Africaq Influence in the Americas--six key concepts

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religioru
mu,slc

West Africans developed complex religions based on oral tradition, ancestor worship, musical rituals, and spirit possession by a variety of gods. Islam, a very different faith based on one god and a holy book, was introduced by Arab invasions in 1050, Both were well established in West Africa when European contacts began in the 1400s.

The Yoruba-speaking people of today's Nigeria created a sacred music tradition using drums and call-and-response singing. Subtly shifting p atterns, polythythms (different rhythms overlapping and synchroni zng) and melodic "conversations" between the three drums are highly developed in this tradition.

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slave trade

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The Atlantic slave trade, begun in 1505, became big business. by the 1600s. Europeans armed self-serving African kings, who were able to provide very large numbers of captives for sale as slaves. People were held in grim coastal forts, then loaded onto filthy, crowded ships where one in ten perished. The trade was outlawed by the major European powers by
1815.

economic presence

M{
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culrural survival & innovation

European colonialists introduced modern plantations producing a single crop for export. Enslaved Africans cultivated the crops, loaded the boats, and worked in the skilled trades. These ten million Africans and their descendants created the agricultural wealth of the Americas. Today the 100 million persons of African descent in our hemisphere participate in every kind of work, but are largely excluded from economic power and decision-making positions.

The influence of African culture is widespread in the Americas. A dramatic example is the survival of the West African religions in modem practices such as Cuban Santeria and HaitiarrVodun (Voodoo). The sacred drums also inspired Camaval and party rhythms --the salsa, samba, and hip-hop of today. African influences are also widespread in language and folklore.

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freedom struggle

Africans resisted slavery fiercely. The island colonies experienced periodic and bloody slave revolts, some of which won limited goals. The greatest of these rebellions was that of Haiti, declared a free republic in 1804. Escaped Blacks built hundreds of small communities in the bush,
while untold others committed daily acts of

defiance'

p. pasmanick @Lss4

Aspects of culture: religion

When Portuguese traders first reached West Africa tn 14L5, the region already had a rich religious and artistic heritage. The holy city of Ife (in present-day Nigeria) was at its height, producing fine sculpture, while the new city of Benin, founded in 1350, was already creating its remarkable metalwork.
West Africa was a huge and complex area of rival kingdoms and hundreds of tribes. Native religions varied greatly, yet shared certain basic beliefs in common: ancestor worship, use of song, drums and dancing in religious ritual, and the possession of the worshipper by the god. Their deities are often variants of the "Yoruba pantheor", & family of mythic figures like the Greek or Viking gods. Some of these

religions used pictographic writing to record their

philiosophy.

Conquering Moslem Berber tribes began introducing Islam to West Africa around 1050. Islam remained a powerful force even when indigenous kingdoms such as the Songhai regained political confrol from the Arabs. Islam was, and is, a monotheistic (one God) religion with its own holy book and an austere and disciplined lifestyle.

Christianity, present in North Africa from its earliest years, was a tradttional religion only in Ethiopia. Ethiopia also had Black Jews (Falashim). Neither religion was to be a major factor in West Africa until this century, when Christian
missionary schools became

widespread'

p.pasmanick@ 1ee4

The musical genius of West Africa

Of the many African musical forms, one of the most exciting

and long-lasting has been the rhythms of the batd, two-headed drums played in Yoruba religious ceremonies.
The batd rhythms are extremely complex, demanding solid rhythm, fierce concentration, and an excellent memory to keep track of the patterns which change many times for each aspect of each deity. Batd music is pglytythmic because it can be played and felt in 414 or 6/8 time. The dynamic relationship between four and six provides rhythmic excitement and may contribute to the trance state desired by the worshippers. The songs are prayers or hymns to the orishas, the deities of the Yoruba pantheon, such as E1egu6, keeper of the crossroads and Ochfn, goddess of love and rivers. Intricate dances ate a key part of the orisha ceremonies.

The overall result is a compelling, challenging music that can stand on its own terms with the great religious musical traditions of humanity, and which gave rise to the brilliant musical innovations of people of African descent in the
Americas.

