16587 Pressurised Systems

108
9.4 9.4 SHELLS UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE SHELLS UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
This topic involves quite different problems from those arising in the design of internally
pressurised vessels. It is important to give attention to :-
(a) Elastic and Plastic Buckling
(b) Shape imperfections
(c) Residual Stresses due to the manufacturing processes.
The Design Approach in PD 5500
The aim of the method is to :
predict the pressure at which buckling will occur in each part.
If this pressure is less than the required working pressure then:-
(i) the shell may be thickened;
(ii) stiffening rings can be added;
(iii) if rings are already present they can be placed more
frequently or increased in size;
(iv) for dished ends, the thickness could be increased, or the
geometry changed.
To illustrate the approach and give some background, to at least part of the method, a series
of figures are presented;
Vessel with various types of stiffeners located in the cylindrical & conical parts
In PD 5500, there is a margin of at least 50% between the design pressure specified and the
pressure at which signs of buckling might first appear - providing the vessel is circular to
within 0.5% of the radius.
16587 Pressurised Systems
109
In Cylinders, there is a multitude of elastic buckling modes which can occur and describe,
analytically, the behaviour of the vessel. The technique in BS 5500 is to design the cylinders
by considering three simple cases only.
(a) interstiffener buckling
(b) overall buckling
(c) stiffener tripping
The photograph shows interstiffener buckling as
exhibited in a test model. Note the wrinkles occur
between those parts which remain circular. This can
be clearly seen on the above diagram.
In this course, only interstiffener
buckling will be dealt with in detail.
However, be aware of the existence of
the other two and be capable of
describing them in some detail.
The following photograph and
diagram show overall buckling where
the whole cylinder has collapsed. The
light stiffeners have given way and
only those major portions of shell with
substantial stiffening remain circular.
16587 Pressurised Systems
110
Elastic Analysis of Equally Spaced Stiffeners in a Cylindrical Vessel Elastic Analysis of Equally Spaced Stiffeners in a Cylindrical Vessel
As a first step to understanding the distribution of the stresses in such a vessel an elastic
analysis can be carried out.
The cylinder equation:-
d
dx
d
dx D z
4
4
2 2
2
2
4
4 4 1

+ +

_
,

can be used. This can be solved for the cylinder shown.

There are 4 stresses of importance
(1) the circumferential stress on the outer flange of the stiffener
s
(2) the axial stress on the vessel
7
(3) the circumferential stress on the outside surface between the stiffeners
s
(4) The circumferential stress at the centre of the wall, between the stiffeners
5
It is therefore necessary to find that the value of the external pressurewhich will cause each
of these four stresses to each reach the material yield point,

. In general, the lowest stress

is
5
. It is a compressive membrane stress and thus seems a good candidate for being used
as the stress to cause buckling. This value is called the Yield Pressure, p
y
and is given by the following expression,
( )
p
sfe
R G
y

1
The value sf is a modified design stress, and can be thought of as a reduced yield value.
It relates f to an effective yield point: s = 1.4 for carbon steels
s = 1.1 for stainless steels

5
7

s
R
External pressure
16587 Pressurised Systems
111
One could argue for s = 1.5, so that sf =
y
. A lower s value introduces a factor of safety.The
in the above equation is a rather complicated value, which is a function of the stiffeners. It
is generally taken as 0 as a first approximation. Such an assumption produces an
underestimation for the allowable pressure, and therefore is safe to do so. Therefore,
p
sfe
R

(Note: f s
pR
e
)
Recall, this is the membrane equation again.
Elastic Buckling
This graph is a pressure-deflection response for cylinders. The line OA shows a uniform
response, single value of deflection and only slight non-linearity. Displacement is
axisymmetric.At A, the response becomes unstable - bifurcation point. From A to B - In
theory the shell displacement would continue along AB and buckle axi-symmetrically at high
pressure. However, the slightest disturbance at A would cause a dynamic motion. A fly
breathing at the other end of the Universe ! Note: the pressure at A - Elastic Buckling
Pressure p
m
Shape of vessel in circumferential direction
From point A, the cylindrical shell develops into a series of sine waves in the circumferential
direction, n = 2, 3, 4 etc. There will be a similar behaviour in the axial direction. There are
C
C
B
A
2
1
imperfect
cylinders
perfect cylinders
axisymmetric
behaviour
bifurcation
occurs
Deflection
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Pm
non-axisymmetric
behaviour
16587 Pressurised Systems
112
thus innumerable elastic buckling modes. For each n(circumferential), there will be an
infinite number of longitudinal mode shapes. In practice number is finite, because the wave
lengths must be several times the wall thickness. It has been found that one can design
cylinders by considering the Three Simple Cases - as noted above.
The possibility is passible because, for a given vessel of radius R and wall thickness e,
(1) Interstiffener buckling is governed by stiffener spacing, L
s
.
(2) Overall buckling is governed in the main by the size of the stiffeners, and
(3) Stiffener tripping by the proportions of the stiffener.
Interstiffener Buckling Interstiffener Buckling
In this course, only the analysis of interstiffener buckling is dealt with. The other forms of
buckling are presented in the standard and in detail in BS Document PD 6550 Part:2 1989.
In this, the treatment assumes the following:-
(a) effect of stiffeners on pre-buckling stress in shell is neglected
(b) rotational and axial restraint to shell buckling due to stiffeners is neglected
(c) stiffeners remain circular during buckling.
Governing equation is given as:
( )
{ } ( )
[ ]
( )
[ ]
p
Ee
R
n
n
e
R
n
m
R
L
L
R
R
L

