has been very influential both in the area of Fu-
jian Province, and abroad, as many Chinese from this part of China have
migrated to Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and overseas (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002,
1: 235; Feng Aizhen ed. 1998: 34).
The Fuzhou dialect is often studied in comparison with Qi Lin Bayin
g[/,, a rhyme book compiled in the eighteenth century (cf. Li
Rong ed. 2002, 1: 235236; Feng Aizhen ed. 1998: 45).
4.40. Xiamen ] (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 246247; Zhou Changji
ed. 1998: 34)
Dialect affiliation: Min dialect supergroup, Southern Min group,
Quanzhang subgroup |),l|l;;) Mny dq Mnnn
q Qunzhng pin
Administrative affiliation: Fujian Province, Xiamen Municipality
])Xiamen Shi
Major nationalities: Han Hnz, Hui } Huz,
Gaoshan|Goshnz
Xiamen lies in the southeastern part of Fujian, looking out to the Taiwan
Strait ][#Taiwan Haixia. The main part of the city is located on
the Xiamen Island ]_Xiamen Dao. In 1981 Xiamen was declared
a Special Economic Zone (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 246247; Zhou Changji
ed. 1998: 34).
Since the middle of the seventeenth century and especially since the
middle of the nineteenth century, when Xiamen became a treaty port, it
gradually turned into the political, economic and cultural centre of southern
Fujian. Furthermore, the dialect of Xiamen became the dominant language
of the area (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 249250; Zhou Changji ed. 1998: 19).
4.41. Leizhou,| (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 254255; Zhang and Cai
ed. 1998: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Min dialect supergroup, Leizhou group |),l
,|lMny dq Lizhu q
Administrative affiliation: Guangdong Province, Zhanjiang Municipal-
ity,)Zhanjiang Shi, Leizhou City ,|)Leizhou Shi
Population of the whole city in 1994: 1,116,000 inhabitants
Leizhou is situated in the central part of Leizhou Peninsula ,|_
Leizhou Bandao in southern Guangdong. In some parts of the Peninsula,
the Yue and Hakka dialects are spoken (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 254255;
Zhang and Cai ed. 1998: 3).
4.42. Haikou[ (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 259260; Chen Hongmai
ed. 1996: 3)
Dialect affiliation: Min dialect supergroup, Qiongwen group, Fucheng
subgroup |),l)l],) Mny dq Qingwn q
Fchng pin
Administrative affiliation: Hainan Province, Haikou Municipality [
)Haikou Shi
Lying at the northern coast of Hainan Island [_ Hainan Dao,
Haikou is the capital of Hainan Province and is its political, economic,
cultural and communications centre (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 259260;
Chen Hongmai ed. 1996: 3).
4.43. Conclusions
The dialect localities of The Great Dictionary... are of a different nature.
Looking through the prism of this assortment, factors which are of great
importance in shaping the language of an explored place can be extracted:
1. Administrative status
Many of the localities included in The Great Dictionary... are capitals of
provinces / autonomous regions. This is explained by the influence of the
language spoken in a city of such great political, economic and cultural
importance.
2. Ethnical diversity
Interactions between the majority and minority languages play a signifi-
cant role. Where the percentage of the Han nationality is comparatively low,
the minority languages sometimes have a strong impact on the local variety
of Chinese (e.g. Harbin, Liuzhou, Xining, Yinchuan, rmqi, Nanning).
3. Linguistic status
Some of the listed localities are considered to be standards for the dia-
lect group they belong to (e.g. Taiyuan, Shanghai, Suzhou, Nanchang,
Changsha, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Guangzhou, Meixian). This opinion is often
based on the linguistic tradition (cf. Chapter 8.3.2.).
4. Transportation
When a city is a transportation hub, its language can be receptive to the
influence of other dialects (or languages), and at the same time it can have
the power to change them.
5. Migrations
Big migrations have played a significant role in the forming of dialects.
The history of migration waves which have had an impact on Chinese dia-
lects are described in more detail in Ge, Cao and Wu 1993.
6. Historical significance
Most of the cities in question have a long history. Some of them have
played an extraordinarily important role as ancient capitals of the country
or communication centres. The language of the city where the seat of the
government is located has always been significant in the process of
standardization.
Table 18. summarizes the most salient features of the dialect localities,
i.e. the administrative status, the population and ethnic diversity. All these
characteristics play an important role in determining the status of the dialect
of a place (for scale figures see the bottom of the table).

Table 18. A choice of features of the forty two dialect localities of The Great
Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects.
Dialect locality Administrative
status
Population Ethnical diversity
Harbin provincial capital 4 2
J inan provincial capital 4 1
Muping county-level
district
1 0
Xuzhou prefecture-level
municipality
4 0
Yangzhou prefecture-level
municipality
3 0
Nanjing provincial capital 4 0
Wuhan provincial capital 4 0
Chengdu provincial capital 5 0
Guiyang provincial capital 3 ?
[Table 18 cont.]
status
Liuzhou prefecture-level
municipality
3 3
Luoyang prefecture-level
municipality
3 0
Xian provincial capital 4 0
Xining provincial capital 3 3
Yinchuan capital of A.R. 2 3
rmqi capital of A.R. 3 4
Wanrong county 1 0
Taiyuan provincial capital 3 0
Xinzhou prefecture-level
municipality
1 ?
J ixi county 1 0
Danyang county-level city 2 0
Chongming county 1 0
Shanghai municipality
directly under the
jurisdiction of the
State Council
5 0
Suzhou prefecture-level
municipality
3 0
Hangzhou provincial capital 4 0
Ningbo prefecture-level
municipality
4 0
Wenzhou prefecture-level
municipality
4 0
J inhua prefecture-level
municipality
2 0
Changsha provincial capital 4 0
Loudi prefecture-level
municipality
1 0
Nanchang provincial capital 3 0
Pingxiang prefecture-level
municipality
3 0
Lichuan county 1 0
Yudu county 2 0
Meixian county 2 0
Nanning capital of A.R. 3 5
Guangzhou provincial capital 3 0
[Table 18 cont.]
status
Dongguan prefecture-level
municipality
3 0
J ianou county-level city 1 0
Fuzhou provincial capital 4 0
Xiamen prefecture-level
municipality
3 ?
Leizhou county-level city 3 0
Haikou provincial capital 1 0
Ethnic diversity scale (according to the percentage of Han nationality):
0 >99%
1 98%99%
2 94%98%
3 80%94%
4 70%80%
5 <70%
Population scale:
1 100,000500,000 inhabitants
2 500, 0001,000,000 inhabitants
3 1,000,0005,000,000 inhabitants
4 5,000,00010,000,000 inhabitants
5 >10,000,000 inhabitants
Chapter 9
Information gathered from The Great Dictionary of
Modern Chinese Dialects
The Great Dictionary... is a rich source of information about the current
situation of Chinese dialects. Vocabulary is naturally the most important
feature of the dictionary, nonetheless a lot of material about the phonetic
and grammatical system can also be found, especially through the introduc-
tions.
1. Internal diversification
The descriptions of internal differences of the individual dialects, which
can be found in the second section of most of the introductions, present an
overview of the diversity of speech in a certain area, and also reveal the
phenomena which are occurring in the evolution of dialects at present.
Some of the introductions contain very detailed descriptions of the internal
diversification of the dialects, in others only a rough sketch can be found.
The differences include phonetic, grammatical and lexical features.
1.1. Territorial divergence
The territorial divergence of a certain dialect is visible in nearly all the dia-
lect localities taken into consideration in The Great Dictionary.... The de-
scribed territorial differences include the following kinds (cf. Chapter
7.1.4.8.):
1. Between urban and rural/suburb areas (Harbin, Xuzhou, Yangzhou,
Nanjing, Chengdu, Liuzhou, Luoyang, Xian, Xining, Taiyuan,
Danyang, Shanghai, Suzhou, Ningbo, Wenzhou, J inhua, Nanchang,
Fuzhou, Xiamen, Haikou)
2. Inside the urban area (Nanjing, Wuhan, Chengdu, Changsha,
Pingxiang, J ianou)
Internal diversification 185
3. Between various parts of districts (Muping, Wanrong, Danyang,
Chongming, J inhua, Lichuan, Meixian, Nanning, Dongguan,
J ianou, Fuzhou, Leizhou)
4. Between the main dialect and other dialect islands (Chengdu,
rmqi, Shanghai, Nanning, Leizhou)
1.2. Differences between generations
The differences between the generations reflect the changes which are
ongoing in the dialects of Chinese. The influence of Putonghua is the most
prominent factor (though not without exceptions
106
). The changes affect
mostly the phonetic system, but they also occur in the lexical and
grammatical sphere (cf. Chapter 7.1.4.6.):
1. Phonetic changes (Harbin, J inan, Muping, Xuzhou, Yangzhou,
Nanjing, Wuhan, Chengdu, Guiyang, Liuzhou, Xian, Wanrong,
Taiyuan, Danyang, Shanghai, Suzhou, Hangzhou, Ningbo, Wen-
zhou, J inhua, Changsha, Nanchang, Pingxiang, Lichuan, Guang-
zhou, Fuzhou)
2. Lexical changes (J inan, Yangzhou, Wuhan, Chengdu, Yinchuan,
Danyang, Shanghai, Fuzhou)
3. Grammatical changes (Yangzhou, Wuhan, Wanrong, Danyang,
Shanghai, Changsha)
Sometimes the territorial and generational differences correspond, i.e.
people living in the rural area speak the same variety as the old generation,
while inhabitants of the urban area use the same language as the new
generation (Harbin, Liuzhou).
The generational diversification is also linked with the differences in
educational level. Educated people usually speak the newer variety of the
dialect (Yangzhou, Yinchuan, rmqi).
1.3. Differences between the literary and colloquial pronunciation )
[,wnbi yd
The opposition between literary and colloquial pronunciation (see Chapter
7.1.4.4.) is quite strong in some dialects (Lichuan). In some cases, this fea-
ture is described in more detail in the fifth part of the introductions
Information gathered from The Great Dictionary 186
(Characteristics) (Wanrong, Taiyuan, J ixi, Hangzhou, Changsha, Loudi,
Pingxiang, Yudu Xiamen, Leizhou).
Often the literary pronunciation is close to that of the Beijing dialect, or
Putonghua. At the same time, the variety spoken by the young generation is
getting closer to the national standard, thus the literary and new pronuncia-
tion are similar (J inan, Nanjing, Yinchuan).
1.4. Other
In the dialects there are also internal differences which are due to other
factors. The ones described in The Great Dictionary... are the following:
1. Differences between the language of Han and Hui nationalities (J i-
nan, Xian, Xining, Yinchuan, rmqi)
2. Family background (Nanjing)
3. Occupation (Nanjing)
2. Phonetics
2.1. Phonetic systems
The phonetic system of each of the dialects is described in great detail in
the introductions. The following data has been extracted in order to present
an outline of the phonetics of modern dialects.
2.1.1. Number of initials, finals and tones
The initials, finals and tones of Chinese dialects form a much diversified
organism. The minute details shall not be analysed here, but the number of
initials, finals and tones give a general idea of their multifarious nature.
Table 19. Numbers of initials, finals and tones in the forty two dialect localities
andPutonghua.
Dialect
group
Dialect locality Initials
107
Finals
108
Tones
109
Putonghua 22 39 4
Phonetics 187
[Table 19. cont]
Dialect
group
Dialect locality Initials Finals Tones
1. Harbin 22 38 4
2. Jinan 25 38 4
3. Muping 22 39 4
4. Xuzhou 23 40 4
5. Yangzhou 17 47 5
6. Nanjing 21 49 5
7. Wuhan 19 43 4
8. Chengdu 20 36 4
9. Guiyang 19 32 4
10. Liuzhou 19 41 5
11. Luoyang 23 36 4
12. Xian 26 39 4
13. Xining 23 33 4
14. Yinchuan 23 42 4
15. rmqi 25 32 3

Mandarin
16. Wanrong 28 35 4
17. Taiyuan 21 36 5 Jin
18. Xinzhou 25 47 4
Hui 19. Jixi 20 40 6
20. Danyang 22 48 6
21. Chongming 35 53 8
22. Shanghai 27 54 6
23. Suzhou 27 49 7
24. Hangzhou 29 53 7
25. Ningbo 29 50 7
26. Wenzhou 29 35 8

Wu
27. Jinhua 29 52 7
28. Changsha 23 41 6 Xiang
29. Loudi 24 40 5
30. Nanchang 19 67 7
31. Pingxiang 23 39 4 Gan
32. Lichuan 23 59 7
33. Yudu 24 52 6 Hakka
34. Meixian 17 73 6
Pinghua 35. Nanning 22 49 10
36. Guangzhou 16 94 9 Yue
37. Dongguan 19 40 8
Information gathered from The Great Dictionary

188

[Table 19. cont]
Dialect
group
Dialect locality Initials Finals Tones
38. Jianou 15 34 6
39. Fuzhou 15 48 7
40. Xiamen 17 82 7
41. Leizhou 17 47 8

Min
42. Haikou 16 46 8

The proportions between the number of initials and finals are very
different. The Mandarin dialects are roughly uniform in this aspect, with
Yangzhou having the largest disproportion and rmqi and Wanrong with
the two amounts closest to each other. Among the remaining dialect groups,
the Guangzhou dialect of the Yue group has the least initials compared with
the number of finals. The amount of initials and finals is not closely linked
with the affiliation to a certain dialect group, though some similarities can
be found within each group.
The number of tones has clearly a much more decisive role in the
classifications of dialects. The Mandarin dialects only have 35 tones,
while the other groups have much more diversified tonal systems.
The tonal categories and values are analysed more closely below.
2.1.2. Tonal categories and values
The Middle Chinese tonal categories (see Chapter 4.2.) have evolved into
multiple tones in modern dialects. The categories and their tone values are
of a very complicated nature. The Great Dictionary... shows a broad spec-
trum of this issue, as presented in Table 20.:
110

Table 20. Tonal categories and their values in the forty two dialect spots and
Putonghua.
Png Shng Q , R Dialect
group
Dialect
locality Yin-
png
|
Yng
-png
[
Yin-
shng
|
Yng
-shng
[
Yin-
q
|,
Yng
-q
[,
Yin-
r
|
Yng-
r
[
Putong-
hua
55 35 214 51 -
Phonetics 189
[Table 20. cont.]
group
Dialect
locality Yin-
png
|
Yng
-png
[
Yin-
shng
|
Yng
-shng
[
Yin-
q
|,
Yng
-q
[,
Yin-
r
|
Yng-
r
[
1. Harbin 44 24 213 53 -
2. Jinan 213 42 55 21 -
3. Mu-
ping
42
(51)
553
(53)
213 131 -
4. Xu-
zhou
213 455
(55)
24
(35)
51 -
5. Yang-
zhou
21
(11)
34
(35)
42 55 4
6. Nan-
jing
31 23
(24)
11 44 5
7. Wuhan 55 213 42 35 -
8. Cheng-
du
45
(55)
21 53 213 -
9. Gui-
yang
55 21
(31)
53 24 -
10. Liu-
zhou
44 31 54 24 5
11. Luo-
yang
33 31 53 412 -
12. Xian 21 24 53 44 -
13. Xi-
ning
44 24 53 213 -
14. Yin-
chuan
44 53 53 13 -
15. -
rmqi
44 51 - 213 -