P. Pasmanick @ 1994

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Slave forts and the fMiddle Passage'

As the colonies expanded and demand for slaves grew in

the Americas, slavers developed commercial relations with powerful local kingdoffis, well-armed with European muskets, who could supply their war captives as slaves. The Atlantic slave frade became big business.

Dozens of forts were hurriedly constructed by various countries to handle the gteater numbers of new slaves awaiting shipment. These forts were often built near major rivers which offered easier access to the interior of the continent. A surviving fort, Elmina on the Gold Coast, just west of present day Accra, typifies the repellant dungeons that held millions of Africans as they awaited the ships.

The Atlantic crossing, known as the middle

passage,

overcrowded conditions, many Africans perished in

desperate shipboard revolts; others threw themselves over the side or starved rather than submit to slavery.

claimed the lives of many captive Africans--typically l}vo of the cargo. While most deaths were due to the filthy and

The Atlantic slave trade, while lucrative, was very risky. It was also under increasing politcal and moral pressure. By 1815 the major European slaving countries had outlawed the trade, but continued to practice slavery and slave-smuggling for decades more.

P. Pasmanick @ 1994

Economic impact of Africans in the Americas.

Sparylh colonists began importing African slaves as early as 1505. Disappointed by meager gold production, tG spanish introduced sugar cane. By 1650,-suga.r products became a very profitable business. portuguese gra ztl, and later the island colonies of England, Holland, and France, competed with the Spain to dominate the sugar frade. All of these countries imported slaves, and people of Afri can
descent soon greatly outnumbered the Europeans.

many jobs that plantation society needed to survive and

prosper.

quickly turned their talents to skilled trades such as carpentry, metal work, teachin g, rctailing, and all of the

Laboring on plantations raising sugar cane, coffee, cotton, or rice for export, Africans, first as slaves and later as wage laborers, produced the wealth that made the development of the Americas possible. Black workers

As these societies grew more complex, people of mixed African and European descent, often called mulattos or creoles, formed a social group that in some countries
became wealthy and powerful.

The 100 million people of African descent living in the Americas today participate in every sort of economic activity. But they are not well represented among those
having the greatest responsibility and power. Despite their essential contribution to the economy of the hemisphere, they have yet to attarn economic justice.

P. Pasmanick @ 1994

Cultural survival and innovation

in the Americas
The cultures of captive Africans were deliberately suppressed. Yet the new ways of life that emerged among the enslaved people retained many elements in food, language, and music that are clearly based in Aftica,
-In Cuba for example, Yoruba-speaking Africans adapted their traditional religious beliefs to their situation as slaves in an

aggressively Catholic society. Cuban Santeria, along with Voddn (voodoo) in Haiti and CanbombV :rr,Brazil, continues to inspire millions of people worldwide.

As West Africans invented new rhythms for parties and

celebrations, they retained the key elements of their musical traditions:

. call and response (solo and chorus) patterns

(grooves) built from simple patterns ('riffs' or 'hooks') that interact in interesting ways . off-beat improvisation over a stong pulse or beat . speaking styles with lots of rhythm and melody These elements are evident in traditional Afro-caribbean styles such as rumba (Cuba) merengue (Dominican Republic) and bomba (Puerto Rico). They are present in modern salsa. How they can be seen in the music of African Americans in the

' rhythms

United States?

P. Pasmanick @ 1994

Afro-caribbean freedom struggles Throughout world history, people have bravely defied the cruelest and strongest of enemies, and the Africans of the
Caribbean were relentless in their resistance to slavery.

Africans fought to avoid capture. They fought on the slave ships. A successful shipboard revolt was led by Cinque in May

of 1839, and Cinque

to return to Africa.

and his companions were eventually able

The beautiful islands of the Caribbean were the scene of bloody revolts. Takey of Antigua (1,736), Cudjoe of Jamaica (1739), Fedon of Grenada (1797) and Bussa of Barbados (1816) are just a few of the fighters who struck back against the slave system.