+
+
+

'

1
1
1
1
12 1
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2

( )
This is an expression for p
m
- the Elastic Buckling Pressure)
p
e
R
m

(notice this is another membrane type equation, since is the circumferential buckling strain
and E is a stress)
If this function is graphed, for a specific cylinder with the following dimensions;
R = 2700mm, L
s
= 750mm, e = 25mm, E = 207,000N/mm
2
, = 0.3.
The equation above can be used with a range of n values to find p
m
. There is a minimum
value at p
m
= 7.31N/mm
2
and n = 14.
16587 Pressurised Systems
113
The fuller version of this graph appears as Figure 3.6(3) of the standard. Values of n at
which the minimum occurs are given on this figure from the BS Code. The plot enables -
the Circumferential Buckling Strain to be found and from this, p
m.
The cusps on Fig 3.6(3) represent the points at which the mode associated with the minimum
pressure occurs. This figure can be been marked up to show the values of n corresponding
to the minimum nodal buckling pressures.
This value of p
m
is a theoretical value for infinitely long ring stiffened cylinders which are
perfectly circular.
In real shells, however, the Shape Imperfections lower the collapse pressure. Also, as the
shell thickness increases, or small diameter vessels are employed, plastic buckling occurs
and the collapse pressure is close to p
y
, which is much less than p
m
.
Because of these effects, an empirical method is employed which uses p
y
and p
m
but also a
large number of results from well documented tests.This graph has been prepared from data
from 700 well documented tests which have taken place over the last 100 years.
Actual Measured Collapse Pressure p
p
p
p
c m

~
These parameters minimised the scatter.
16587 Pressurised Systems
114
The values were bounded, then divided by 1.5 to give the design curve in PD 5500. Its Fig
3.6(3) in PD 5500.
Curve (a) for cylinders and cones and (b) for spheres or cylinders to subject to axial stress.
The reason curve (b) is lower is because spheres and cylinders subject to axial stress are very
sensitive to imperfections.
16587 Pressurised Systems
115
Example of Designing for External Pressure - Example of Designing for External Pressure - Interstiffener Buckling Only Interstiffener Buckling Only
Design data:
Design External Pressure
Mean radius of shell
Stiffener spacing
Material for shell and stiffeners
Design stress
Effective yield,
Modulus of elasticity
p
R
L
s
s
f
sf
E
= 6.9 bar
= 2500 mm
= 1000 mm
= 1.4
= 165 N/mm
2
= 231 N/mm
2
= 2.0710
5
N/mm
2
This is trial and error procedure, so a range of values must be taken. Assume a thickness of
12.5mm as an initial value. This value would be at least the minimum required internal
pressure thickness for an equivalent internal pressure loading.
2R/e 400 300 250 200
e 12.5 16.7 20 25
p
y
=sfe/R 1.155 1.540 1.848 2.310
for L/2R = 0.2 from Fig 3.6(2) 0.00088 0.0013 0.0018 0.0026
p
m
=Ee /R 0.911 1.798 2.981 5.382
K = p
m
/p
y
0.789 1.167 1.613 2.330
= p/p
y
from Fig 3.6(3) 0.263 0.380 0.470 0.525
Allowable pressure, p (N/mm
2
) 0.306 0.585 0.869 1.213
From this table, 12.5mm and 16.7mm provide insufficient allowable pressures. Thicknesses
of 20mm and 25mm yield adequate results. Linearly interpolating in the table for an
allowable pressure of 0.69N/mm
2
gives a required thickness of 17.9mm.
Spheres under External Pressure Spheres under External Pressure
Spheres are designed to prevent either yielding or buckling from occurring due to the applied
external pressure loading. As with the design of cylindrical shells, the aim is to ensure the
geometry can carrying sufficient pressure loading to prevent either of the two failure
mechanisms arising. Typical failures can be seen in the photographs shown overleaf.
The pressure to cause yield of a sphere is found from the membrane expression
p
sfe
R
yss

2
(subscript yss denotes yield of a spherical shell.)
16587 Pressurised Systems
116
The theoretical pressure to cause elastic buckling is given by the following expression;
p
Ee
R
e

121
2
2
.
However, since this value is only the theoretical value, and shape imperfections must be
considered, then it is possible to use Figure 3.6(3) to evaluate the actual allowable pressure.
This is a non-dimensional curve which relates the theoretical elastic buckling pressure to the
actual buckling pressure with a safety factor of at least 50%. The curve axes values are non-
dimensionalised by dividing through by the yield pressure value.

Photographs of collapsed dished ends.
Hemispherical Ends under External Pressure Hemispherical Ends under External Pressure
As far as PD 5500 is concerned, hemi-spherical ends are designed as spherical shells.
Torispherical Ends under External Pressure Torispherical Ends under External Pressure
Tori-spherical ends are designed as spherical shells of a mean radius R equal to the external
crown radius.
Ellipsoidal Ends under External Pressure Ellipsoidal Ends under External Pressure
Ellipsoidal ends are designed as spherical shells with a mean radius R equal to the maximum
crown radius i.e. D
2
/4h.