How to Solve Genetics Problems.

Here are some detailed rules that should help you to be able to solve genetics problems. Use pencil so that you can change information in a neat manner when you gain some new insight. 1. Read the problem and figure out what alleles are involved. Write down the symbols for the alleles, or define some symbols. 2. Figure out what phenotypes will result from each allele in the homo ygous state. Write this down. !. Figure out what phenotypes will result from each combination of alleles "in the hetero ygous state#. Write this down. "$ table may be useful when multiple alleles are involved.# %. &etermine the genotypes and phenotypes of the parents and offspring of a cross, or of each individual in a pedigree. 'his information may be given, or you may need to figure it out based on the given information. For e(ample, if this is a test cross, one parent will be hetero ygous, and the other will be homo ygous recessive. &efinitely write this information down. ). Figure out the gametes that can be produced by each parent. "'his information will also give you the probability of each gamete occurring.# Write this down near the genotype for each parent. *. +et up a ,unnett s-uare, use probabilities, or use the for./line method to figure out the genotypic fre-uencies for each type of offspring from a cross involving these parents. ,unnett s-uares are too cumbersome for crosses involving more than two genes "loci#, so use probabilities or the for./line method with multiple genes0loci. "+how your wor., as you are li.ely to earn partial credit if you have the wrong answer because of a mista.e along the way.# 1. Figure out the phenotypes for each genotype determined in step *. Write these near the corresponding genotypes. Use the rule of addition to calculate the phenotypic fre-uencies for each possible phenotype. 2. 3ou can sometimes chec. your wor. if you notice that the cross is one that you .now something about. For e(ample, the phenotypic fre-uencies among offspring of a test cross should be 1.4 or 4.)54.). ,henotypes of offspring for a dihybrid cross of two hetero ygotes should be observed in a 65!5!51 ratio. 7f there are two loci involved, even with modifying factors li.e epistasis going on, phenotypic fre-uencies will be in 8si(teenths9 "e.g., 601* one phenotype and 101* another# 6. $lways be sure to label your wor. as you go along. 'his will help you to .eep things straight, and aid your instructor in assessing your s.ill at solving genetics problems. :(amples of useful labels5 ,arental genotypes ; ,arental phenotypes ; ,ossible gametes5 F1 genotypes5 F1 phenotypes5 ,henotypic fre-uencies5 14. &o not panic. 'hese problems involve straightforward logic once you understand how inheritance wor.s. <e sure that you are comfortable with the chromosomal basis of inheritance "chapter 2# and =endel>s laws "chapter !#. Familiari e yourselves with other factors that may influence phenotypic outcomes "chapter %#. 'hen ?ust practice as many problems as it ta.es to gain confidence. "'he answers for many even/numbered problems are given in the bac. of the te(t.#