Escaped slaves known as marrones or maroons formed hundreds of communities throughout the Americas. The largest was Palmares, in Pernambuco, Brazrl, which had a population of 20,000 by 1690. Other marrones ended up mixing with isolated indigenous (Indian) communities, as in the case of the Black Caribs of Saint Vincent and the Seminoles of Florida. The supreme example of African resistance began in August 1791 with the rebellion of the Haitians. Led first by Boukman and later by the remarkable Toussaint L'Ouverture, the Black population of Haiti seized the coutrtry, abolished slavory, and formed the first Caribbean republic in 1804. Whether engaged in nation-building or in individual acts of defiance and sabotage, the African peoples of the Americas maintained a commitment to freedom and dignity that all humanity can be
proud of.
P. Pasmanick @ 1994

Name and date

everything.
label Florida Cuba Haiti Jamaica Puerto Rico & others; note language religions music export crops show where people of

Use these maps to show what you know about the African presence in the Caribbean. Write in the margins, or attach another sieet. (Jse the sidebar phrases to get you thinkiig--you are not expected to answer

African
descent are

most numerous

Central America and the Caribbean

show major river systems

draw trade routes label

territory of
Yorubas
Senegalese

Kongos

identifv
countries and languages spoken there
Use the timelines and the main ideas sheet to show what else you know.
P. Pasmanick @1994

Name and date

the 'tbig picture'r of how people came to the Americas. .If you prefer, discuss several aspects in more depth. .fJse lined paper if you prefer.

.IVrite a few sentences about these aspects of African history. .Try to show your understanding of where each aspects fits in

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African religioru

@
mtuic and art

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slave trade

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economic presence

culrural survival & innovation

freedom struggle
P. Pasmanick @1994

Name and dato

Use these three blank timelines to show what you know about the history of Africa and the African presence in the Americas. Choose a few important events for each timeline and place them more or less correctly by date.

worldevents

firise

andfall of Atlantb slove trade

P. Pasmanick @1994

H
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slave trade

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Fig. 8. Destinations of the Atlantic slave trade, 1451-f600. Fig. by UW Cartographic Lab' Data from Table 33'

Fig. 9. Destinatiors of the Atlantic slave trade, 1601-1700. Fig. by UW Cartographic Lab. Data from Table 84.

Atlantic Slave Trade, The-A Cerrsus Philip D. Curtain Univ-ersity of Wisconsin Pness ldadison 1969

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slave trade

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Fig' 14' Destinations of the Atlantic slave trade,

1701-1810. Fig. by

uw

cartographic Lab. Data from Table 65.

Fig'

17' Destinations

of the

Atlantic slave kade, l81l-70. Fig. by uW Cartographic Lab. Data from Table 6iI.

Atlantic Slave Trade,

Philip D. Currain

Th";

C.ensus

University of Wisconsin hess }vladison 1969

COMPARISONS WITH TATIN AMERICA

Slavery in Spanish and Pornrguese colonies was regulated by a code of laws that stretched back to Roman traditions and had been- influenced by Church jurists. Instead of allowing considerable local autonomy, as the British did, the lberian crowns regulated overseas affairs with a paternal hand. Slaves were numbered among the monarch's subjects, not si,npfv propeny.to be disposed of as the owner'wished. The Church, accepting slavery as a labor system, zealously "o..ia"..A e*drJisea trei,of" as guardian of public morals to insure that slaves were treated ai truman beings. Not oniy was missioniry actirity inlnse, but human rights were upheld. Many historians argue that the Latin American system was far more humane than that of the British colonies. While North American slaves were rarely given their freedom, manumission was a common practice in Latin countries, favored by both law and social approval. While North American jurists ruled that preventing the separate sale of family members would tamper with owne rs property

putting property higher than slave marriage-the South

rights-

slave was murdered the case was often tried as if the victim had been a free citizen. Mistreatment could not only cost the master fines but win freedom for the slave. Finally, South American slaves could own property and were guaranteed times in which they could work for themselves. In retrospect, North American slaves were consistently regarded as objects, with both laws and customs pushing them deeper and deeper into the role of "thing," whereai South American societies made some effort to protect the
a

