Drainage Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 5 Hydrology


5.1

+<'52/2*< DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS

Hydrology is generally defined as a science dealing with the interrelationship between water on and under the earth and in the atmosphere. For the purpose of this manual, hydrology will deal with estimating flood magnitudes as the result of precipitation. In the design of highway drainage structures, floods are usually considered in terms of peak runoff or discharge in cubic meters per second (m3/s) and hydrographs as discharge per time. For structures that are designed to control volume of runoff, like detention storage facilities, or where flood routing through culverts is used, then the entire discharge hydrograph will be of interest.
 

The following are concepts that are important in a hydrologic analysis. These concepts will be used throughout the remainder of this chapter in dealing with different aspects of hydrologic studies: $QWHFHGHQW 0RLVWXUH &RQGLWLRQV The soil moisture conditions of the catchment area at the beginning of a storm. These conditions affect the volume of runoff generated by a particular storm event. Notably they affect the peak discharge only in the lower range of flood magnitudes approx. below the 15year event threshold. As floods become more rare, antecedent moisture has a rapidly decreasing influence on runoff. The natural depressions within a catchment area that store runoff. Generally after the depression storage is filled, runoff will begin. The number of times a flood of a given magnitude can be expected to occur on average over a long period of time. Frequency analysis is the estimation of peak discharges for various recurrence intervals. Another way to express frequency is with probability. Probability analysis seeks to define the flood flow with a probability of being equaled or exceeded in any year. A composite of the physical characteristics that influence the flow of water across the earth's surface, whether natural or channelized. It affects both the time response of a catchment area and drainage channel, as well as the channel storage characteristics. A graph of the time distribution of runoff from a catchment area. A graph of the time distribution of rainfall over a catchment area. A complex process of allowing runoff to penetrate the ground surface and flow through the upper soil surface. The infiltration curve is a graph of the time distribution at which this occurs.

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Chapter 5 Hydrology

Drainage Design Manual - 2002

,QWHUFHSWLRQ /DJ 7LPH 3HDN 'LVFKDUJH 5DLQIDOO ([FHVV 6WDJH 7LPH RI &RQFHQWUDWLRQ

The storage of rainfall on foliage and other intercepting surfaces during a rainfall event is called interception storage. The time from the centroid of the excess rainfall to the peak of the hydrograph. Sometimes called peak flow. The maximum rate of flow of water passing a given point during or after a rainfall event. The water available to runoff after interception, depression storage and infiltration have been satisfied. The elevation of the water surface above some elevation datum. The time it takes a drop of water falling on the most remote point hydraulically in the catchment area to travel through the catchment area to the outlet. The direct runoff hydrograph resulting from a rainfall event that has a specific temporal and spatial distribution and which lasts for a unit duration of time. The ordinates of the unit hydrograph are such that the volume of direct runoff represented by the area under the hydrograph is equal to one millimeter of runoff from the catchment area.

8QLW +\GURJUDSK

To provide consistency within this chapter, as well as throughout this manual, the following symbols will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use in hydrologic publications. 7DEOH  6\PEROV Symbol A BDF C Cf CN Ct, Cp d DH I IA Ia K L l Lca
 

M
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Definition Units Catchment area hectares, sq.km. Basin development factor % Runoff coefficient Frequency factor SCS-runoff curve number Physiographic coefficients Time interval hours Difference in elevation m Runoff intensity mm/hr Percentage of impervious area % Initial abstraction from total rainfall mm Frequency factor for a particular return period and skew Lag hours Length of mainstream to furthest divide m Length along main channel to a point opposite the catchment area centroid km Rank of a flood within a long record   

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Chapter 5 Hydrology

n N P Q q R RC RQ S or Y S SCS SL SL ST TB tc or Tc TL Tr UQ V X

Manning roughness coefficient Number of years of flood record years Accumulated rainfall mm Rate of runoff m3/s Storm runoff during a time interval mm Hydraulic radius m Regression constant Equivalent rural peak runoff rate m3/s Ground slope m/m, m/km or % Potential maximum retention storage mm Soil Conservation Service Main channel slope m/m Standard deviation of logarithms of peak annual floods Basin storage factor % Time base of unit hydrograph hours Time of concentration min or hours Lag time hours Snyders duration of excess rainfall hours Urban peak runoff rate m3/s Velocity m/s Logarithm of the annual peak      

