INTRODUCTION

Rain Alarm

Introduction
Rain alarm can be used in cases where we want to protect our expensive devices or many other things from the sudden rain or water flow. Thus by using these rain alarm circuits we can safeguard our devices by removing them from the open area as the alarm will start ringing whenever it come in contact with water. It is a low cost device and can be employed easily where we need protection.

Theory
In this project rain alarm will be made by using two transistor connected as direct coupled amplifier which is connected to speaker and a general purpose battery is used to run the circuit. It uses a metal probe which will act as rain sensor which on coming in contact with water starts the flow of current which reaches the base of NPN transistor. Thus, with the conduction of NPN
transistor; electron reaches to second transistor which is a PNP transistor which also conducts and current flows through the speaker. The snapshot of the project is shown in the figure below:

GIVES BEEP WHEN WATER IS IN CONTACT WITH THE WIRE.

Figure1: Snap shot of the Project

List of components used:S. No Name Value

Quantity

1. 1Metal Probe 2. 1Carbon resistor 3. 2Carbon resistor 4. 3Electrolytic capacitor 5. 4NPN Transistor 6. 5PNP Transistor 7. 6Loud Speaker 8. 7General purpose Battery 9 volt 10k 330k 2.2 f,400 volt BC 547 BC557 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Components Details:

Resistor: INTRODUCTION

Electronic Symbol

(Europe)

(US)

Partially exposed Tesla TR-212 1k carbon film resistor

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are formed and the part is inserted into the board. Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum tube) radio.

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome). The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design. Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

UNITS
The ohm (symbol: ) is a SI-driven unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are the milliohm (1x103), kilohm (1x103), and megohm (1x106).

THEORY OF OPERATION
Ohm's law

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
V = IR

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
FOUR-BAND RESISTORS

Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme on resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The first two bands encode the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a power-of-ten multiplier or number-of-zeroes, and the fourth is the tolerance accuracy, or acceptable error, of the value. The first three bands are equally spaced along the resistor; the spacing to the fourth band is wider. Sometimes a fifth band identifies the thermal coefficient, but this must be distinguished from the true 5-color system, with 3 significant digits. For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56104 = 560 k 2%. An easier description can be as followed: the first band, green, has a value of 5 and the second band, blue, has a value of 6, and is counted as 56. The third band, yellow, has a value of 104, which adds four 0's to the end, creating 560,000 at 2% tolerance accuracy. 560,000 changes to 560 k 2% (as a kilo - is 103). Each color corresponds to a certain digit, progressing from darker to lighter colors, as shown in the chart below.

COLOR CODING FOR RESISTORS Table 3 Colour Coding for resistors

Color 1st band 2nd band 3rd band (multiplier) 4th band (tolerance) Temp. Coefficient Black 0 Brown 1 Red 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 101 102 5% (J) 10% (K) 0.5% (D) 0.25% (C) 0.1% (B) 0.05% (A) 1% (F) 2% (G) 100 ppm 50 ppm 15 ppm 25 ppm

Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green 5 Blue 6

Violet 7 Gray 8

White 9 Gold Silver

CAPACITOR: INTRODUCTION
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric. When a potential difference exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in ra

Electrolytic Capacitor

THEORY OF OPERATION
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[7] The nonconductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[8] and the dielectric contains an electric field. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance 'C', defined as the ratio of charge 'Q' on each conductor to the voltage 'V' between them:[7]

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[9]

CAPACITOR TYPES
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.

DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Dielectric materials Capacitor materials. From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc, multilayer polyester film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized polyester film, aluminum electrolytic. Major scale divisions are in centimetres.

Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between them. Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic materials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage performance. However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely replaced by plastic film

capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance, which makes them useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to low operating temperatures and frequencies. Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They are broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream applications. Electrolytic capacitors and supercapacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout. Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many applications. Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and temperature characteristics than aluminum, but higher dielectric absorption and leakage.[19] OS-CON (or OCCON) capacitors are a polymerized organic semiconductor solid-electrolyte type that offer longer life at higher cost than standard electrolytic capacitors. Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications. Supercapacitors store large amounts of energy. Supercapacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials offer extremely high capacitance (as much as 3000 farads) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries. Alternating current capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed.

Transistor INTRODUCTION
The name is transistor derived from transfer resistors indicating a solid state Semiconductor device. In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under other conditions its a conductor. This phenomenon is called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has three terminals, one is the collector, one is the base and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected in the circuit correctly and only then the transistor will function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and collected on another terminal, while the third terminal acts as a control element. Each transistor has a number marked on its body. Every number has its own specifications. There are mainly two types of transistor (i) NPN & (ii) PNP

NPN TRANSISTORS
When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the transistor begins to conduct by allowing current to flow through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively small current flowing through the base circuit causes a much greater current to pass through the emitter / collector circuit. The phenomenon is called current gain and it is measure in beta.

PNP TRANSISTOR
It also does exactly same thing as above except that it has a negative voltage on its collector and a positive voltage on its emitter.

Fig PNP Transistor

Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor elements allowing a controlled current flow. Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor elements used for making it. There are two types of transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION TRANSISTORS. Point contact construction is defective so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in many respects analogous to triode electron tube. A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or oscillator as can a triode tube, but has the additional advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and absence of cathode heating power. Junction transistors are of two types which can be obtained while manufacturing. The two types are: 1)PNP TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of P type of germanium to an N-P Junction

Fig 11.2 PNP Transistor

2)NPN TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of N type

germaniumto a P-N Junction.