Man-
darin

16. Wan-
rong
51 24 55 33 -
17. Tai-
yuan
11 53 45 2 54
Jin
18. Xin-
zhou
31 313 53 2
Hui 19. Jixi 31 44 213 35 22 32

190

[Table 20. cont.]
group
Dialect
locality Yin-
png
|
Yng
-png
[
Yin-
shng
|
Yng
-shng
[
Yin-
q
|,
Yng
-q
[,
Yin-
r
|
Yng-
r
[
20. Dan-
yang
33 24 55 11 3 4
(5)
21.Chong-
ming
55 24 424 242 33 313 5 2
22. Shang-
hai
53 13 44
(55)
- 35 - 55 12
(13)
23. Su-
zhou
44
(55)
23
(13)
51 - 412
(513)
31 5 3
24. Hang-
zhou
33 213 53 - 445
(55)
13 5 2
25. Ning-
bo
53 24 35 - 44 213 55 12
26. Wen-
zhou
33 31 45
(35)
34
(24)
42 11 313 212

Wu
27. Jin-
hua
334
(33)
313 535 - 55 24 4 212
(12)
28. Chang-
sha
33 13 41 45
(55)
21
(11)
24
Xiang
29. Loudi 44 13 42 35 11 -
30. Nan-
chang
42 24 213 35 11 5 2
31. Ping-
xiang
13 44 35 11 -

Gan
32. Li-
chuan
22 35 44 53 13 3 5
33. Yudu 31 44 35 22 42 5
Hakka 34. Mei-
xian
44 11 31 53 1 5

5

23 Ping-
hua
35. Nan-
ning
53 21 33 24 55 22

3

2
Phonetics 191
[Table 20. cont.]
group
Dialect
locality Yin-
png
|
Yng
-png
[
Yin-
shng
|
Yng
-shng
[
Yin-
q
|,
Yng
-q
[,
Yin-
r
|
Yng-
r
[
36.Guang-
zhou
53
55
21 35 23 33 22
55

33
22
44 22

Yue
37. Dong-
guan
213 21 35 13 32
24
38. Jian-
ou
54 - 21 33 55 24 42
39. Fu-
zhou
55 53 33 212 242 24 5
40. Xia-
men
55 24
(35)
53 - 21 22
(11)
32
11
55
41. Lei-
zhou
35
(24)
22
(11)
31 33 21 55 5 1
5 3

Min
42. Hai-
kou
24 21 213 - 35 33
| 55

As can be seen from the figures above, the tonal categories and their
values do not correspond. Tones of the same value in different dialects can
belong to different categories, e.g. the tone with value 213 belongs to the
following categories in the dialects in question:
| yinpng in Jinan, Xuzhou, Dongguan
[ yngpng in Wuhan, Hangzhou
) shngsheng in Harbin, Muping, Jixi, Nanchang
| yinshng in Haikou
,) qsheng in Chengdu, Xining, rmqi
[, yngq in Ningbo

The presence or absence of the ) rsheng, which is an important fea-
ture in the classification of dialects (cf. Chapter 5.1.5.), is also visible in the
table. Among the dialect localities belonging to the Mandarin supergroup,
three have preserved the ) rsheng: Yangzhou, Nanjing and Liuzhou.
This is the distinctive feature of the Jianghuai Mandarin group, which
Yangzhou and Nanjing both belong to. Liuzhou, on the other hand, belongs

192

to the Southwestern Mandarin group, together with Wuhan, Chengdu and
Guiyang, and the presence of the ) rsheng is not its characteristic. This
fact contradicts the description in the Atlas (A2, B14), where it is said that
the Southwestern Mandarin group, with Guilin |[ and Liuzhou as
examples of the Guiliu subgroup, has not preserved the ) rsheng. The
dialect of Liuzhou is clearly an exception from the rule. In the description
of the phonetic characteristics of the Liuzhou dialect it is said, however,
that there are only remnants of the ) rsheng and that it is rare (Liu
Cunhan ed. 1998: 15; Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 68).
Most of the non-Mandarin dialect localities do have syllables in the
) rsheng, except for Loudi (Xiang group) and Pingxiang (Gan group).
Most of them have the | yin and [ yng categories. In some cases this
division goes further, as in Nanning Pinghua, where both the categories are
split into upper shng and lower xi.
A more thoroughgoing analysis of tones and their categories and values
reveals a large field for many interesting discoveries, and The Great
Dictionary... can be of great value in such studies.
2.2. Secondary parameters
The evolution of Middle Chinese plosive qunzhu initials is also one
of the most often used criteria in the classifications of Chinese dialects. The
modern continuants of Middle Chinese plosive and nasal codas play an
important role, as well (cf. Chapter 5.1.5.). In Table 21., the opposition
between voiced and voiceless plosive initials, the presence and kinds of
plosive as well as nasal and nasalized codas in the forty two dialect locali-
ties is shown:

Table 21. Opposition between voiced and voiceless plosive initials; plosive
codas; nasal and nasalized codas in the forty two dialect localities and
Putonghua.
Dialect
group
Dialect
locality
Opposition
between voiced
and voiceless
plosive initials
Plosive
codas
Nasal and
nasalized codas
Putonghua - - -n; -p
Phonetics 193
[Table 21. cont.]
Dialect
group
Dialect
locality
Opposition
between voiced
and voiceless
plosive initials
Plosive
codas
Nasal and
nasalized codas
1. Harbin - - -n; -p
2. Jinan - - -; -; -p
3. Muping - - -n; -p
4. Xuzhou - - -; -; -p
5. Yangzhou - -1 -; -; -; -n; -p
6. Nanjing - -1 -n; -p
7. Wuhan - - -n; -p
8. Chengdu - - -n; -p
9. Guiyang - - -n; -p
10. Liuzhou - -1 -; -e; -n; -p
11. Luoyang - - -n; -p
12. Xian - - -e; -; -p
13. Xining - - -; -5 ; -c
14. Yinchuan - - -n; -p
15. rmqi - - -n; -p

Mandarin
16. Wanrong - - -; -p
17. Taiyuan - -1 -; -o; -p Jin
18. Xinzhou - -1 -o ; -c ; -5; -p
Hui 19. Jixi - -1 -o; -e; -
20. Danyang - -1 -p
21. Chong-
ming
p- b-
t- d-
k- g-
-1 -; -o; -n;-p
22. Shanghai p- b-
t- d-
k- g-
-1 -; -o; -p
23. Suzhou p- b-
t- d-
k- g-
-1 -; -o; -n; -p;
m ; n; p
24. Hang-
zhou
p- b-
t- d-
k- g-
-1 -c ; -; -n; -p

Wu
25. Ningbo p- b-
t- d-
k- g-
-1 -; -5 ; -u; -p

194

[Table 21. cont.]
Dialect
group
Dialect
locality
Opposition
between voiced
and voiceless
plosive initials
Plosive
codas
Nasal and
nasalized codas
26. Wenzhou p- b-
t- d-
k- g-
- -p

Wu
27. Jinhua p- b-
t- d-
k- g-
-1 -; -p
28. Chang-
sha
- - -n; -p; -; -c; -e Xiang
29. Loudi p- b-
t- d-
- -n; -p;-; -e; -5;
-i
30. Nanchang - -t; -1 -n; -p
31. Ping-
xiang
- - -; -; -e; -p
Gan
32. Lichuan - -p; -1 -m; -n; -p
33. Yudu - -1 -i; -; -5; -e; -p Hakka
34. Meixian - -p; -t; -k -m; -n; -p
Pinghua 35. Nanning - -p; -t; -k -m; -n; -p
36. Guang-
zhou
- -p; -t; -k -m; -n; -p Yue
37. Dong-
guan
- -p; -t; -k; -1 -m; -n; -p
38. Jianou - - -p
39. Fuzhou - -1 -p
40. Xiamen p- b-
k- g-
-p; -t; -k; -1 -m; -n; -p; -i -;
-5; -e; -u
41. Leizhou p- b- -p; -k -m; -p
Min
42. Haikou - -p; -t; -k -m; -n; -p

The following conclusions can be drawn from the table (cf. Chapter
6.5.):
1. The Mandarin, Jin, Hui, Gan, Hakka, Pinghua, Yue dialects have
not preserved the opposition between voiced and voiceless plosive
initials.
Phonetics 195
2. The opposition between voiced and voiceless plosive codas is pre-
sent in almost all of the Wu dialect localities, except for Danyang,
which gives it a unique place in the area of the Wu dialect group.
This phenomenon is an outcome of the influence of the neighbour-
ing Jianghuai Mandarin dialects (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 126127;
Cai Guolu ed. 1998: 19).
3. In the remaining dialect groups, some of the places have partly pre-
served this opposition.
4. The plosive codas (glottal stop) are only found in the dialects
which have preserved the ) rsheng in the Mandarin dialect
supergroup (Yangzhou, Nanjing, Liuzhou). These two features are
often linked together also in the remaining dialects, syllables in the
entering tone often end with a glottal stop or other plosive coda.
5. Plosive codas have been preserved in most of the Jin, Hui, Gan,
Hakka, Pinghua, Yue, Min dialect localities.
6. The Pinghua, Yue and Min dialects have the largest range of plo-
sive codas.
7. The Mandarin dialects have only preserved the [-n; -p] (or only one
of them) of the nasal codas, some have also retained the nasal co-
das in the form of nasalized vowels. The Xining dialect only has
the nasalized endings.
8. Both of the Jin dialects only have the [-p] coda and a few nasalized
vowels.
9. The Jixi dialect of the Hui group has lost all the nasal codas and
only kept the nasalized vowels.
10. The situation of the Wu dialects concerning nasal endings is similar
to that of the Mandarin group, yet percentage-wise less have kept
the [-n] ending.
11. Both of the Xiang dialects have retained the [-n; -p;] codas and
have some nasalized vowels.
12. The presence and kinds of nasal codas among the Gan and Hakka,
as well as Min dialects follow no rule.
13. The Pinghua and Yue dialects have preserved the three nasal codas
[-m; -n; -p].

196

2.3. Other phonetic phenomena
Many phonetic phenomena are described in the introductions. Most of them
relate to tonal changes, but some also show the alterations of initials and
finals. The following occurrences are the most salient:
1. Initial mutations (Chongming, Fuzhou)
2. rhu (Harbin, Jinan, Muping, Xuzhou, Nanjing, Luoyang,
Xian, rmqi, Wanrong, Xinzhou, Jixi, Ningbo, Jinhua, Meixian)
3. Tone sandhi (Harbin, Jinan, Muping, Xuzhou, Yangzhou, Nanjing,
Wuhan, Chengdu, Guiyang, Luoyang, Xian, Xining, Yinchuan,
rmqi, Wanrong, Taiyuan, Xinzhou, Jixi, Danyang, Chongming,
Shanghai, Suzhou, Hangzhou, Wenzhou, Jinhua, Changsha, Loudi,
Nanchang, Pingxiang, Lichuan, Yudu, Meixian, Dongguan, Fuzhou,
Xiamen, Leizhou)
4. Neutral tone (Jinan, Xuzhou, Yangzhou, Nanjing, Wuhan, Luoyang,
Yinchuan, Wanrong, Suzhou, Loudi, Lichuan, Fuzhou)

An analysis of these cases can be of great help in depicting the current
state of affairs in the field of phonetic changes in dialects.
3. Vocabulary
Vocabulary is, as a matter of course, the best described aspect of Chinese
dialects in The Great Dictionary.... The two parts of the dictionary, i.e. the
individual volumes and the comprehensive edition, create an opportunity to
look at the dialectal vocabulary from two different angles.
3.1. Comparison through the thematic indexes
The individual volumes make it possible to carry out a thorough study of
the lexicon of a single dialect, as well as to make comparisons between
selected dialects. The thematic indexes (see Chapter 8.1.1.; Chapter 8.2.3.)
can serve as the basis for comparison. The entries in the index are arranged
more or less in the same order in each volume.
The categories listed can provide an account of the characteristics of a
dialect, especially if there are any specific ones, which are uncommon in
other dictionaries. For example, in many of the volumes the category
Vocabulary 197
Other ) qt is added at the end. In the Jinan dialect dictionary,
subcategories of this category are listed: common nouns, natural states and
changes, interjections and onomatopoeia, idioms, etc. In the Guiyang dia-
lect dictionary, the 28
th
category (affixes, etc.) has several subcategories:
suffixes, prefixes, function words, interjections, exclamations, onomato-
poeia. The Liuzhou dialect dictionary has an additional category: [)
yny (jargon). Adding categories may imply that words of the supplemen-
tary kinds are exceptionally plentiful in the dialects.
Through the thematic index, one can also trace the local words for se-
lected entries. Unfortunately, this is not an effortless task, as the entries in
each category are not the same in all volumes. However, one can try to
locate the names for certain objects or phenomena under the domain which
they belong to. The basic concepts can be found quite easily. Two examples
of such cases are presented in the following table (see also Zhang Zhenxing
2000b: 106107 for other examples):

Table 22. Words denoting sun and spring in the forty two dialect localities and
Putonghua.
Dialect
group
Dialect
locality
sun spring
Putonghua [ tiyng chnj
chntin
1. Harbin [ tai
53
iap
,
53
tou
lau
213
icr
24
tucn
44
tian
44
2. Jinan [ tc
21
iap
42
,
2144
tou
tue
21323
tia
213
3. Muping i
213
tou tsucn
51
tian
51
4. Xuzhou [ tc
51
ip (oriap) tue
21335
ti
213
(orti )
5. Yangzhou [ tc
55
iap tsucn
11
tsucn
11
sap
6. Nanjing [ tae
44
iap
,1
5
tcm
24
tun
3133
tien
31
7. Wuhan m
21321
tou
[ tai
35
iap
tcyn
55
tci
35
tcyn
55
ti cn
55
tcyn
55
sap

Mandarin
8. Chengdu [ tai
213
iap
21
tsucn
55
ticn
55
(tcia
55
)
[Table 22. cont.]
Dialect
group
Dialect
locality
sun spring
9. Guiyang [ tai
24
iap
31
tsucn
55
tian
55
10. Liuzhou i
31
tnu
31
[ t
24
iop
31
tsunn
44
te
44
11. Luoyang ,
33
teu
[ t
412
iap
tun
33
tcim
412
tun
33
tian
tun
33
ap
12. Xian er
21
tou
(ic
44
)
ic
44

pfe
21
ni
13. Xining } ,c
4421
tm
2421
c
2453
tia
44
tci
213
(c)
tue
44
tia
44
14. Yinchuan ,
1311
teu
[ tc
13
iap
tuep
44

tuep
44
tian
44
; kc
44
tuep
44

15. rmqi [ tai
21313
iop tup
44
tian

Mandarin
16. Wanrong [ tai
33
i\p
ia
24
ia
2433

,
55
teu
) er
33
s yi
pfei
5123
ti
51
17. Taiyuan [ tai
45
io
53
[ io
11
pr
11

(ie
11
)
tsup
11
tie
11
Jin
18. Xinzhou ic
31
ic
31
) tsuep
31333
tci
31331
Hui 19. Jixi ie1
32
ti
44
ie1
32
ti
44
ko
213
tcyo
31
cio
tcyo
3133
cio
2253
ti
44
20. Danyang [ to
2442
ie
24
ni1
55
te
24

tcyep
3355
ti
3311

(te
2411
)
tcyep
3355
tci
2455
tcyep
3355
te
2411

Wu
21. Chong-
ming
nie1
2
do
2455
tsen
55
li
2420
tsen
55
tie
55
Vocabulary 199
[Table 22. cont.]
Dialect
group
Dialect
locality
sun spring
22. Shanghai [ to
3533
nia
1353
ie1
1311
dr
1313
tsep
5355
tie
5353
| tsep
5355
za
1355
li
1331
*]* tsep
5355
lo
1333
cia
3531