5.2

HYDROLOGIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

&KDSWHU  6WDQGDUGV DQG 'HSDUWXUHV from Standards defines the general principles for hydrological and drainage design in accordance with this manual. The hydrological data available for Ethiopia is generally limited so the procedures that can be applied are consequently imprecise. No specific standards or definitive criteria for hydrological analysis are suitable for recommendation at this time. For standard procedures to be adopted confidently, storm water runoff coefficients and procedures shall be calibrated.  6859(<6 Since hydrologic considerations can influence the selection of a highway corridor and the alternate routes within the corridor, studies and investigations shall be undertaken at the Planning Stage (see &KDSWHU  3ODQQLQJ). Also, special studies and investigations may be required at sensitive locations. The magnitude and complexity of these studies shall be commensurate with the importance and magnitude of the project and problems encountered. Typical data to be included in such surveys or studies are: topographic maps; aerial photographs; streamflow records; historical highwater elevations; flood discharges; and locations of hydraulic features such as reservoirs, water projects, and designated or regulatory floodplain areas.  +<'52/2*,& $1$/<6,6 $1' 0(7+2'6 A hydrologic analysis is prerequisite to identifying flood hazard areas and determining those locations where construction and maintenance will be unusually expensive or hazardous. Since many levels of government plan, design, and construct highway and water resource projects that might affect each other, interagency coordination is desirable and often necessary. In addition, agencies can share data and experiences within project areas to assist in the completion of accurate hydrologic analysis.
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 '2&80(17$7,21 Experience indicates that the design of highway drainage structures should be documented adequately. Frequently, it is necessary to refer to plans and specifications long after the actual construction has been completed. Thus it is necessary to fully document the results of all hydrologic analysis.  )$&7256 $))(&7,1* )/22' 5812)) For all hydrologic analyses, the following factors shall be evaluated and included when they will have a significant effect on the final results: Drainage basin characteristics including: size, shape, slope, land use, geology, soil type, surface infiltration, and storage; Stream channel characteristics including geometry and configuration, natural and artificial controls, channel modification, aggradation - degradation, and debris; Flood plain characteristics; and Meteorological characteristics such as precipitation amounts and type (rain, hail, or combinations), storm cell size and distribution characteristics, storm direction, and time rate of precipitation (hyetograph).

 )/22' +,6725< All hydrologic analysis shall consider the flood history of the area and the effect of these historical floods on existing and proposed structures. The flood history includes the historical floods and the flood history of any existing structures.  )/22' 0(7+2' Many hydrologic methods are available. The methods to be used and the circumstances for their use are listed below. If possible the method shall be calibrated to local conditions and tested for accuracy and reliability. The hydrologic methods approved by ERA and limitations on their use follows: Rational method shall be used only for catchment areas less than 50 hectares (0.5 km2); SCS and other unit hydrograph methods for catchment areas greater than 50 hectares; Catchment area regression equations shall be used for all routine designs at sites where applicable; Gumbel or Log Pearson III analyses shall preferably be used for all routine designs provided there is at least 10 years of continuous or synthesized record for 10-year discharge estimates and 25 years for 100-year discharge estimates; Suitable computer programs such as HYDRAINs HYDRO, HEC 1, and TR-20 may be used to facilitate tedious hydrologic calculations.
 

Of these possible hydrologic methods, it should be noted that, at the present time, only the Rational and SCS methods are applicable to the whole country. Regression equations and derivations from stream gauging (Gumbel, Log Pearson) are often preferred but rely on data not available. For this reason, only the rational method and the scs method are given in this chapter. regression equations and derivations from stream gaging are however given in appendix A.