American church insisted that slave unions be sacramentalized, and Latin law forbade the separate sale of husband, wife, and children under the age of 10. While North American courts refrained from interfering in the master's nearly absolute power over his slaves, South American justice took an active role. Slave crimes were prosecuted in court, and if

more European men had children by female slaves, and were more ready to acknowledge their offspring. Ultimately, it is hard to gauge how frequently the mixture ofraces occurred in the United States hcause of the social sanctions against it. Another difference between the American continents was that in the United States, despite notable exceptions, slaves were largely confined to agricultural labor, while in Latin America they were needed in skilled trades. In the north, these trades were mostly filled by whites and often rigidly segregated to preclude comperition, a practice that w-orsened as abolition gained ground and after the collapse

As a result, white women on the northern continent were more influential within the social structure, and thus in a position to prevent widespread miscegenation. In Brazil,

of Reconstruction. The Caribbean

Scholars are intrigued by the geat dispariry between slavery on the English islands of the Caribbean and slavery in thL English provinces of the North American maintand. Carib_ bean slavery, after the discovery ofthe value ofsugar around 1650, became one of the most brutal systems of servitude known to history. The death rate of blacks was enorrnous, as the grossest and most avaricious of Englishmen were attracted to the quick wealth and wild living style the islands then offered. By 1680, almosr all the 40,000 slaves in Barbados worked for some I 75 planten, and by 1700, in the West Indies, six major islands held some 270,000 black slaves under the control ofa few hundred whites. Wherever possible these overcrowded warrens spurred revolt. In Jamaica alone, there were six major uprisings between 1650 and 1700. Of the English mainland colonies, South Carolina appean to have been closest in economy and style to Barbadoi and Jamaica. By 1700, as rice became an important crop and adventurers moved from the West Indies to develop it, blacks comprised a majority of the population. Slavery, of course, developed differently over time and space, a fact often overlooked in the passions with which the

slave's humanity. The conclusion that l-atin American slavery was more humane has been disputed, however. Certain historians point to the fact that in Brazil, the largest importer of slaves to the south, the death rate was much higher than in the United States, as were suicides, and that there was also
intense dehumanization, many slaves be ing forced by owners to wear masks, a practice rare in the United States. These

historians also cite the frequency of L,atin American slave resistance, which sometimes took the form of wholesale insurrections. In the 1550s, forexample, there were frequent outbreaks of violence in Cartagena (Colombia). During the seventeenth century, similar upheavals occurred in Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, despite the fact that blacks in these areas enjoyed a relative measure of well-being at that time. It may be suggested in reply that greaterwell-being, and the sharper sense of human rights it gave to the slaves, would encourage rebellion, whereas slaves who were absolutely suppressed would be unlikely to revolt. One factor enhancing Brazil's reputation for humane slavery was the emergence of a mulatto class which, after emancipation, rose to a respectable and fairly secure place in Brazilian society, while in the United States mulattoes were defined out of the white world as bearers of black blood. A major cause of this exclusion was that blacks were always aminority in the English mainland colsnis5-nsys1 more than 2O7o of the overall population of what was to become the United States-while in Brazil, Europeans (especially European women) were always in the minority.

"peculiar institution" has been attacked and defended. For example, in Virginia in the seventeenth century, slavery developed slowly, whites consistently outnumbring blacks by 6 and 7 to l. White slaveholders often worked beside blacks and encouraged their mastery of trades to better contribute to the self-sufficient life sryle then prized in Virginia. However, skilled slaves were the most rcbellious,
the most able to plot, forage, and escape successfully, a factor that contributed to restrictions on the trades blacks could pursue and to limitations on manumission and the liberties of free blacks. It was these "mobile" blacks who stunned Virginia with the skill and intensity of the planned prosser uprising of 1800.