* tsep
5355
lo
1331

23. Suzhou ie1
3
d. tsen
55
tii
5521
| tsen
55
za
1333
li
24. Hangzhou [ tc
55
niop
21331
tsen
33
tic
33
25. Ningbo ii1
1222
d.
2444
[ ta
4444
nia
2444

tsp
5355
ti
5355
ko
5355
tsp
5355
ti
5353

26. Wenzhou [ ta
4211
ji
3113
[] ta
4253
ji
3142
vai
21213
} i
2120
du
3113

}] i
21253
d
u
3153
vai
21213

tcyop
33
lei
240

Wu
27. Jinhua ie1
1221
diu
31324
ie1
1221
diu
31324
[t<d] kop
535
,, ie1
1221
diu
31324
kop
33
kop
3355
tcyep
33
tia
3355
28. Changsha [ tai
55
ian
13
,
24
teu
tcyn
33
tie
33
Xiang
29. Loudi ni
35
di
1333
(ku
4433
)
t yn
44
(or tun
44
) zi5p
111
Gan 30. Nanchang it
5
tcu
[ tai
213
i5p
'tsun
42
s5p
11
[Table 22. cont.]
Dialect
group
Dialect
locality
sun spring
31. Pingxiang i
13
t
444
i
13
t
444
ku
355
'tp
13

111

ti
13
'tp
13

11
li
4

Gan
32. Lichuan pi1
5
} pic1
5
hcu
tsen
22
s5p
33. Yudu ic1
225
teu
44
[ t
22
i5
44
tu
31
ti
31
tu
31
t5
31
Hakka
34. Meixian pit
1
teu
11
tsun
44
tien
44
Pinghua 35. Nanning } it
23
teu
21
et
23
teu
tsen
53
tin
53
36. Guang-
zhou
} it
22
tnu
2135
(no data available) Yue
37. Dongguan } zit
22
tau
2135
tsnn
213
tin
213
38. Jianou mi
42
te
33
tsoyp
54
tip
54
39. Fuzhou ni1
533
tau
53
tsup
55
tsup
55
niep
55

(t-)
40. Xiamen lit
521
tau
35
tsun
55
li
41. Leizhou ziek
1
tau
11
tsup
24
Min
42. Haikou zit
3
zit
3
hau
21
sun
24
kui
35