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Chapter 5 Hydrology

 '(6,*1 )5(48(1&< All proposed structures are sized using the specified design frequency as provided in Table 2-1 of &KDSWHU  6WDQGDUGV DQG 'HSDUWXUHV IURP 6WDQGDUGV. The following text further develops the choices presented in that table. A design frequency shall be selected to match the facilitys cost, amount of traffic, potential flood hazard to property, expected level of service, political considerations, and budgetary constraints, considering the magnitude and risk associated with damages from larger flood events. With long highway routes having no practical detour, where many sites are subject to independent flood events, it may be necessary to increase the design frequency at each site to avoid frequent route interruptions from floods. In selecting a design frequency, potential upstream land use that could reasonably occur over the anticipated life of the drainage facility shall be considered. Hydrologic analysis should include the determination of several design flood frequencies for use in the hydraulic design. These frequencies are used to size different drainage structures to allow for an optimum design, that considers both risk of damage and construction cost. Consideration shall be given to what frequency flood was used to design other structures along a highway corridor. Since it is not economically feasible to design a structure for the maximum runoff a catchment area is capable of producing, a design frequency must be established. The frequency with which a given flood can be expected to occur is the reciprocal of the probability or chance that the flood will be equaled or exceeded in a given year. If a flood has a 20 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded each year, over a long period of time, the flood will be equaled or exceeded on an average of once every five years. This is called the UHWXUQ SHULRG RU UHFXUUHQFH LQWHUYDO (RI). Thus the exceedence probability equals 100/RI. The designer should note that the 5-year flood is not one that will necessarily be equaled or exceeded every five years. There is a 20 percent chance that the flood will be equaled or exceeded in any year; therefore, the 5-year flood could conceivably occur in several consecutive years. The same reasoning applies to floods with other return periods. Cross Drainage: A drainage facility shall be designed to accommodate a discharge with a given return period(s) for the following circumstances. The design shall be such that the backwater (the headwater) caused by the structure for the design storm does not:
 

increase the flood hazard significantly for property; overtop the highway; or exceed a certain depth on the highway embankment.

Based on these design criteria, a design involving roadway overtopping of short duration for floods larger than the design event is acceptable practice. Usually, if overtopping is allowed, the structure may be designed to accommodate a flood of some lower frequency without overtopping. Storm Drains: A storm drain shall be designed to accommodate a discharge with a given return period(s) for the following circumstances. The design shall be such that the storm runoff does not:
 

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increase the flood hazard significantly for property; encroach on to the street or highway so as to cause a significant traffic hazard; or limit traffic, emerging vehicle, or pedestrian movement to an unreasonable extent.

Based on these design criteria, a design involving a street or road inundation of short duration for floods larger than the design event is an acceptable practice.  5(9,(: )5(48(1&< After sizing a drainage facility using a flood (and the hydrograph) corresponding to the design frequency, it is necessary to review this proposed facility with a base discharge. This is done to insure that there are no unexpected flood hazards inherent in the proposed facility(ies). The review (check) flood shall be at least the 100-year event, or as provided in &KDSWHU , Table 2-1. In some cases, a flood event larger than the specified review flood might be used for analysis to ensure the safety of the drainage structure and downstream development. Certain hydrologic procedures use rainfall and rainfall frequency as the basic input rather than flood frequency. It is commonly assumed that the 10-year rainfall will produce the 10-year flood. Depending on antecedent soil moisture conditions, and other hydrologic parameters, there may not be a direct relationship between rainfall and flood frequency. 5.3 HYDROLOGY

 ,1752'8&7,21 The analysis of the peak rate of runoff, volume of runoff, and time distribution of flow is fundamental to the design of drainage structures. Errors in the estimates will result in a structure that is either undersized and causes more drainage problems or oversized and costs more than necessary. On the other hand, it must be realized that any hydrologic analysis is only an approximation. The relationship between the amount of precipitation on a drainage basin and the amount of runoff from the basin is complex, and too little data are available on the factors influencing the rural and urban rainfall-runoff relationship to expect exact solutions.  )$&7256 $))(&7,1* )/22'6 In the hydrologic analysis for a drainage structure, it must be recognized that there are many variable factors that affect floods. Some of the factors that need to be recognized and considered on an individual site by site basis are: rainfall amount and storm distribution; catchment area size, shape and orientation; ground cover; type of soil; slopes of terrain and stream(s); antecedent moisture condition; storage potential (overbank, ponds, wetlands, reservoirs, channel, etc.); and catchment area development potential.