Fig NPN Transistor Both types are shown in figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre section is called the base, one of the outside sections-the emitter and the other outside section-the collector. The direction of the arrowhead gives the direction of the conventional current with the forward bias on the emitter. The conventional flow is opposite in direction to the electron flow.

OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR

A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN germanium or silicon diodes, placed back to back. The centre of N-type portion is extremely thin in comparison to P region. The P region of the left is connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the negative terminal i.e. PN is biased in the forward direction while P region of right is biased negatively i.e. in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P region in the forward biased circuit is called the emitter and P region on the right, biased negatively is called collector. The centre is called base.

Fig Operation of PNP Transistor

The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as emitter) move to N region as they are repelled by the positive terminal of battery while the electrons of N region are attracted by the positive terminal. The holes overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction into N region. As the width of base region is extremely thin, two to five percent of holes recombine with the free electrons of N-region which result in a small base current while the remaining holes (95% to 98%) reach the collector junction. The collector is biased negatively and the negative collector voltage aids in sweeping the hole into collector region. As the P region at the right is biased negatively, a very small current should flow but the following facts are observed:-

1. A substantial current flows through it when the emitter junction is biased in a forward direction. 2. The current flowing across the collector is slightly less than that of the emitter, and 3. The collector current is a function of emitter current i.e. with the decrease or increase in the 4. emitter current a corresponding change in the collector current is observed.

Loudspeaker
A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electroacoustic transducer that produces sound in response to an electrical audio signal input. Non-electrical loudspeakers were developed as accessories to telephone systems, but electronic amplification by vacuum tube made loudspeakers more generally useful. The most common form of loudspeaker uses a paper cone which is vibrated by an attached voice coil electromagnet between the poles of a permanent magnet, but many other types exist. Where high fidelity reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeakers may be used, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. Miniature loudspeakers are found in devices such as radio and TV receivers, and many forms of music players. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, and in public address systems.

Figure: Loudspeaker

General Purpose Battery

A wide variety of general purpose batteries for all applications are available. From Hearing Aids to Cameras, Flashlights to Calculators, Radios to Tape Recorders. All Types, Chemistries and Sizes for All General Battery Needs. Lithium Coin Cells. Rechargeable batteries and cells of all types and sizes.

Types ALKALINE AA CARBON ZINC AAA LITHIUM C NIMH D SILVER OXIDE 9V MANGANESE DIOXIDE NICKEL CADMIUM

Sizes

Metal Probe Sensor: Metal fires are connected as a solenoid which will act as sensor .whenever water comes in its contact it will start conducting.

Working & Construction Construction:The circuit diagram of the rain alarm project is shown in figure below:

AS WE HAVE DISCRIBE ABOVE THIS PRODUCT GIVE ALARM WHEN water come in contact with ANY OF THE METTALIC THING WHICH ARE PROTECTED BY THIS CIRCUIT. THIS PROJECT IS WORKING ON TWO TRANSISTORS WHICH MAKE COMPLIMENTORY PAIR DIRECT COUPLED AMPLIFIER. THIS CIRCUIT BASICALLY A AUDIO OScILATOR FOR OSILATION WE USE COLLECTOR OF TRANSISTOR BC558 WHICH IS CONNECTED TO THE BASE OF TRANSISTOR BC 548 VIA RESISTANCE 18 K .01 or .02 Micro FD CAPACITOR . TRANSISTOR BC-548 IS WORKING AS A PREAMPLIFIER. WHEN ANY water falls on the SENSOR WHICH IS CONNECTED TO BASE OF TRANSISTOR BC-548. THIS TRANSISTOR CONDUCT WITH the CONDUCTivity of water. WHEN TRANSISTOR BC-548 START CONDUCTING ITS FORCED TO TRANSISTOR BC558 TO START CONDUCTING . SO WE GET ALARM SOUND FROM SPEAKER.

Working:Water is a conductor of electricity. When water is in contact with the probe then there is a flow of current which reaches to the base of Q1. Transistor Q1 is a NPN transistor which conducts. With the conduction of Q1 electron reaches to Q2 which is a PNP transistor .Q2 also conducts and current flows through the speaker. In a speaker there is inductive coil which causes motion in one direction and also produce induce current which is in opposite direction to the flow of current this induce current in the form of pulse flows through a capacitor, resistance and switches off Q1 and relax .this process repeats again and again till probe is in contact with water or we can say there is a oscillation in the circuit thus speaker diaphragm vibrates and gives a tone. Frequency of the circuit depends on the value of Speaker Coil impendence, Capacitor and Resistance Value.

Applications:Many electrical devices are used as early warning systems such as burglar alarms, electric fencing systems and many more. Don't you think it will be useful to have an early warning system for rain to warn you to close the windows and bring in the clothes from the clothesline? This rain alarm circuit can be used for some specific applications where we need protection from water or in tanks on some higher floor to detect the overflow of water, also in green houses and in garages or sheds. As we know that water is the basic necessity of our life and wasting water is of a very great concern.s

Fig . wasted water.

So in order to prevent wasting of water we use rain alarm or water alarm.

Also our water tanks work on electricity, so wastage of water means wastage of electricity through the use of motor that we use to pump water into the water tanks. So hear water alarm helps to save our electricity too. Thus it is of a very great use.