With these two simple examples, the great diversification of dialectal
vocabulary is shown. Some of the words have the same form in various
places, for example [ (tiyng)` and (rtou)` are the most
frequent ways to indicate the sun, while (chntin)` indicates
spring. However, many words specific to individual dialects can also be
found, such as: (loyr)`, } (rtour)`, [
(yngp (y))`, (yye)` for the sun; (chnli)`, ;
(kichn)`, ) (rsnyu)` for spring.
3.2. Comparison via the comprehensive edition
One can compare the meaning of a certain entry in various dialects in the
comprehensive edition of The Great Dictionary.... For example, the word
Grammar 201
(chn)`, which in Putonghua means: 1. spring; 2. a year; 3. love
between a man and a woman; 4. (fig.) life, vitality:
(1)
a. Yangzhou [tsucn
11
] 1. spring; 2. (fig.) life, vitality
b. Guangzhou [tsn
55
] common name for egg, ovum
c. Fuzhou [tsup
55
] 1. spring; 2. love between a man and a
woman
d. Leizhou [tsup
24
] spring
e. Haikou [sun
24
] 1. spring; 2. the season of growth (of
plants); 3. testicles of male poultry
3.2. Lexical characteristics
The introductions to the individual dialect localities portray the main
features specific to each of the dialects, including the vocabulary. The
following characteristics are the most significant (cf. Chapter 7.2.2.):
1. Loanwords from other languages (Harbin, rmqi, Shanghai,
Guangzhou)
2. Loanwords from other dialects (Shanghai, Hangzhou)
3. Archaisms (Guangzhou)
4. Specific usage of certain words (Liuzhou, rmqi, Shanghai,
Changsha, Loudi, Nanchang, Jianou, Fuzhou)
5. Meaning broader than in Putonghua (Jinan, Muping, Guiyang)
6. {,,/ hyinc/z
111
(Xuzhou, Yangzhou, Luoyang, Xian,
rmqi, Taiyuan, Xinzhou, Danyang, Suzhou, Ningbo, Jinhua,
Changsha, Nanning, Xiamen)
7. ,, fenyinc
112
(Xuzhou, Taiyuan, Xinzhou, Fuzhou)
8. Differences in sequence compared with Putonghua (Xuzhou,
Wuhan, Wanrong, Taiyuan, Xinzhou, Guangzhou)
9. Fear of breaking a taboo (Changsha, Loudi, Guangzhou)
10. Words specific to particular dialects (Xining, Jixi, Hangzhou,
Loudi, Nanning, Leizhou)
4. Grammar
The grammatical features for The Great Dictionary... have been
investigated without any directives from the editing committee, therefore
there is no apparent parallelism between the respective descriptions. Only
the most salient characteristics, which distinguish a given dialect from
others and Putonghua, are described.
Another question is that some grammatical parameters are treated as
lexical ones, or either in different volumes. This is the case of pronouns,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, measure words (classifiers), affixes,
numerals, which can all be found at the end of the list of categories in the
thematic index. Some authors describe these aspects as a part of the
vocabulary, and others as grammar. Nevertheless, the reader can get a good
account of the complexity of Chinese dialectal grammar (cf. Wang Guo-
sheng 2003).
The most commonly mentioned grammatical parameters are the
following:
1. Word classes:
Pronouns (personal, demonstrative, interrogative)
Adjectives (especially the categorial comparison)
Adverbs
Verbs and their aspects
Auxiliary words
Measure words
Modal particles
2. Word-formation:
Affixes
Reduplication (of verbs, nouns, adjectives)
3. Syntax:
Complements
Types of sentences (comparative, interrogative, negative)
Word order other than in Putonghua
Specific phrases
Chapter 10
Summary and conclusions
The linguistic situation in China is much more complex than might seem at
first to a viewer from the outside. The innumerable languages of national
minorities, the many varieties of Chinese form a complicated pattern. Right
now, the dialects are going through changes due to the economic, social and
political transformations. In this light the study of dialects is a real chal-
lenge and the responsibility of Chinese dialectologists is great. The Great
Dictionary... is an example of the work which scholars are trying to per-
form in order to record the current linguistic state of affairs.
1. Dialects or languages?
Although many of the speakers of Chinese cannot communicate with each
other in their mother tongues, the varieties of language used by the Han
nationality are still persistently called ,fngyn`, or dialects. The
question whether or not the lack of mutual intelligibility does determine the
linguistic borders goes beyond the domain of linguistics and enters the area
of politics, anthropology and history. The question touches also upon the
feeling of ethnic identity and linguistic ideology, which may, as in many
cases in for example Europe, dominate the controversies around linguistic
diversification. This is why it is probably best to leave this question aside
and concentrate on scientific research of the tongues spoken by the inhabi-
tants of China.
The dictionary confirms that differences between Chinese dialects are
enormous and that the various groups are in a great part mutually
unintelligible. Even dialect localities which are geographically close can be
very different, such as some of the example localities of the Wu dialect or
Mandarin dialects neighbouring with Wu, etc. However, they are all treated
as dialects of one language, a problem which is not questioned by The
Great Dictionary.... There is obviously a need for a thorough study of the
issue of mutual intelligibility between dialects of Chinese, a study which
could reflect the extent of this problem.
Summary and conclusions 204
2. The language of the majority
The language of the Han people dominates the numerous languages of eth-
nic minorities in China. The influence of Chinese on minority languages is
overwhelming. Yet, the minority languages also do change the Chinese.
This is highlighted in some of the volumes of The Great Dictionary... refer-
ring to regions, where the percentage of minorities is significant (e.g.
Harbin, Liuzhou, Xining, Yinchuan, rmqi, Nanning; see Chapter
8.4.43).
113
Some of the ethnic minorities do not have their own language and speak
only the local variety of Chinese. This is the case of Hui and Manchu
nationalities. The She people also use a kind of language similar to the
Hakka Chinese.
However, these problems deserve a thorough investigation and they are
not the object of this book.
3. Language policy
The dialects are undergoing rapid changes due to the language policy in
China. This is observable especially in the internal diversification between
the old and the young generations. The young people are absorbing the
standard language while the old are much more conservative (see Chapter
9.1.2.; see also You Rujie 2000: 206208, 2004: 198199). The dialects
also affect Putonghua, but not to a symmetrical extent (see Chapter 3.3.).
From the point of view of the central authorities, the unification of the
language is explicitly desired (cf. Chapter 3.2.). The motivation is practical;
it is justified, as it makes communication between the citizens easier. But
on the other hand, looking at it from the linguistic perspective, this rapid
assimilation of dialects to Putonghua is a rather alarming phenomenon.
Chinese dialectologists are undoubtedly aware of it, as one can notice that
there is lately an increase in the interest towards dialects. Many varieties of
them are being studied, in order to preserve as much information about
them as possible. This is the only way to protect them from oblivion. One
of the most important contributions in this domain is The Great Diction-
ary....
The Great Dictionary... is at the same time viewed by Chinese scholars
as a medium in promoting Putonghua, fulfilling its responsibility (cf. Chen
Fengying 1995: 107; see also Chapter 3.4.). The language policy of the
Different classifications 205
Peoples Republic of China on the one hand encourages dialectal research,
but on the other hand treats the investigations as a tool for promoting the
national standard. This way, paradoxically, the study of dialects is supposed
to become the means of eliminating the local varieties of Chinese.
4. Criteria
While studying the dialects of Chinese, one encounters the disputes over
the criteria for classification. The Middle Chinese phonetic system is still
considered the zero-point from which all the dialects evolved, even if the
scholars are aware that this is but a hypothetical construct which needs
critical revisions (cf. Chapter 4.6.2.). Nonetheless, the phonetics are now
being looked upon in a broader context, the syllables are no longer treated
as individual beings, but various phonetic changes and other parameters are
surveyed as well. It is encouraging that at present not only phonetic factors
are taken into consideration, but also grammatical and lexical parameters
are being valued. The linguists tend to standardize the common theoretical
paradigm which they apply for the classifications and try to reach an agree-
ment, yet the issue requires further discussions.
5. Different classifications
As the criteria have been changing throughout time, so have the classifica-
tions. The number of dialect groups has been fluctuating, and at present the
two divisions into seven and into ten groups are the most popular. Both
of these classifications cause many controversies (see Chapter 5.2.18.;
Chapter 6.4.). Nowadays, there appears to be a tendency towards regroup-
ing the dialects into fewer groups (cf. 5.2.18.).
The Great Dictionary... applies the classification presented in the Atlas,
i.e. into ten dialect groups (Mandarin, J in, Wu, Hui, Gan, Xiang, Min, Yue,
Pinghua and Hakka), despite the most intense controversies around the
classifications of J in, Hui and Pinghua. The homogeneity constitutes a
practical advantage as it increases the usefulness of both monumental
works.
In the nearest future, new points of view may be presented in the
forthcoming project of the new edition of the Language Atlas of China (see
Chapter 5.2.18.). They may bring some consensus, or raise new arguments.
Whichever the case, they will surely reveal the current state of research of
Chinese dialects and cause discussions, which will hopefully lead to deeper
investigations on the topic.
6. Research methods
The study of Chinese dialects is currently progressing and becoming more
and more advanced. Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao is still used as the most com-
mon means for the study of phonetics, even though it is rather old. So far
no better questionnaire has been invented for the investigation of isolated
syllables.
Since the syllables are being put into context, other features are investi-
gated (see Chapter 7.1.4.). Thus many aspects need to be taken into
consideration, for example: sandhi (especially tone sandhi), phonetic
changes of diminutives |, xiochng binyin (especially
rhu), alternative pronunciations ,, yud, (such as the literary
and colloquial variant pronunciations )[, wnbi yd, borrow-
ing the pronunciation of a synonym , xnd, differences between
the new and the old varieties ];.;[, xinpi, lopi yd,
popular reading ],sd, geographical diversification.
The study of vocabulary and grammar does not have such a long tradi-
tion as that of phonetics. For the investigation of vocabulary, there exist a
few lists which can be used depending on the purpose of research; however
none has established such a status as Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao. The
investigation of dialectal vocabulary is more irregular than that of the pho-
netic system and it requires more thorough analysis.
The Great Dictionary... is one of the greatest modern achievements
regarding the study of dialectal vocabulary. It gives a broad look at the
various characteristics which occur in this field, many of which are de-
scribed in great detail in the introductions (see Chapter 9.3.).
Hitherto, there are no clear rules as regards the methods of research on
dialectal grammar. Usually, the grammatical system is compared with that
of the national standard. This way, only features which are found in a
different form in Putonghua can be found, neglecting those which are spe-
cific only to a certain region. The methods of investigation of grammar
clearly need improvement.
Chinese abroad 207
InThe Great Dictionary..., this aspect has not been standardized and the
descriptions of grammar concentrate on features in some way or other
characteristic to the dialect in question. Although the grammatical descrip-
tions are not homogeneous, yet The Great Dictionary... is a dictionary, thus
detailed grammatical explanations are not the core of it, but they do provide
a lot of important information.
7. Other aspects of modern dialectology
Modern dialectology does not concentrate only on dialects in terms of
territorial diversification. There are other fields of interest, such as social
dialects, but this facet is only beginning to develop in China (cf. You Rujie
2000: 11).
114
Other features which need to be thoroughly investigated and
described are (to mention a few) diglossia (cf. You Rujie 2000: 208211,
2004: 200201; Wang Futang 2004: 526527), dialect islands (cf. Wang
Futang 2004: 526), mixed dialect areas and transitional dialects (Wang
Futang 2004: 526, 527), etc. The Great Dictionary... touches upon some of
these questions, for instance the internal diversification of dialects, such as
differences between generations, geographical and ethnical divergencies as
well as differences between the literary and colloquial pronunciation (see
Chapter 9.2.).
8. Chinese abroad
The Chinese language is naturally spoken not only within the borders of
mainland China. It has many speakers who live in the neighbouring coun-
tries, but also overseas. There are a significant number of Chinese people
living in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, as well as in the USA, Australia
and in several countries in Europe. Specific Chinese dialects are spoken in
these regions and they are developing in their own directions. Unfortunately,
this aspect is not included at all in The Great Dictionary..., not even the
regions which are considered an integral part with mainland China, i.e.
Taiwan, Macau, Hong Kong.
115
9. Are the dialects of China endangered?
The persistent promotion of Putonghua is beyond any doubt a big threat to
the dialects. The main aspect of language planning in China, i.e. the
promotion of Putonghua, is not balanced by a protection of local vernacu-
lars (cf. 3.2.). No matter how many times one will hear the declarations that
it is not the intention of the language policy to eliminate the dialects, it is
generally known that these measures do not remain without any influence
on the dialects. The Great Dictionary... reveals the process of younger
generations using a more and more standardized variety of their tongue.
Nonetheless, a complete extinction of the local varieties of Chinese does
not seem possible, at least because of the largeness of the country. At this
point, one can but hope that the transformation of dialects will be a very
long and never completed process.
10. Tasks of Chinese dialectology
The most urgent responsibilities of Chinese dialectology at present seem to
be the following:
To deepen the ground for dialect classification.
To clarify the classification and to decide on the borders between dia-
lects.
To create universal research methods which would enable comparisons.
To establish a homogeneous theoretical frame in respect to the hypothe-
sis of Middle Chinese as the point of origin of modern dialects.
To preserve data about modern dialects before they assimilate to
Putonghua.
11. The role of The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects
The Great Dictionary... is a milestone in Chinese dialectology. Although
not faultless, it constitutes a great contribution to Chinese linguistics and
dialectology.
Probably the greatest of its achievements is that it has pushed forward
the state of dialectal research in China. Thanks to The Great Dictionary...,
the status of dialectal vocabulary has risen. The phonetic aspect of dialects
The role of The Great Dictionary 209
is no longer the only and the most important focus of dialectal research (cf.
Zhang Zhenxing 2000b: 100105; [www 11]).
The attainments in the field of vocabulary are not the only input of The
Great Dictionary.... The dictionary also contains a lot of information about
the phonetic system and about the grammar of dialects, providing a clearer
overview of the linguistic situation in China as well as providing an
opportunity for dialectal comparison (cf. Wang Guosheng 2003; [www 11]).
Through The Great Dictionary... one can also verify the characteristics
described in the Atlas, see if they agree with the real situation and if the
dialect localities chosen for the dictionary have been classified correctly.
In recognition of its merits, The Great Dictionary... was awarded
prestigious prizes. In May 1999 it got the first grade prize of the Third Na-
tional Reference Books Awards granted by the Press and Publication
Administration of the Peoples Republic of China. In September 1999 it got
the highest prize at the Fourth National Books Awards (Xiandai Hanyu
Fangyan Da Cidian (fenjuanben) huo jiang 2000: 4; Zhang Zhenxing
2000b: 97).
Nevertheless, The Great Dictionary... does have some shortcomings.
One of the more significant is the lack of dictionaries of some important
places, such as Beijing, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau. The question which
causes some difficulties to the reader is the lack of uniformity of the
introductions to the individual volumes. Not all of them contain the same
kind of data. Some do not provide the information about the dialectal
affiliation of the dialects in question or about the informants and researched
variety. The statistics about population could be made more homogeneous,
especially in the comprehensive edition, so that it would be possible to
evaluate the status of the dialect localities. It is also not clear whether or not
the informants engaged in the project are representative.
Despite the deficiencies, The Great Dictionary... is unquestionably a
great source of knowledge about the current situation of Chinese dialects,
not only for researchers at present, but also for the generations to come. It
has chronicled the present state of forty two dialect localities, at a time
when the language in China is changing rapidly. This is an inestimable
achievement (cf. Liu and Lu 2003). Though not without any objections, the
dictionary portrays a large part of the actual linguistic situation in China
from the point of view of Chinese dialectologists.
A brief chronology of Chinese history since the Qin
Dynasty
Qin, Dynasty 221 BC206 BC
Han Dynasty 206 BC220 AD
Western Han
206 BC25 AD
Eastern Han
25220
Three Kingdoms ] 220280
J in Dynasty 265420
Southern and Northern Dynasties
386589
Sui | Dynasty 581618
Tang j Dynasty 618907
Five Dynasties
|
907960 Five Dynasties and Ten States
|]
Ten States
]
902979
Song Dynasty 9601279
Liao (Qidan ) )
Dynasty
9071125
J in (Jurchen) Dynasty 11151234
Xixia (Tangut) Dynasty 10381227
Yuan Dynasty 12791368
Ming | Dynasty 13681644
Qing Dynasty 16441911
Republic of China '[] 19121949
Peoples Republic of China
'[)|]
1949
Chinas main administrative units
Province/A.R./
Municipality/
S.A.R.
Chinese
name
Pinyin Chinese
abbrevia-
tion
Capital/seat of
government
Anhui Province ] nhui Shng ]Wn {| Hefei
Beijing
Municipality
;) Bijing Sh ;Jing ; Beijing
Chongqing
Municipality
) Chngqng Sh Y
Chongqing
Fujian Province |] Fjin Shng |Mn || Fuzhou
Gansu Province |] Gns Shng |Gn or
|Lng
| Lanzhou
Guangdong
Province
] Gungdng
Shng
Yu |
Guangzhou
Guangxi
Zhuang A.R.
]|
;l
Gungxi
Zhungz
Zzhq
|Gu Nanning
Guizhou
Province
|] Guzhu Shng "Qin or
Gu
[ Guiyang
Hainan
Province
[] Hinn Shng )Qing [ Haikou
Hebei Province ]] Hbi Shng ,J
Shijiazhuang
Heilongjiang
Province
;] Heilngjing
Shng
;Hei ] Harbin
Henan Province ]] Hnn Shng )Y |
Zhengzhou
Hong Kong
S.A.R.
||
]l
Xinggng
Tbixng
Zhngq
Gng Hong
Kong
Hubei Province ] Hbi Shng Wuhan
Hunan Province ] Hnn Shng Xing |;
Changsha
Inner Mongolia
A.R.
],|;
l
Nimngg
Zzhq
],
Nimng-
g
|||
Hohhot
J iangsu
Province
j] Jings Shng jS ; Nanjing
Chinas main administrative units 212
Province/A.R./
Municipality/
S.A.R.
Chinese
name
Pinyin Chinese
abbrevia-
tion
Capital/seat of
government
J iangxi
Province
] Jingxi Shng yGn ;
Nanchang
J ilin Province [] Jln Shng J |
Changchun
Liaoning
Province
] Lionng
Shng
Lio [
Shenyang
Macau S.A.R. ]||
]l
omen
Tbixng
Zhngq
o ] Macau
Ningxia Hui
A.R.
}|
;l
Nngxi Huz
Zzhq
Nng |) Yinchuan
Qinghai
Province
[] Qinghi Shng Qing Xining
Shaanxi
Province
|] Shnxi Shng ,Qn Xian
Shandong
Province
] Shndng
Shng
L J inan
Shanghai
Municipality
[) Shnghi Sh ;H [ Shanghai
Shanxi Province ] Shnxi Shng Jn ) Taiyuan
Sichuan
Province
|)] Schun Shng )Chun
or
\Sh
j Chengdu
Taiwan
116
] Tiwn Ti Taipei
Tianjin
Municipality
,) Tinjin Sh ,Jin , Tianjin
Tibetan A.R. j|;l Xizng Zzhq jZng } Lhasa
Xinjiang Uygur
A.R.
]];
|;l
Xinjing
Wiwr
Zzhq
]Xin _Z,
rmqi
Yunnan
Province
.] Ynnn Shng Din or
.Yn
| Kunming
Zhejiang
Province
,] Zhjing
Shng
,Zh ||
Hangzhou
Notes
1. This division is also questioned by some scholars (cf. Ruhlen 2004: 121123).
2. The new edition of the Atlas, which is due to be published in 2010, lists 130
languages spoken in China (see Xiong, Zhang and Huang 2008: 194, 201
202).
3. See also Chapter 6.3.11.1.
4. The Atlas describes the three languages as non-defined, although recent
research classifies them into the following language families: Korean as Altaic,
Gin as Austro-Asiatic (Viet-Muong Group); Huihui as Austronesian (cf.
[www 3]).
5. Formerly known as Summer Institute of Linguistics. For information about
SIL International see: [www 7].
6. Cf. Kurpaska 2005.
7. Colloquial speech, the written form of the vernacular, which was recognized
as the standard language after the May the Fourth Movement in 1919 (see also
Crystal 2003: 315).
8. To find out more about the standard language as a prestigious form of speech
and about dialect status, see Yule 2000: 227228; Poole 2000: 111112; Rob-
ins 2000: 5458.
9. Only the terms essential for dialect study are presented here, for more detailed
information on traditional Chinese phonology and Middle Chinese cf.: Lin
and Geng 2004; Liu Zhicheng 2004; Zou Xiaoli 2002; Tang Zuofan 2004;
Wang Li 2004b; Li Xinkui 2000; Gao Benhan 2003; Karlgren 19151926;
Wang Li 1982.
10. The traditional partition differs from the present one, however in this book
only the traditional point of view will be presented, as it is usually employed
during the study of dialects. For a discussion on the differences between the
traditional and the present analysis of the syllable, and for arguments for the
present analysis, see Duanmu, San 2002: 7995.
11. The tone is pictured here as an integral part of the whole syllable, yet separate
from the initial and final. In reality it is realized on the nucleus.
12. There are two optional pronunciations of ), in the falling tone (51)
and in the falling-rising tone (214). However, in this book it will be written
down in the falling tone, according to the rule presented by Wang Ping (2003:
3435).
13. The sound which has been classified as j,bnchyin is the initial of the
character (r). The reconstruction of this sound causes many controver-
sies. One concept claims that this is the nasal dorsal [];Karlgrens concept
says that the sound was a combination of a nasal and fricative [nz]; Wang
Notes 214
Li proposes the flap [] (see Tang Zuofan 2004: 36; Lin and Geng 2004: 58;
Wang Li 2004b: 77).
14. An inconsistency exists in translating the Chinese terms concerning the parts
of a final and other related terms into English. This is especially visible when
it comes to the term rhyme (rime) in English. Some linguists (cf. Chen, M.
Y. 2001: 45; Duanmu, San 2002: 80) call rhyme what is known as ,
ynji in Chinese, i.e. the nucleus and coda. But at the same time, Duanmu has
a remark, that in some analyses, the final is called the rhyme () (2002: 80).
Other terms, such as ,yn; ,ynli are translated as rhyme in the Chi-
nese Encyclopaedia (Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu. Yuyan Wenzi 1988: 109;
504). Some of the terms are difficult to translate, as there are no English
equivalents. In order to avoid confusion, the Chinese original terms will be
used in this book.
15. The word | h originally meant to pronounce; pronunciation, it was later
adopted as a linguistic term, indicating whether the final of a syllable contains
a medial and which kind of medial or nucleus it contains (cf. Zou Xiaoli 2002:
8687).
16. For more details and various theories about the four grades (|s dng) see:
Wang Li 2004b: 105108; Tang Zuofan 2004: 6770; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 86;
Lin and Geng 2004: 5556; Liu Zhicheng 2004: 5662; You Rujie 2004: 92
93. For a discussion about dng, | h and medials and how to survey
them, see Li Rong 1983: 14.
17. For more information on |fnqi see: Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu. Yuyan
Wenzi 1988: 7173; Wang Li 2004b: 2946; Liu Zhicheng 2004: 1842; Tang
Zuofan 2004: 1928; Feng, Liang and Yang. 1997: 169171.
18. For more details on Qieyun |, see: Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu.
Yuyan Wenzi 1988: 317318; Lin and Geng 2004: 87136; Liu Zhicheng 2004:
106198; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 6266; Feng, Liang and Yang 1997: 453454; Li
Sijing 2001: 4796; Wang Li 2004a: 6072.
19. Tangyun (j,) is a revised edition of Qieyun, written by Sun Mian during the
time of the Tang Dynasty (618907 A.D.). The original has not been pre-
served. See Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu. Yuyan Wenzi 1988: 505506; Feng,
Liang and Yang 1997: 546.
20. For more information about Guangyun see: Tang Zuofan 2004: 75192; Lin
and Geng 2004: 104136; Wang Li 2004b: 4759; Zou Xiaoli 2002: 6667;
You Rujie 2004: 85102; Feng, Liang and Yang 1997: 250251; Zhongguo
Dabaike Quanshu. Yuyan Wenzi 1988: 115116; Wang Li 2004a: 6072.
21. For a discussion on the principles proposed by Ding Bangxin see: [www5]:
1011; Li Rulong 2003a: 35.
22. The term z, meaning character is often used by Chinese scholars as
equivalent to syllable. Each z represents a morpheme and most mor-
phemes in Chinese are monosyllabic (cf. Lin, Yen-Hwei 2007: 56), therefore
Notes 215
characters used in the rhyme books usually represent syllables. In this book
z is usually referred to as syllable, however in some cases, the two
terms are not fully interchangeable.
23. The tone-aspiration division means that apart from the split of Middle Chinese
tones into |yin and [yng categories, depending if the initials were voice-
lessqing or voiced zhu(see Chapter 4.2.), the tones were also
divided depending on the aspiration or the lack of it. In dialects where this
phenomenon has occured, there can be up to 12 tone categories (Li Xiaofan,
personal communication).
24. For details about the gradation of division of dialects and the terminology
used see Chapter 6.2.
25. The author has not been able to acquire the original names of the dialects
proposed by von Mllendorf, therefore alternative names have been applied in
this book.
26. The names of the dialects are written in pinyin or after Beijing Daxue Zhong-
wenxi Xiandai Hanyu J iaoyanshi 2004: 12 , as the author has not been able to
find the original text.
27. Wang Lis ],, Zhongguo Yinyunxue [Chinese phonology] was re-
named in 1955 ),, Hanyu Yinyunxue [the phonology of Chinese]. It
was later reprinted several times under the new name.
28. Wang Li uses the term ,fngyin, meaning the phonetic aspects of dialects.
29. For explanations of phonological terms, see Chapter 4.
30. Wang Lis ])]|Zhongguo Yuwen Gailun, depending on the editions,
is also known under the names: ]), Zhongguo Yuwen Jianghua [a
talk on Chinese language], ),Hanyu Jianghua [a talk on Chinese], )
,Yuwen Jianghua [a talk on language].
31. Mandarin Primer was translated into Chinese in 1952 by Li Rong under the
title ;)) (Beijing kouyu yufa) [the grammar of the colloquial
speech of Beijing] (Zhao Yuanren 1985). Due to the fact that the author did
not have access to the original version, the Chinese translation is applied in
this book.
32. The Chin (J in) dialect described by Forrest is not equivalent to the J in
dialect as described in Atlas (Atlas: A2; Li Rong 1989a: 257; cf. Wen
Duanzheng 1998: 247).
33. For more information about the Technical Conference on the Standardization
of Modern Chinese, see DeFrancis 1967: 139142; [www 8]; [www 9].
34. The book by Yuan J iahua was made known outside of China by a translation
into Russian (J uan Czja-Hua 1965). Its contents have also been presented in
great detail by Sren Egerod (1967).
35. In the original 1960 edition, the Min dialects were divided into the Northern
and the Southern groups.
Notes 216
36. The New Xiang is also called Northern Xiang )) Bipin Xing-
y and the Old Xiang Southern Xiang )) Nnpin Xingy.
For more information about the classification of the Xiang dialect see: Zhan
Bohui 1981: 124125; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 7879; Zhou and You 1985:
259262; Knstler 2000: 255259.
37. For a more detailed description of the classification presented by Li Rong in
the Atlas see Chapter 6.
38. The classifications made by Zhang Binglin and Li J inxi are not included in
this table, as they do not correspond with the divisions of the remaining
authors.
39. See Li Rong 1989a: 255259; Atlas: A2.
40. For details about the classification of Mandarin dialects established in the
Atlas see Li Rong 1985a.
41. Only a rough description of the distribution of dialects is presented here.
42. For more information about Junhua see Pan J iayi 1998.
43. In the Atlas, the Min dialect is classified as a supergroup divided into groups,
with an annotation that it might as well be classified as a group divided into
subgroups, etc. in order to put it on a more equal footing with other non-
Mandarin dialects (cf. Li Rong 1989a: 258). For this reason, the classification
is not as meticulous as that of the Mandarin supergroup.
44. On the maps in the Atlas (A2, B13), the Leizhou group figures as a subgroup
of the Southern Min group, though in the descriptions it is treated as a sepa-
rate group.
45. See Chapter 2.2.
46. For more information about the language of the She people see You Wenliang
2002. For information about relationships between the language of the She
people with the Hakka dialect see You Wenliang 2002: 519577; Dai Qingxia
ed. 1992: 300309.
47. For more information about the Danzhou dialect, see Wu Yingjun 1988; Liu
Xinzhong 2001: 4950; Liang Yougang 1984b: 266267.
48. For more information on Xianghua, see Bao and Yan 1986: 276.
49. For more information on Tuhua, see Bao Houxing 2004; Xie Qiyong 2002;
Qin Yuanxiong 2007.
50. For explanations of linguistic terms see Chinese-English index-glossary of
basic linguistic terminology and Chapter 4.
51. For more general information about the Mandarin dialects see: Hou J ingyi ed.
2002: 340; Ding Bangxin 1998b.
52. For more information about the Northeastern Mandarin dialects see He Wei
1986; Zhang Zhimin 2005.
53. The full names of the subgroups and clusters together with the notation in
Chinese characters and pinyin can be found in 6.3.
54. For more information about the J ilu Mandarin dialects see Liu Shuxue 2006.
Notes 217
55. For more information about the Central Plains Mandarin dialects see He Wei
2005.
56. For more information about the Lanyin Mandarin dialects see Zhou Lei 2005.
57. For more information about the Southwestern Mandarin dialects see Huang
Xuezhen 1986.
58. Today sharp initials (,, jinyin) include [ts-, ts-, s-] combined with [i] or
[y] medials or finals; rounded initials ([,tunyin, also called [,yunyin)
include [t-, t-, -] combined with [i] or [y] medials or finals.
59. For more information about the J in dialect see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 4166;
Hou J ingyi 1999; Qiao Quansheng 2000; Hou J ingyi 1989; Hou J ingyi 1986;
Shen Ming 2006.
60. See also Chapter 9.3.3.
61. For more information about the Wu dialects see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 6787;
Shanghai Shi Yuwenxuehui and Xianggang Zhongguo Yuwenxuehui 2003,
2005; Cao Zhiyun 2002; Yan Yiming 1994; Qian Nairong 2003; Wuyu de
bianjie he fenqu 1984; Fu Guotong et al. 1986.
62. For more information about the Hui dialects see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 88115;
Zhao Rixin 2005.
63. For more information about the Gan dialects see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 141
153; Xie Liuwen 2006.
64. For more information about the Xiang dialects see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 116
140; Peng Fengshu 1999; Bao and Chen 2005.
65. For more information about the Min dialects see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 207
248; Huang Diancheng 1984; Zhang Zhenxing 1989, 2000a.
66. For more information about the Southern Min dialects see Zhou Changji 1991.
67. For more information about the Eastern Min dialects see Lin Hansheng 2002.
68. For the notation of implosives see Chapter 7.1.5.
69. For more information about the Yue dialects see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 174
206; Zhan Bohui ed. 2004; Wu Wei 2007.
70. For more information about the Pinghua dialect see Liang and Zhang 1999; Li
Lianjin 2007; Qin Yuanxiong 2007.
71. For more information about the Hakka dialect see Hou J ingyi ed. 2002: 154
173; Li Rulong et al. ed. 1999; Luo and Deng 1995; Xie Liuwen 2003; He
Gengyong 1993.
72. For more detailed descriptions on research of phonetics of dialects, different
ways of recording the results and analysis see: Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 119
173; You Rujie 2004: 5784, 2000: 2234; Li Rulong 2003: 8194; Yuan
J iahua 2003: 309316; Huang J inghu 1987: 207241.
73. For a more detailed description of the use of this list see Zhan Bohui et al.
2004: 120127; You Rujie 2004: 5968; Huang J inghu 1987: 209219.
74. Cf. Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 120124; You Rujie 2004: 6062; Huang J inghu
1987: 209213.
Notes 218
1987: 213219.
1987: 213219.
77. For more information on the structure of Fangyan Diaocha Zibiao see Zhong-
guo Shehui Kexueyuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo 2002: viii.
78. For more details on tone sandhi research see You Rujie 2004: 7680. For
exhaustive details about tone sandhi itself, especially in Chinese dialects, see
Chen, Matthew Y. 2001.
79. For details about the phonetic changes of diminutives in some dialects see:
Zhao Rixin 1999; Zhuang and Lin 2000; Huang Qunjian 1993; Qian Huiying
1991; Zhou Zuyao 1987.
80. For more information about rhu see: Duanmu, San 2002: 195208;
Wang Futang 2005: 150181; You Rujie 2004: 4950; Zhang Shifang 2004;
Hu Guangbin 1994; Li Yuming 1996; Zhang Shuzheng 1996; Xing Xiangdong
1996; Li Bing 1981; Ying Yutian 1990.
81. For more details on, xnd, especially in the dialect of Qiongzhou, see
Chen Hongmai 1993; Liang Yougang 1984a; Zhang Shengyu 1984.
82. The inventor of this five-point scale system was Zhao Yuanren. For a detailed
explanation of the system of tone-letters see Zhao Yuanren 1980.
83. In this sense, the term ,|) Gdi Hny denotes the literary form of
Chinese, mostly equal to ,wnyn.
84. The pronunciation in dialects is not given here, as it is not relevant to the issue
discussed.
85. For detailed descriptions of specific dialectal words from various dialects see
Li Rulong ed. 2002. For more information see also Li Rulong 2003b; Li Ru-
long 2003a: 10811.
86. For a detailed description of characters used for writing down dialectal words
see Dong Shaoke 2002: 238266.
87. For more details on the forming and kinds of dialectal characters see You
Rujie 2004: 206208.
88. For information about systems of recording the dialectal pronunciation in the
past see You Rujie 2004: 209210.
89. For detailed descriptions of grammatical characteristics of Chinese dialects,
see: Huang Borong ed. 1996; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
J iaoyanshi 2004: 4346; Huang J inghu 1987: 260275; Zhan Bohui 1981: 57
91; Zhan Bohui et al. 2004: 257287; Li Rulong 2003a: 132141. The prob-
lem will be further discussed at 9.4.
90. The last one, Jixi Fangyan Cidian (,,3) [J ixi Dialect Dictionary]
(Zhao Rixin 2003), was added when most of the work on the dictionary was
completed, that is why some articles concerning the The Great Dictionary...
mention only 41 volumes (cf. Zhao Rixin 2003: 410; Li Rong 2002: 1; Zhang
Notes 219
Zhenxing 2000b: 97; Xiandai Hanyu Fangyan Da Cidian zongheben chuban
2003: 193.
91. All the non-standard usage in the comprehensive edition is explained in the
guide to the use of the dictionary (Li Rong 2002: 34).
92. Cf. Li Rong 1993: 1 and the general introduction to the separate volumes,
found at the beginning of each of them.
93. Unlike the empty squares used throughout the dictionary proper (see Chapter
8.1.).
94. The first edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian_|),3was published
in 1978. In this book the author used the 2002 Chinese-English edition.
95. Cf. Chapter 7.
96. Xie Liuwen, personal communication.
98. The affiliation of each local dialect has been found through Xu and Miyata ed.
2000, vol 5, appendix ]|)),_]( Quanguo ge xian shi
Hanyu fangyan xishu jianbiao [Brief table of the dialectal affiliation of Chi-
nese dialects of every city and county].
101. Official statistical data always leaves a place for discussion as to whether or
not this is the real state of affairs. The official numbers can differ greatly from
the actual situation, especially with the large number of so-called migrant
workers and unregistered inhabitants.
102. The Chinese term ) shi can carry different meanings in terms of
administrative divisions. It can imply: a municipality directly under the
jurisdiction of the State Council at the same level as a Province )
zhixia shi, e.g. Beijing Municipality ;) Beijing Shi; a municipal-
ity at prefecture-level j) diji shi, e.g. Harbin Municipality
]) Harbin Shi; a city at county-level ) xianji shi, e.g. Dan-
yang City )[)Danyang Shi.
103. ] kuish is a folk art form in which the performer tells stories accompa-
nied by rhythmic bamboo or copper clappers (cf. Zhongguo Shehui Kexue-
yuan Yuyan Yanjiusuo Cidian Bianjishi 2002: 1120).
104. L Opera [Lj has developed on the basis of a local form of story-
telling to the accompaniment of a dulcimer (cf. Zhongguo Shehui Kexueyuan
Yuyan Yanjiusuo Cidian Bianjishi 2002: 1265).
105. According to the fifth National Census, the population of Shanghai
Municipality in 2000 was 16,740,000 people (cf. [www 13]).
106. In the dialect of Danyang, the new generation has been influenced by the
language from the suburbs and countryside (cf. Li Rong ed. 2002, 1: 124125;
Cai Guolu ed. 1998: 78).
107. Including zero-initial.
Notes 220
108. Basic finals, excluding rhu and mutations; including nasal consonants
which can form individual syllables.
109. Excluding neutral tone and tone sandhi.
110. In some of the introductions, the tone values used in the dictionary are not the
actual ones, but are used for convenience and clearness of notation. The real
values are then added in annotations. In this table, the real values are written
down without brackets, while those applied in the dictionaries are in brackets.
111. The term {,, hyinc (or {, hyinz) means the contraction of two
syllables into one, which has the initial of the first and the final of the second
syllable. This is also sometimes called syllable fusion or syllable merger
(information consulted with Moira Yip).
112. ,, fenyinc (syllable splitting) is the inverse of {,, hyinc. It con-
sists of dividing a single syllable into two, of which the first one contains the
initial of the original syllable, and the second one the final. According to the
information gained from Moira Yip, the term | fnqi is often used by
English authors to describe this. ,,fenyinc is especially common in the
J in dialect group (cf. Xing Xiangdong 2002: 254265; Hou J ingyi 1999b:
330333, Li Lan 2002: 46-47).
113. For more details on the topic, see for example: Dai Qingxia ed. 1992; Dai and
Gu ed. 2003; Hanyu fangyan he minzu yuyan 2001; Liang and Zhang 1988;
Hong Bo 2004; Wang J un 2004: 5885; Gan Yuen ed. 2005: 108109.
114. For more information about social dialectology in China, see: You Rujie 2000:
211215, 2004: 201203; Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi Xiandai Hanyu
J iaoyanshi: 23; Wang Futang 2004: 527528.
115. For more information about Chinese abroad, see Li Rulong ed. 1999; Zheng
Dingou ed. 1997; Liu Zhenfa 2001; Zhang Zhenxing 1983; Sheng Yan 1997;
Xu, Chew and Chen 2005; Zhou and Chew 2000; Chen Xiaojin 2003; Ha
Mawan 1994; Zou and You 2001: 4883; 183195; 209285; Beijing Shi Yu-
yanxuehui 2004: 250.
116. Due to the specific political status of Taiwan, it is not called Province in this
book, but is included in this table as it is culturally an integral part of China.