Negro Almanac, The. 5th edition IJarry A . Ploski andJames Williams

Gale Research,

Deroit l9g9

Nsibidi
Af,ricon -

and Anaforunna Ideographic Writing Systems

religioru

Nsibidi symbolize ideas on several levels of discourse. First, there were signs most people knew, regardless of initiation or of rank in the Ngbe Society, signs representing human relationships, communication, and household obiects (which themselves were in some
instances used as material-ideographs):38

wor'd, spccch meeting, oongres:

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minor, looting4lass:

911
o

ryDmF'#

tablc sA for drint and meat:

ye3f

U l lit ee yd1 En .6-v .r& A

EeL" iolmcy, voyaging, bacls:

AfroCuban men, who were able to scale down ceremonial drums to equivalent obiects only inches high when occasions for disembling their religion through miniaturization arose, were indeed the spiritual descendants of men and women who could coniure love within enlacements, separate and drive a wedge between curves to indicate divorce or hate, and let a simple small cross, symbolizing the intersection of two points of view, multiply, in intensity of exposition, until it came to designate a congress or a full+cale meeting. As the signs prolifented in all their variations, they came to resemble a rast musical score. - Secondly, t}ere were serious signs of danger and extremity, the "dark signs," and these were often literally shaded:3e

dead

lcopard

man being

rVT= r & J-* *,?+){.

slcin
Lillcr's

body nsiEidi mirror 'all this country belongs to me" r'prevant danger"

svord

death of a

friend

f,og your

son

spcar point

floggcd murder wcapon murdcter's machctc murdcrcr

detaincd

Flash of the spirit- Aaican andAfrican American ArtandPhilosophy RobertI{anis Flercher Random House,I'IY 1983

Religiorx

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Ideographs of the Edo speakers (Benin City)

ighi-gag, "that divides the

day," is a simple cross design

The diamond pattern

of

with circles. Is meaning:

many: the transmission
mess:rges

beaury and the domed fan are

are

of

for Ol6kin, god of harmony,

wealth and children. The

to and from the

other world, sharing offood among the deities, dlocation

anow

lighming &ns and bow and suggesr E irrg6 flsago),

deiry of thunder.

ofritud time, detection of

physicd ailmenr, and the division of earttrly and spiritual realms.

Some say dgrin descended

The large circle represenc

from heaven to earth on

and artows indicate his

Ori"obu", the creator, while

the perpendicular line ending

chain. The spears, swords,

in rwo circles

suggess man's

abiliry to open the Path

inability to thwan God's

power. Ogur, deiry ofmetal
and war, is represented bv three spears, ana

or clear the road

6totun

is

depicted

as

the large fuh.

Divine Inspirarion-From Benin to Bahla Phyllis Galindo University of New Mexico Pless, Albuquoque 1993

Bibiliography
The African-A Novel Harold Courlander Henry Holt, NY 1967 The Atlantic Slave Trade-A Census Philip D. Curain University of Wisconsin Press Madison 1969

Divine Horesemen-The Voodoo Gods of Haiti MayaDeren Dell Publishing, NY 1970

Divine Inspiration--From Benin to Batria Phyllis Galindo University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque 1993
Flash of the Spirit- African and African American Art and Philosophy Robert Harris Flercher Random House, NY 1983

Historia General de Puerto Rico Fernando Pic6 Ediciones Huracdn, PR 1986

The Making of the African Diaspora in the Americas, l44l-l9O0YincentBakpea Thompson
7

Many Thousands Gone-African Americans from Slavery to Freedom VirginiaHamilton Alfred A. Ikropf,I.If 1993
The Mddle Passage Herbert S. Klein Princeton University Press 1978

My Name is Not Angelica Scott O'dell Dell Yearling Book I{Y 1989
The Negro Almanac, 5th edition Harry A. Ploski and James Williams Gale Research, Detroit 1989 Slave Ships and Slaving George Francis Dow Kennicat Press, Pr Wash. The Slaves
Susanne Verefi G.P. Putnam's sons

NY

1927

I.IY

1978

Uncommon MarketThe Ed. Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn Academic Press, l.IY 1979