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12-30)

1
The Chinese edition of The Language Atlas of China was published in two stages.
Two first parts (maps A5, B3, B5, B9, B10, B12, B14, C2, C3, C4, C5, C7, C8, C9,
C11, C12) were published in 1987, the remaining maps in 1989.
Chinese-English index-glossary of basic linguistic
terminology
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
) bihu 1. Colloquial speech, the written form of
the vernacular, which was recognized as the
standard language after May the Fourth
Movement in 1919.
10
2. The name for the Yue dialect spoken in
Nanning
176
, Bifng fngyn Northern Dialects, see also Gunhu 1.
10, 46, 53, 55
Bifnghu same as Gunhu 1.
52
| bi fnqi z the character, the pronunciation of which is
described by the use of the fnqi method
(see also |fnqi; |fnqi
shngz; | fnqi xiz)
22
j, chituyin see, jiyin
j, chiyin dental sound (see also ,wyin; ,
jiyin)
18, 19, 20
, chnyin labial sound (see also , wyin; ,
jiyin)
18, 20
], c fngyn sub-dialect
27, 63
] cqing voiceless, aspirated plosives and affricates
(see also , qingyin)
19, 20
]) c ty same as qing
63
Index-glossary of basic linguistic terminology 253
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
] czhu voiced nasals, laterals and semivowels (see
also, zhuyin)
19, 20, 27, 31, 78, 79, 80, 89
j) csheng checked tone, i.e. the entering tone ()
rsheng), as opposed to )shsheng
(see also |)ssheng)
17, 18
]| cukuh see||sh
,, d fngyn major dialect group (see also ,,l fng-
yn dq)
27
,l dq see,,l fngyn dq
63
dng see| s dng
22, 214
) din see,) fngyn din
64
j dioli tone category
16, 96
jj diozh tone value; tone pitch
16, 96
rhu one of the types of phonetic changes of
diminutives; it consists in adding the
(r) suffix which merges with the sylla-
ble it attaches to (Duanmu, San 2002:
195), forming a retroflexed final
29, 31, 36, 102, 109, 196, 206, 218, 219
rdng the second of the four grades of traditional
finals (see also |s dng)
22, 30, 82, 84, 87
[ fqunf a method of describing the tones of a Chi-
nese character (see also |) ssheng)
xi, xx, 105, 106
| fnqi shngz the first of the two characters used in the
fanqie method (see |fnqi); this
character indicates the initial of the
character described (see also |
fnqi xiz; | bi fnqi z)
22
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
| fnqi xiz the second of the two characters used in the
fanqie method (see | fnqi); this
character indicates the final and tone of
the character described (see also |
fnqi shngz; | bi fnqi
z)
22
, fngyn dialect
ix, 1, 2, 3, 63, 203
, Fngyn Dialectology, the first Chinese work on dia-
lects, written by Yang Xiong at the time
of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The full title
is: ||{|)],
(Yuxun Shizh Judi Ysh Bigu
Fngyn)
1
,, fngync dialectal word
111
,,, fngynchu dialectal vocabulary
111
,,l fngyn dq dialect supergroup (see also ,, d fng-
yn)
63
,) fngyn din local dialect; dialect locality
137
,l fngyn gudq intermediate (transitional) dialect areas (see
also{,lhnh fngynq)
34
,) fngyn pin dialect subgroup
63
,l fngyn q dialect group
63
,|/,
)
fngyn tsh
cy
specific dialectal words, also ,|,
fngyn tzheng c
32, 118
,|, fngyn tzheng
c
same as ,|/,)fngyn tsh cy
32, 118

Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
,) fngyn xiopin dialect cluster (see also ,xio fng-
yn)
63
, fngynz dialectal character (see also ] stz)
119
,, fenyinc fenyinci, syllable split
81, 201, 220
y, Gn fngyn same as y)Gny
y) Gny Gan dialect, also y,Gnfngyn
27, 35, 36, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52,
53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 70, 8384,
86, 88, 90, 101, 114, 141, 142, 149, 174,
175, 187, 190, 192, 194, 195, 199, 200,
205, 217
, G Xing Old Xiang dialect (see also )Xingy)
54, 55, 61, 155, 215
1. Mandarin dialects, also Bi-
fnghu, ,Bifng fngyn
2, 10, 27, 31, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43,
46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
58, 59, 60, 61, 6468, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77
81, 89, 90, 100, 111, 112, 137, 138, 139,
142, 143, 146, 148, 149, 155, 156, 158,
159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166,
167, 169, 170, 176, 187, 188, 189, 191,
192, 193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 203, 205,
216, 217
Gunhu
2. Mandarin, the standard language since the
Ming Dynasty.
3, 10
Gungdnghu dialect of Guangdong, Cantonese (see also
Yu)
37, 52
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
, Gungyn full title ,], (Dsng Chngxi
Gungyn), a rhyme book (, ynsh)
written in 1008 A.D. by Chen Pengnian,
Qiu Yong and others, on the basis of
Qiyn |,, Tngyn j,
and other rhyme books
xx, 15, 2324, 91, 214
| Hakka (Kji) same as |Kjihu
) Hny the Chinese language; language spoken by
the Han people
5
),, Hny yinynxu Chinese historical phonetics; traditional
phonology
1524
{| hkuh see|| sh; || lingh
{,,/ hyinc/z heyinci (zi), contraction of two syllables into
one, which has the initial of the first and
the final of the second syllable (also
called syllable fusion or syllable merger)
201, 220
;, hngyin vast sound; the first grade (yidng)
and the second grade (rdng) of fi-
nals, as opposed to ;,xyin (see also
| s dng)
22, 30, 82, 83, 84
| h see||sh; ||lingh
, Hui fngyn same as )Huiy
) Huiy Hui dialect, also , Hui fngyn
56, 58, 61, 69, 75, 76, 83, 90, 137, 140,
142, 149, 155, 169, 173, 187, 189, 193,
194, 195, 198, 205, 217
{,l hnh fngynq mixed dialect areas (see also ,l
fngyn gudq)
34
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
,[, jintunyin sharp and rounded initials in Chinese
phonology; today sharp initials (,,
jinyin) include [ts-, ts-, s-] combined
with [i] or [y] medials or finals; rounded
initials ([, tunyin, also called [,
yunyin) include [t-, t-, -] combined
with [i] or [y] medials or finals
81, 217
,, jinyin see,[,jintunyin
], jiyin same as , yntu
, Jnfngyn same as )Jny
) Jny J in dialect, also,Jnfngyn
xi, 35, 43, 55, 56, 57, 61, 68, 74, 75, 81,
89, 90, 140, 142, 149, 155, 167, 168, 187,
189, 193, 194, 195, 198, 205, 215, 217,
220
, jiyin nine sounds the nine points of consonant
articulation in traditional phonology (see
also, wyin and , qiyin):
19
,, shyin lingual sounds, divided into:
18, 19, 20
1.,, shtuyin middle apical plosive, nasal and lateral
sounds
19, 20, 31
2.,, shshngyin dorsal plosive and nasal sounds
19, 20, 31
, chnyin labial sounds, divided into:
18, 20
3., zhngchn-yin bilabial sounds
18, 20, 30
4.j, qingchnyin labiodental sounds
18, 20, 28, 30
j, chiyin dental sounds, divided into:
18, 19, 20
5.j, chtuyin affricate and fricative apico-dental sounds
19, 20
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
6.j, zhngchyin affricate and fricative dorsal sounds
19, 20
7.;, yyin velar sounds
18, 20
8., huyin laryngeal sounds
18, 20
9.,,;
j,
bnshyin and
bnchyin
lateral sounds and dorsal sounds
18, 19, 20, 213
;| kikuh see||sh; ||lingh
| Khu same as |Kjihu
|, Kji fngyn same as |Kjihu
| Kjihu Hakka dialect, also|Khu, |)Ky,
|,Kjifngyn
xi, xii, 27, 31, 35, 36, 37, 39, 42, 43, 45,
46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
58, 59, 60, 61, 72, 73, 76, 84, 85, 86, 88,
90, 101, 114, 123, 141, 142, 149, 156,
164, 174, 175, 176, 177, 180, 187, 190,
194, 195, 200, 204, 205, 216, 217
|) Ky same as |Kjihu
|| lingh the two classes of syllables before the Ming
Dynasty period (see also ||sh):
xix, 21
1.;| kikuh without the medial nor the nucleus [u]
21
2.{| hkuh with [u] as the final or a final beginning with
[u]
21
)) lngshengm zero initial
15
|, Min fngyn same as |)Miny
|) Miny Min dialect, also |,Minfngyn

27, 31, 34, 35, 42, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,
52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 70
71, 8486, 90, 101, 104, 112, 114, 118,
123, 141, 142, 149, 156, 164, 172, 175,
178, 179, 180, 188, 191, 194, 195, 200,
205, 215, 216, 217
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
) pin see ,)fngyn pin
Pnghu Pinghua dialect
56, 58, 61, 72, 76, 87, 90, 130, 141, 142,
149, 155, 156, 164, 176, 187, 190, 192,
194, 195, 200, 205, 217
) pngsheng level tone, as opposed to )) zsheng (see
also|) ssheng)
17, 18
|j Ptnghu Putonghua (lit. common speech) the
national standard language of China
ix, xi, xii, xix, xx, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, 22,
24, 100, 104, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112,
113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121,
122, 124, 125, 133, 134, 137, 162, 165,
185, 186, 188, 192, 197, 201, 202, 204,
206, 208
, qiyin seven sounds the seven points of conso-
nant articulation in traditional phonology,
i.e. ,wyin (see) plus:
18
6. ,, bnshyin lateral sounds (see also ,jiyin)
18, 19, 20
7. j, bnchyin dorsal sounds (see also , jiyin)
18, 19, 20, 213
,j| qchih see||sh
qing accent (sub-patois) ( also ])c ty)
63
| qi see|fnqi
|, Qiyn one of the most important Chinese rhyme
books (, ynsh), compiled by Lu
Fayan in 601 A.D.
23, 91, 214
j, qingchnyin see,jiyin
jj qingdio same as j)qingsheng
j) qingsheng neutral tone; light tone, also jjqingdio
xi, 29, 31, 106
)) qing shengm voiceless initials
17
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
, qingyin voiceless sound, as opposed to , zhuyin
77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 89
qingzhu voiceless and voiced sounds (see also,
qingyin; ,zhuyin)
16, 92
l q see,lfngyn q
,) qsheng see|)ssheng
qunqing voiceless, unaspirated plosives, affricates and
fricatives (see also,qingyin)
19, 20
qunzhu voiced plosives, affricates and fricatives (see
also, zhuyin)
xix, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35, 46,
74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86,
87, 88, 89, 90, 192
) rsheng see|)ssheng
sndng the third of the four grades of traditional
finals, see |s dng
22, 26, 30, 82
) shngsheng see|)ssheng
,, shshngyin see,jiyin
,, shtuyin see,jiyin
,, shyin see, wyin; ,jiyin
| sh same as ,|ynsh
)j shengdio the tone of Chinese characters (alsoj
zdio)
15, 16
)) shengm initial (onset)
15, 16, 17
) shminy literary language; written language
121
) shsheng smooth tone, i.e. the level, rising and falling
tones, as opposed to j)csheng (see
also |)ssheng)
17, 18, 31, 88
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
| s dng the four grades of traditional finals, divided
according to the openness of the nucleus
and depending on the absence or pres-
ence of the vowel [i] as the medial
22, 30, 94, 214
| sdng the fourth of the four grades of traditional
finals, see |s dng
22, 30, 82
|| sh the four classes of syllables since the Ming
Dynasty period (see also || lingh):
xix, 2122
1.;| kikuh with sounds other than [i], [u], [y] as the
final
21, 22, 30, 84, 87, 88, 94
2.,j| qchih with [i] as the final or a final beginning with
[i]
21, 22, 87
3.{| hkuh with [u] as the final or a final beginning with
[u]
21, 22, 26, 29, 30, 85, 87, 94
4.]| cukuh with [y] as the final or a final beginning with
[y]
24, 33, 46, 93, 95
|) ssheng the four tones of classical Chinese
pronunciation:
16
1. ) pngsheng level tone
16, 17, 18, 23, 29, 31, 42, 43, 78, 80, 83,
87, 90
2. ) shngsheng rising tone
xi, 16, 17, 18, 23, 27, 29, 31, 43, 77, 78,
79, 80, 81, 83, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 96, 98,
191, 213
3. ,) qsheng falling tone
16, 17, 18, 24, 29, 42, 43, 77, 78, 79, 80,
81, 83, 87, 89, 92, 96, 98, 191
4. ) rsheng entering tone
xix, 16, 17, 18, 24, 26, 29, 30, 31, 35, 43,
74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89,
90, 93, 191, 192, 195
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
jj sngq fendio tone-aspiration division
32, 215
] stz non-standard characters (also ]sz), see
also, fngynz)
119
] sz same as ] stz
j, Tngyn a revised edition of |,Qiyn, written by
Sun Mian during the time of Tang Dy-
nasty
23, 214
) ty vernacular (patois)
63
[, tunyin see,[, jintunyin
)[, wnbi yd literary and colloquial variant pronunciations
29, 31, 36, 102, 119, 185, 206
, W fngyn same as )Wy
) Wy Wu dialect, also , Wfngyn
2, 27, 35, 37, 39, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48,
49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,
60, 61, 69, 75, 76, 8183, 90, 110, 114,
123, 140, 142, 143, 149, 155, 156, 157,
160, 161, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 187,
190, 193, 194, 195, 198, 199, 203, 205,
217
, wyin (literally: five sounds) the five points of
consonant articulation in traditional
phonology (see also,qiyin; ,
jiyin):
18
1. ;, yyin velar sounds
18, 20
2. ,, shyin lingual sounds
18, 19, 20
3. , chnyin labial sounds
18, 20
4. j, chyin dental sounds
18, 19, 20
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
5. , huyin laryngeal sounds
18, 20
;, xyin thin sound; the third grade (sndng)
and the fourth grade (|sdng) of fi-
nals as opposed to;,hngyin; see also
| s dng
22, 30, 82
, Xing fngyn same as )Xingy
) Xingy Xiang dialect, also ,Xing fngyn
27, 35, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 70, 84, 90, 101,
141, 142, 143, 149, 155, 164, 173, 187,
190, 192, 194, 195, 199, 205, 215216,
217
|, xiochng binyin phonetic changes of diminutives
31, 101102, 206
, xio fngyn dialect cluster (see also ,)fngyn
xiopin)
27
) xiopin see,) fngyn xiopin
] Xin Xing New Xiang dialect, see also )Xingy
54, 55, 61, 215
;, yyin see,wyin; ,jiyin
[ yngpng the yangping tone, see also |)ssheng
16, 17, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 89, 92, 96, 98,
101, 106, 188, 189, 190, 191
[, yngq the yangqu tone
16, 17, 75, 92, 96, 101, 106, 188, 189,
190, 191
[ yngr the yangru tone
xi, 16, 17, 87, 88, 92, 96, 101, 106, 188,
189, 190, 191
[ yngshng the yangshang tone
16, 17, 92, 96, 101, 106, 188, 189, 190,
191
yidng the first of the four grades of traditional
finals, see |s dng
22, 30, 82, 84, 87
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
, yinji syllable (also ,yinzhu)
15
,, yinynxu see ),, Hny yinynxu
, yinzhu same as ,yinji
| yinpng the yinping tone, see also |)ssheng
16, 17, 27, 31, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 88, 89,
90, 92, 96, 98, 101, 106, 188, 189, 190,
191
|, yinq the yinqu tone
16, 17, 75, 92, 96, 101, 106, 188, 189,
190, 191
| yinr the yinru tone
16, 17, 87, 88, 92, 96, 101, 106, 188, 189,
190, 191
| yinshng the yinshang tone
16, 17, 92, 96, 101, 106, 188, 189, 190,
191
), yyn language
1
, Yu fngyn same as )Yuy
) Yuy Yue dialect, also , Yufngyn
2, 27, 31, 34, 35, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48,
49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60,
61, 71, 73, 76, 87, 90, 112, 114, 118, 119,
123, 141, 142, 143, 149, 156, 164, 170,
176, 177, 180, 187, 188, 191, 194, 195,
200, 205, 217
, yn rhyme
21, 23, 84, 214
,; ynb rhyme category
21
,] ynf nucleus (the essential vowel of a final, nu-
clear vowel) (also ],zhyo
yunyin)
15, 16
, ynli full rhyme
21, 22, 214
Chinese term Pinyin
transcription
English translation
Page no.
,) ynm final
15, 16
,| ynsh rhyme group (also | sh)
xi, xx, 21, 24, 82, 88, 94
, ynsh rhyme book
2324
, yntu medial (the head vowel of a final, nuclear
vowel) (also ],jiyin)
15, 16
, ynwi coda (the ending of a final, tail vowel)
15, 16
)) zsheng oblique tone, i.e. the rising tone ()
shngsheng), falling tone (,)qsheng)
and entering tone ()rsheng), as op-
posed to the level tone () pngsheng).
See also |)ssheng.
17, 18, 87, 90
j, zhngchyin see,jiyin
,, zhnggyin Middle Chinese, a period in the history of the
Chinese language, the time of the Sui, Tang
and Song Dynasties (sixth tenth century
A.D.)
ix, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 42, 43, 46,
74, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,
85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 101, 105,
188, 192, 205, 208, 213, 215
, zhngchnyin see, jiyin
], zhyo yunyin same as ,]ynf
)) zhu shengm voiced initial
17
, zhuyin voiced sound as opposite to ,qingyin
78, 84
) zm a character representing an initial consonant
in ),,Hny yinynxu
xi, xix, xx, 19, 20, 28, 29, 31, 32, 43, 82,
83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 94, 95

Index of personal names
Anshen, Frank, 11, 221

Bai Dizhou )],, 47
Bai Wanru );, 120, 129, 177,
221
Bao Houxing [), 121, 129, 173,
216, 217, 221, 222
Bao Shijie [,, 129, 171, 222,
226
Bian Chenglin j[, 130, 236,
176
Bussman, Hadumod, 1, 222

Cai Guolu ]j, 129, 169, 195,
219, 223
Cai Yeqing , 130, 179, 180,
245
Cai Yongfei , 226
Cao Zhiyun , 57, 58, 130,
172, 217, 223, 245
Ceng Shiying , 47, 225
Chambers, J. K., 1, 135, 223
Chao, Yuen Ren, see Zhao Yuanren
Chen Fengying |j, 128, 204,
223
Chen Hongmai |,j, 104, 129,
180, 218, 223
Chen Hui ||, 217, 222
Chen Pengnian |j+, 23
Chen Ruli |], 229
Chen Songcen ||, 220, 242
Chen Xiaojin ||), 129, 177, 178,
220, 223, 244
Chen Yunlong |., 232
Chen Zhangtai |, 10, 13, 52,
224, 231, 235
Chen Zhongmin |, 130, 172,
238
Chen, Matthew Y. (|]; Chen
Yuanquan), 218, 223
Chew Cheng Hai )[ (Zhou
Qinghai), 220, 242, 248
Chomsky, Noam, 2, 224
Ceng Yiping , 232
Crystal, David, 2, 4, 213, 224
Cui Zhenhua |', 129, 222
Dai Qingxia ,, 216, 220, 224
Dai Zhaoming ,l), 158, 221,
224
Dao Bu , 4, 10, 11, 224
DeFrancis, John, 2, 51, 215, 224
225
DeLancey, Scott, 4, 225
Deng Xiaohua /|', 217, 234
Ding Bangxin (Ting Pang-Hsin)
|], 2527, 29, 35, 36, 57, 58,
74, 214, 216, 225, 226
Ding Shengshu )|, 47, 51, 99,
107, 108, 119, 120, 123, 136,
225
Ding Wenjiang , 47, 225
Dong Shaoke ,, 218, 226
Dong Tonghe (Tung Tung-ho) ]
j|, 26, 47, 5051, 226
Duanmu, San Z, 102, 213, 214,
218, 226

Egerod, Sren, 215, 226

Fang Songxi |, 226
Feng Aizhen ], 129, 178, 179,
226
Feng Chuntian ]!, 18, 214, 226
Forrest, Robert Andrew Dermod, 26,
35, 50, 60, 215, 226
Fu Guotong ]]j, 217, 226

267
Fu Zuozhi ],, 226
Gan Yuen |, 150, 220, 226
Gao Benhan|7, see
Karlgren, Bernhard
Gao Mingkai |(|, 1, 227
Gao Ran |, 2, 34, 227
Ge Jianxiong [!, 160, 161, 227
Geng Zhensheng ]|, 15, 16, 19,
21, 22, 24, 106, 213, 214, 233
Gu Qian [", 110, 237
Gu Yang [[, 220, 224
Guo, Longsheng, 13

Ha Mawan ), 220, 227
He Gengyong ]], 1, 217, 227
He Wei , 125, 130, 165, 216,
217, 228
Hirata Shoji !;), 169
Hong Bo ;, 220, 228
Hou Jingyi ]|, 58, 75, 76, 150,
151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156,
216, 217, 220, 228
Hu Guangbin ), 218, 229
Hu Huibin ), 162, 229
Hua Xuecheng '}, 234
Huang Borong ,|, 122, 123,
124, 218, 229, 244
Huang Diancheng ,3}, 217, 229
Huang Jiajiao ,{, 231, 244
Huang Jilin ,[, 131, 160, 239
Huang Jinghu ,, 96, 97, 98, 99,
100, 101, 103, 104, 107, 111,
112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118,
119, 120, 121, 126, 217, 218,
229
Huang Qunjian ,, 218, 229
Huang Shangjun ,, 129, 162,
163, 233
Huang Xing ,|, 213, 241
Huang Xuezhen ,, 130, 176,
217, 229

Jin Xinxin ]], 121, 229
Jin Youjing |, 121, 229

Knstler, Mieczyslaw Jerzy, 55, 216,
230
Kurpaska, Maria, 213, 230

Lewis, M. Paul, 249, 250
Li Bing )|, 218, 230
Li Fanggui (Fang-kuei Li) |, 8,
25, 26, 49, 60, 227, 230
Li Jian j, 232
Li Jinxi \)[, 4041, 216, 230
Li Lan ,, 220, 230
Li Lianjin , 217, 230
Li Rong ,4, 5, 25, 35, 37, 47, 51,
5556, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63, 64,
65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
74, 75, 76, 89, 90, 99, 100, 115,
120, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129,
131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 148,
157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162,
163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168,
169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174,
175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180,
192, 195, 214, 215, 216, 218,
219, 225, 231, 246
Li Rulong ;, 10, 13, 24, 25, 27,
2932, 33, 35, 52, 57, 58, 63,
75, 76, 95, 111, 112, 114, 118,
130, 178, 214, 217, 218, 220,
231232, 235, 244, 250
Li Shuyan |), 131, 166, 232
Li Sijing ], 214, 232
Li Xiaofan ), 25, 34, 35, 58,
74, 75, 215, 232
Li Xinkui ][, 213, 233
Li Yuming |, 218, 233
Li, Fang-kuei, see Li Fanggui
Lian Chunzhao ,|, 232
Liang Deman j, 129, 162, 163,
233

268
Liang Min , 217, 220, 233
Liang Yougang |, 68, 216, 218,
233
Liang Yuan , 18, 214, 226
Liang Yuzhang ;52, 235
Lin Dao [,, 15, 16, 19, 21, 22, 24,
106, 213, 214, 233
Lin Hansheng [, 217, 233
Lin Lifang [, 218, 249
Lin, Yen-Hwei, 2, 214, 233
Liu Cunhan [|, 130, 164, 165,
192, 234
Liu Danqing [), 130, 161, 162,
234
Liu Junhui [(, 1, 234
Liu Lihua [', 130, 173, 242
Liu Shuxue [, 216, 234
Liu Xiaonan [|, 209, 234
Liu Xinzhong [], 216, 234
Liu Zhenfa [,, 220, 234
Liu Zhicheng [j, 19, 21, 213,
214, 234
Lo Chang-pei, see Luo Changpei
Lu Fayan },, 23
Lu Guoyao ], 209, 234
L Jiping ,, 10, 12, 235
L Shuxiang , 5152, 250
L Yongwei ,, 131, 159, 160,
238
Luo Changpei (Lo Chang-pei)
;), 5152, 169, 227, 250
Luo Futeng |}, 130, 159, 234
Luo Meizhen , 217, 234

Majewicz, Alfred Franciszek, 4, 235
Miyata Ichiro !F, 58, 219,
242
Mu Linde |j, see von
Mllendorf, Paul Georg

Norman, Jerry, 2, 33, 35, 36, 49, 56
57, 58, 61, 235

Pan Jiayi (, 216, 235
Pan Maoding (,, 5253, 58, 61,
235
Pan Weishui (, 130, 178, 232
Peng Fengshu j, 217, 235
Poole, Stuart C., 213, 235

Qi Xiaojie g|,, 229
Qian Dianxiang ,, 232
Qian Huiying ,, 218, 235
Qian Nairong ,], 217, 235
Qian Zengyi ,,, 130, 158, 159,
235
Qiao Quansheng }, 217, 236
Qin Yuanxiong j!, 130, 176,
216, 217, 232, 236
Qiu Yong 1, 23

Ramsey, S. Robert, 9, 236
Robins, Robert H., 213, 236
Rong Wenmin , 128
Ruhlen, Merrit, 4, 213, 236

Shen Ming |, 131, 168, 217, 237
Shen Ruoyun {., 129, 222
Shen Zhongwei ), 228, 237
Sheng Yan ,j, 220, 237
Shi Anshi , 1, 227
Shi Feng , 228, 237
Shi Guanxin ], 229
Shi Rujie ],110, 237
Shou Wen , 19
Simmons, Richard VanNess [Shi
Haoyuan ([)], 110,
237
Song Xinqiao ]|, 10, 237
Stauffer, Milton Theobald, 38, 59,
237
Su Xiaoqing j|, 131, 159, 160,
238
Sun Lindong )[, 229

269
Sun Mian )j, 214
Tan Dazheng ,,, 10, 238
Tang Zhenzhu , 130, 238,
172
Tang Zuofan j,, 19, 21, 22, 24,
213, 214, 238
Tao Huan |, 130, 170, 241
Tewksbury, Malcolm Gardner, 38,
237
Ting Pang-Hsin, see Ding Bangxin
Trudgill, Peter, 1, 135, 223
Tung Tung-ho, see Dong Tonghe

von Mllendorf, Paul Georg Mu
Linde |j, 37, 59, 215

Wang Futang |, 25, 27, 34, 38,
40, 41, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 57,
58, 74, 75, 76, 121, 150, 207,
218, 220, 232, 238
Wang Guosheng ;]], 202, 209,
238
Wang Hui |, 224, 229
Wang Jun |, 220, 238239
Wang Junhu , 131, 165, 239
Wang Li , 15, 19, 21, 23, 25,
4147, 59, 60, 150, 151, 152,
153, 154, 155, 213, 214, 215,
226, 239
Wang Ping ;, 129, 163, 164, 213,
239
Wang Shihua ', 131, 160, 239
Wei Gangqiang ,, 130, 174,
240
Wei Shuguan |, 130, 176, 236
Wen Duanzheng ], 58, 75, 131,
168, 215, 240
Weng Wenhao , 47, 225
Wong, Tsinforn C., 38, 237
Wu Jiansheng , 131, 167, 240
Wu Songdi |, 160, 161, 181,
227
Wu Wei j, 58, 76, 217, 240
Wu Xinxian ]], 130, 172, 238
Wu Yingjun j, 216, 240
Wu Yunji j., 129, 222
Wu Zongji _, 47

Xie Liuwen j, 131, 175, 217,
219, 241
Xie Qiyong ,, 216, 241
Xing Xiangdong )], 218, 220,
241
Xiong Zhenghui ]', 62, 128,
130, 174, 241
Xu Baohua .', 130, 170, 232,
241, 242, 244
Xu Daming ],|, 220, 242
Xu Hui ], 232
Xu Shirong ], 101, 242
Xu Zongwen ]_, 128

Yan Qinghui , 130, 173, 242
Yan Sen {, 36, 57, 130, 175, 216,
222, 242
Yan Yiming |, 217, 242
Yan, Margaret Mian, 1, 2, 15, 26, 27,
40, 47, 59, 125, 128, 242
Yang Gang |,, 234
Yang Ganming ||, 131, 135,
172, 243
Yang Muzhi ||, 128
Yang Shifeng (Yang Shih-Feng) |
}, 47, 169
Yang Shih-Feng, see Yang Shifeng
Yang Shumin |, 18, 214, 226
Yang Xiong |!, 1
Ye Xiangling ;, 130, 171, 242
Yin Shichao ], 130, 158, 242
Ying Yutian ]!, 218, 242
You Rujie ],, 1, 4, 10, 13, 16,
19, 24, 25, 27, 33, 37, 38, 39,
55, 58, 61, 63, 77, 78, 79, 80,
81, 83, 84, 87, 88, 96, 97, 100,

270
101, 103, 105, 106, 107, 119,
120, 121, 122, 126, 131, 135,
150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 172,
204, 207, 214, 216, 217, 218,
220, 243, 248
You Wenliang |, 216, 243
Yu Aiqin _), see Yue-
Hashimoto, Anne O.
Yuan Jiahua ([, 1, 26, 35, 49,
52, 5355, 56, 58, 61, 150, 151,
152, 153, 154, 155, 215, 217,
230, 243
Yue-Hashimoto Oi-kan Anne, see
Yue-Hashimoto, Anne O.
Yue-Hashimoto, Anne O. (Yu Aiqin;
Yue-Hashimoto Oi-kan Anne)
_), 124, 125, 232, 243
Yule, George, 213, 243

Zhai Shiyu j}], 106, 243
Zhan Bohui |, 1, 16, 25, 26,
27, 2829,32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37, 38, 40, 41, 49, 51, 57, 58,
74, 75, 76, 92, 93, 96, 97, 98,
99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 107,
109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122,
123, 124, 126, 129, 150, 151,
152, 153, 154, 155, 177, 178,
216, 217, 218, 231, 244
Zhang Ansheng ), 131, 166,
232
Zhang Binglin ) (Zhang
Taiyan j), 3738, 216,
245
Zhang Chengcai )j|, 131, 166,
244
Zhang Guangming )|, 131, 168,
240
Zhang Huiying ), 129, 169,
170, 244
Zhang Junru )|;, 217, 220, 233
Zhang Shengyu ),|, 52, 218,
232, 235, 244
Zhang Shifang ), 218, 244
Zhang Shuzheng )|), 218, 244
Zhang Taiyan j, see Zhang
Binglin )
Zhang Zhenxing )|, 62, 63, 68,
74, 75, 76, 90, 128, 130, 131,
132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 179,
180, 197, 209, 213, 217, 220,
241, 245
Zhang Zhimin ), 216, 245
Zhao Hongyin , 131, 167,
240
Zhao Rixin ], 76, 128, 130,
137, 169, 217, 218, 245, 246
Zhao Yuanren (Yuen Ren Chao)
|, xii, 2, 25, 47, 49, 50, 60,
75, 121, 169, 215, 218, 223,
227, 246
Zheng Dingou , 220, 246
Zhengzhang Shangfang ),
226
Zhou Changji )||, 131, 179, 217,
247, 248
Zhou Dianfu )[|, 106, 248
Zhou Fang ), 128
Zhou Lei ), 131, 167, 217, 248
Zhou Qinghai )[ see Chew
Cheng Hai
Zhou Qingsheng ), 4, 12, 14,
248
Zhou Zhenhe )|y, 55, 61, 216,
248
Zhou Zuyao )), 218, 249
Zhu Jiansong , 131, 162, 249
Zhuang Chusheng |), 218, 232,
249
Zou Jiayan j, 4, 58, 220, 249
Zou Xiaoli |, 19, 21, 213, 214,
249
Index of Chinese place names
The index includes Chinese place names which are mentioned in the book, it does
not cover the pages of the References and Appendices. The names of the forty two
dialect localities of The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects are given in
boldface.
Anhui , 40, 41, 47, 48, 49, 66,
67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 137, 146,
169
Anji , 68
Anqing , 40, 44
Aomen, see Macau ]
Beijing ;, xi, xii, xix, 2, 10, 13,
51, 53, 57, 64, 77, 78, 79, 80,
81, 85, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 96,
97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105,
106, 113, 116, 117, 137, 139,
142, 146, 148, 151, 155, 156,
158, 162, 170, 186, 209, 215,
219
Bobai ]), 45
Caozhou |, 38
Chang J iang |, see Yangtze River
Changle|;, 68
Changsha |;, 114, 115, 129, 135,
141, 147, 153, 155, 173, 181,
182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190,
194, 196, 199, 201
Changshu ;;, 41, 115
Changxing |, 68
Changzhou ;|, 38, 40, 41, 44
Chaoshan ;, 48, 55, 60, 71
Chaozhou |, 37, 42, 44, 113, 117,
154
Chengdu j, 129, 138, 139, 147,
151, 162163, 181, 184, 185,
187, 188, 191, 192, 193, 196,
197
Chongming Dao |_, see
Chongming Island
Chongming Island (|_
Chongming Dao), 54, 170
Chongming |, 129, 135, 138,
140, 147, 152, 169170, 182,
185, 187, 190, 193, 196, 198
Chongqing , 146, 148
Chuzhou |, 44, 69
Da Yunhe,j], see Grand Canal
Dabu ,, 42, 45
Danyang )[, 41, 129, 138, 140,
147, 152, 169, 182, 184, 187,
190, 193, 196, 198, 201, 219
Danzhou j|, 73, 216
Dianbai ), 45
Dihua (old name for rmqi
_Z,), 167
Dongbei , see Northeast China
Dongguan , 44, 129, 135, 138,
141, 146, 154, 177178, 183,
185, 187, 191, 194, 196, 200
Enping, 44
Fengshun =[, 45
Fujian|, 37, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47,
52, 54, 55, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
84, 85, 146, 172, 174, 175,
Index of Chinese place names 272
176, 178, 179
Fuzhou ||, 175
Fuzhou ||, 37, 39, 44, 47, 105,
129, 132, 138, 141, 146, 154,
155, 178179, 181, 183, 184,
185, 188, 191, 194, 196, 200,
201
Gansu |, 5, 6, 7, 37, 40, 41, 43,
66, 146, 148, 166
Ganzhou y|, 175
Gaoyao |], 45
Gaozhou ||, 42, 45
Grand Canal (,j]Da Yunhe),
160, 171
Guangde j, 67, 68
Guangdong , 6, 37, 41, 42, 45,
46, 47, 52, 54, 55, 61, 70, 71,
72, 73, 146, 164, 174, 176,
177, 179, 180
Guangxi , 5, 6, 38, 40, 41, 42,
44, 45, 46, 47, 54, 59, 67, 68,
70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 146, 164,
176
Guangxin ], 38
Guangzhou |, 39, 111, 112, 113,
115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120,
129, 132, 135, 141, 146, 154,
155, 177, 181, 182, 185, 187,
188, 191, 194, 200, 201
Guanyang ][, 54
Guixian , 45
Guiyang [, 129, 135, 139, 146,
151, 163164, 181, 185, 187,
189, 192, 193, 196, 197, 198,
201
Guizhou |, 5, 6, 38, 40, 41, 44,
46, 54, 66, 73, 138, 146, 163,
173
Gutian ,!, 44
Haerbin, see Harbin ]
Haikang [j, 55
Haikou [, 129, 135, 138, 141,
146, 154, 180, 183, 184, 188,
191, 194, 200, 201
Haimen [], 54
Hainan Dao [_, see Hainan
Island
Hainan Island ([_ Hainan Dao),
39, 47, 180
Hainan [, 39, 42, 47, 48, 55, 59,
60, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 104,
146, 180
Hangzhou Bay (||]Hangzhou
Wan), 172
Hangzhou Wan ||], see
Hangzhou Bay
Hangzhou ||, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44,
59, 69, 129, 135, 140, 143,
147, 152, 171, 182, 185, 186,
187, 190, 191, 193, 196, 199,
201
Hankou , 162
Hanyang [, 162
Harbin ](Haerbin), 130,
135, 138, 146, 151, 158, 180,
181, 184, 185, 187, 189, 191,
193, 196, 197, 201, 204, 219
Hebei ], 37, 40, 41, 43, 64, 65,
68, 109, 146, 148
Hefei {|, 151, 155
Heilongjiang ;, 6, 64, 146,
158
Henan ], 37, 40, 41, 43, 66, 68,
146, 165
Heyuan ], 45
Hohhot ||| (Huhehaote), 152
Hong Kong (Xianggang), 146,
148, 154, 156, 179, 207, 209
Huai He, see Huai River
Huai River (]]Huai He), 38, 40
Huaiqing , 37
Huaxian , 45
Hubei , 5, 37, 40, 41, 43, 46, 47,
53, 66, 67, 70, 147, 162, 164
Huhehaote, see Hohhot |||
Huiyang [, 42, 45
Huizhou |, 38, 44, 48, 49, 51, 60,
69, 72, 142
Hunan , 5, 6, 37, 40, 41, 43, 44,
45, 46, 47, 52, 54, 61, 67, 70,
72, 73, 147, 163, 164, 173,
174
Huzhou |, 38, 40, 42, 44, 47
Inner Mongolia (],
Neimenggu), 6, 8, 64, 68, 147,
148
Jianou , 130, 141, 146, 154,
178, 183, 188, 194, 200
J iangsu j, 40, 41, 42, 46, 52, 54,
61, 66, 67, 69, 70, 128, 147,
159, 160, 161, 169, 170, 171
J iangxi , 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45,
46, 47, 52, 54, 61, 69, 70, 72,
73, 147, 174, 175, 176
J iangyin |, 42
J iankang j (old name for
Nanjing ;), 161
J ianning , 39
J ianyang [, 39
J iaoling ), 45
J iaxing, 38, 40, 42, 44
J ilin [, 6, 64, 147, 148
Jinan , 116, 130, 135, 139, 147,
151, 158159, 181, 185, 186,
187, 189, 191, 193, 196, 197,
201
J ingjiang _, 54
J ingxian , 67
Jinhua ', 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 130,
135, 140, 147, 152, 172173,
182, 184, 185, 187, 190, 194,
196, 199, 201
J intan|, 41
J inyang [ (old name for Taiyuan
)), 168
J iujiang , 40, 44, 46, 53
Jixi , 75, 128, 130, 135, 137,
138, 140, 146, 153, 155, 169,
182, 186, 187, 189, 191, 193,
195, 196, 198, 201, 218
Kaifeng ;|, 37, 38
Kaiping ;, 44
Kunming |, 116, 151
Kunshan , 41, 44
Langxi F, 68
Lanzhou |, 151
Leizhou Bandao,|_, see
Leizhou Peninsula
Leizhou Peninsula (,|_
Leizhou Bandao), 55, 71, 180
Leizhou ,|, 45, 55, 71, 86, 130,
141, 146, 154, 179180, 183,
185, 186, 188, 191, 194, 196,
200, 201, 216
Lianxian , 45
Lianzhou||, 42, 45
Liaoning , 6, 64, 65, 147, 148
Lichuan \), 67, 130, 141, 147,
153, 175, 182, 185, 187, 190,
194, 196, 200
Liuzhou ||, 130, 135, 138, 140,
146, 151, 164165, 180, 182,
184, 185, 187, 189, 191, 192,
193, 195, 197, 198, 201, 204
Liyang ][, 41
Longchuan ), 45
Longmen Dao ]_, see Longmen
Island
Longmen Island (]_Longmen
Dao), 68
Loudi [, 130, 135, 141, 147, 153,
173, 182, 186, 187, 190, 192,
194, 196, 199, 201
Luoding , 45
Luoning , 80
Luoyang [, 130, 138, 139, 146,
151, 165, 182, 184, 187, 189,
193, 196, 198, 201
Macau] (Aomen), 147, 148, 156,
179, 207, 209
Meixian ], 42, 45, 113, 114, 120,
130, 138, 141, 146, 154, 155,
156, 176, 181, 182, 185, 187,
190, 194, 196, 200
Meizhou ]|, 176
Mianchi 80
Min J iang|, see Min River
Min River (|Min Jiang), 178
Muping ", 130, 139, 147, 151,
159, 181, 185, 187, 189, 191,
193, 196, 197, 201
Nanchang ;, 117, 130, 135, 141,
147, 153, 155, 174, 181, 182,
184, 185, 187, 190, 191, 194,
196, 199, 201
Nanfang |, 37
Nanhai [, 44
Nanjing ;, 40, 44, 130, 135, 138,
140, 147, 151, 161162, 163,
181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189,
191, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197
Nanning , 130, 138, 141, 146,
154, 155, 156, 176, 180, 182,
185, 187, 190, 192, 194, 200,
201, 204
Nanping , 68, 178
Nantong j, 54
Nanyang Qundao ,_ (areas
south beyond the South China
Sea), 45
Neimenggu ],, see Inner
Mongolia
Ningbo , 37, 38, 39, 42, 44, 130,
138, 140, 147, 152, 170, 172,
182, 184, 185, 187, 190, 191,
193, 196, 199, 201
Ningguo ], 38, 44, 67, 68
Ningxia , 66, 147, 166
Northeast China (Dongbei), 43,
64, 77, 158
Panyu (, 44
Pingxiang ,, 130, 135, 138, 141,
147, 153, 174, 182, 184, 185,
186, 187, 190, 192, 194, 196,
200
Pingyao j, 152
Qidong ), 54
Qingdao _, 151
Qinghai [, 5, 6, 7, 66, 147, 166
Qinzhou ||, 42, 45, 68
Qiongzhou )|, 44, 104, 218
Quanzhou |, 54
Qujiang ,, 45
Quzhou @|, 38, 41, 42, 44
Raozhou ||, 38
Ronghe ], 167
Rongxian {, 45
Runing ], 37
Ruyuan , 45
Samkong, see Sanjiang
Sanjiang (Samkong), 39
Shaanxi |, 37, 40, 41, 43, 47, 66,
67, 68, 147, 165
Shandong Bandao_, see
Shandong Peninsula
Shandong Peninsula (_
Shandong Bandao), 159
Shandong , 37, 38, 40, 41, 43,
65, 66, 124, 147, 158, 159
Shanghai [, 2, 37, 39, 41, 44, 69,
113, 115, 130, 138, 140, 147,
152, 153, 155, 170, 181, 182,
184, 185, 187, 190, 193, 196,
199, 201, 217, 219
Shantou ;, 39, 42, 44, 47, 154
Shanxi , 37, 40, 41, 43, 66, 68,
147, 167, 168
Shaowu (, 39
Shaoxing ,, 38, 44
Shenyang [, 112
Shexian ,, 137, 153, 156
Shuangfeng , 113, 153, 155
Shunde [j, 44
Sichuan |), 5, 38, 40, 41, 44, 45,
46, 47, 53, 54, 66, 147, 163
Songjiang |, 38, 40, 41
Suzhou j|, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44,
113, 119, 130, 138, 140, 147,
152, 153, 155, 170, 171, 181,
182, 184, 185, 187, 190, 193,
199, 201
Taibei , 154
Taicang , 38
Taishan , 44, 45
Taiwan Haixia ][#, see
Taiwan Strait
Taiwan Strait (][#Taiwan
Haixia), 179
Taiwan ], 4, 7, 9, 47, 54, 55, 58,
70, 72, 147, 148, 156, 179,
207, 209, 220
Taiyuan ), 131, 138, 140, 147,
151, 152, 155, 168, 181, 182,
184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 193,
196, 198, 201
Taizhou |, 39, 44, 69, 140
Taoyuan |, 154, 156
Tianjin ,, 64, 65, 147, 148, 151,
161
Tianjing ; (old name for Nanjing
;), 161
Tibet (j Xizang), 5, 9, 147, 148,
166
Tibetan A.R. j|;lXizang
Zizhiqu, see Tibet
Tingzhou ;|, 39, 42, 72, 142
Tunxi , 153, 156
rmqi _Z,(Wulumuqi), 131,
135, 139, 147, 151, 152, 167,
180, 182, 185, 186, 187, 188,
189, 191, 193, 196, 198, 201,
204
Wanquan ];, 167
Wanrong ], 131, 138, 139, 147,
151, 167, 182, 185, 186, 187,
188, 189, 193, 196, 198, 201
Weihai [, 159
Weihui ', 37
Wenchang ;, 44, 71
Wenzhou |, 37, 39, 42, 44, 55,
101, 117, 131, 135, 140, 147,
152, 153, 155, 172, 182, 184,
185, 187, 190, 194, 196, 199
Wu (old name for Suzhou j|),
171
Wuchang ;, 162
Wuhan , 115, 131, 135, 138,
139, 147, 151, 152, 162, 181,
184, 185, 187, 189, 191, 192,
193, 196, 197, 201
Wuhu , 40, 44
Wuhua ', 45
Wulumuqi, see rmqi _Z,
Wuxi ,, 41, 44
Wuzhou ||, 45
Xian , 131, 139, 147, 151, 152,
165, 182, 187, 189, 193, 198
Xiamen Dao]_, see Xiamen
Island
Xiamen Island (]_Xiamen
Dao), 179
Xiamen ], 39, 44, 47, 112, 118,
131, 135, 141, 146, 154, 155,
179, 181, 183, 184, 186, 188,
191, 194, 196, 200, 201
Xianggang, see Hong Kong
Xiangtan], 153
Xinan J iang ], see Xinan
River
Xinan River (]Xinan Jiang),
69
Xingan , 54
Xinghua , 39
Xingning , 42, 45
Xinhui ], 44
Xining , 131, 132, 135, 138,
139, 147, 152, 166, 180, 182,
184, 186, 187, 189, 191, 193,
195, 196, 198, 201, 204
Xinjiang ]], 6, 7, 8, 40, 64, 66,
147, 167
Xinzhou |, 131, 135, 138, 140,
147, 152, 168, 182, 187, 189,
193, 196, 198, 201
Xuancheng ,, 67, 68, 169
Xuwen ], 55
Xuzhou ]|, 131, 135, 138, 139,
147, 152, 159160, 181, 184,
185, 187, 189, 191, 193, 196,
197, 201
Yangjiang [, 154
Yangtze River (|Chang Jiang),
37, 38, 46, 53, 54, 67, 160,
161, 171
Yangyu ,|, 68
Yangzhou ||, 44, 115, 131, 140,
147, 151, 152, 160, 181, 184,
185, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192,
193, 195, 196, 197, 201
Yantai ), 159
Yanzhou |, 38, 41, 44, 69, 140
Yinchuan |), 131, 135, 139, 147,
152, 166, 180, 182, 185, 186,
187, 189, 193, 196, 198, 204
Yingtianfu ] (old name for
Nanjing ;), 161, 163
Yixing , 41
Yizhou ,|, 38
Yongkang ,j, 152, 155
Yudu , 131, 142, 147, 154, 156,
175, 182, 186, 187, 190, 194,
196, 200
Yulin )[, 45
Yunan ), 45
Yuncheng j,, 167
Yunfu .,, 45
Yunnan ., 5, 6, 7, 38, 40, 41, 44,
46, 47, 53, 66, 147, 148
Yuyao _, 44
Zaozhuang , 124
Zhangde j, 37
Zhangzhou ;|, 37, 44
Zhanjiang ,, 179
Zhejiang ,, 38, 40, 41, 42, 46, 52,
54, 55, 61, 68, 69, 70, 72, 147,
155, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174
Zhengzhou |, 152
Zhenjiang ,, 37, 40, 44, 46, 53,
54, 169
Zhili , (old name for ]
Hebei), 37, 40
Zhongshan , 44
Zhoushan Archipelago ()_
Zhoushan Qundao), 55
Zhoushan Qundao )_, see
Zhoushan Archipelago
Zhuji ,, 42
Ziyuan, 54

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