 6285&(6 2) ,1)250$7,21 The type and source of information available for hydrologic analysis will vary from site to site and it is the responsibility of the designer to determine what information is
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available and applicable to a particular analysis. A comprehensive list of data sources is included in &KDSWHU  +\GURJUDSKLF 6XUYH\ of this manual. 5.4 HYDROLOGIC ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FLOWCHART

The hydrologic analysis procedure flowchart Figure 5-1 shows the steps needed for the hydrologic analysis and the designs that will use the hydrologic estimates. )LJXUH  +\GURORJLF $QDO\VLV 3URFHGXUH )ORZFKDUW


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5.5

RAINFALL CURVES

Rainfall data have been collected from many Ministry of Water Resources meteorology stations in the country (see Table 5-2). They have been subjected to statistical techniques to develop the information needed from hydrologic analyses. The results indicate that the country can be divided into several hydrological regions which display similar rainfall patterns, as indicated on the map in Figure 5-8 at the end of this chapter. Using the statistical analyses, rainfall intensity-duration curves have been developed for commonly used design frequencies. Figures 5-9 through 5-12 at the end of this chapter show the curves presently available. 7DEOH  0HWHRURORJ\ 6WDWLRQV Meteorological Region A1 Station Years of Record 18 35 24 40 22 35 44 25 33 40 31 19 28 46 35 Meteorological Station Region B Bedele Gore Nekempte Jima Arba Minch Sodo Awasa Kombolcha Woldiya Sirinka Gode Kebri Dihar Kibre Mengist Negele Moyale Yabelo Years of Record 19 45 27 45 11 28 26 46 23 17 29* 38 24 45 18 34

Axum Mekele Maychew A2 Gondar Debre Tabor Bahir Dar Debre Markos Fitche Addis Ababa A3 Nazareth Kulumsa Robe/Bale A4 Metehara Dire Dawa Mieso * max 24 hour rainfall not given Years of record through 1997 127(6 21 5$,1)$// $1$/<6,6

D1 D2

The rainfall data available is too sparse to develop highly accurate intensity-durationfrequency curves. The 24-hour rainfall depth records were generally adequate to project the frequency of 24-hour rainfall depths. Based on the monthly rainfall depths and patterns, the country was divided into regions and sub-regions. The 24-hour depth frequency data for each sub-region was analyzed for each station in the sub-region. Regression analysis was used to develop depth-frequency curves for each sub-region. The curves were selected so that approximately 75% of the data lay BELOW the selected design curve. This means that the total 24-hour rainfall estimated for a particular region will be greater on average than the rainfall depth that might actually occur, and that these rainfall curves are reasonably conservative estimates of rainfall depths. It is recommended that hydraulic engineers using these curves do not also take

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Chapter 5 Hydrology

conservative estimates of the other independent variables used in runoff estimation as this will likely lead to excessively conservative and uneconomical designs. The amount of data available for shorter duration storms was too sparse for the development of intensity-duration-frequency curves, and was insufficient to do a frequency distribution plot for each rainfall period. In order to develop intensity-durationfrequency curves for each rainfall region, the ratios of the short duration data available were compared to the 24-hour data. Based on this comparison and making similar comparisons for published rainfall data from other regions, principally the United States, it seemed that reasonable estimations of rainfall depths occurring in shorter periods could be expressed as a fraction of the 24-hour rainfall depth. Many recommendations for depth-duration-frequency curves in the technical literature suggest a "broken-leg" approach such that the depth duration frequency equation for shorter duration rainfalls, less than one hour, is different from that derived for longer duration rainfalls. Because of the scarcity of data this approach was not taken and one curve was developed. The amount of rainfall data obtained for peak rainfall intensities of periods shorter than one-half hour was too limited to be useful. The curves presented are satisfactory for rainfall durations of one-half hour or more. Intensities for periods shorter than 15 minutes appear to be overestimated by the curves presented. It is recommended in this manual for the design of most drainage structures that the minimum time of concentration be taken as fifteen minutes. The design of gutters and inlets may be based on shorter rainfall durations, but this isnt serious conservatism. The overall drainage system - drainage conduit - will usually be designed for a storm duration of nearly 15 minutes or more, thus the most expensive part of the drainage system will not be unnecessarily over-designed. Relevant background information collected during the course of the preparation of this manual is presented in $SSHQGL[ % 5.6 HYDROLOGIC PROCEDURE

 29(59,(: Streamflow measurements for determining a flood frequency relationship at a site are usually unavailable. In such cases, it is an accepted practice to estimate peak runoff rates and hydrographs using statistical or empirical methods. In general, results from using several methods shall be compared, not averaged. Standard practice is to use the discharge that best reflects local project conditions with the reasons documented. Use is outlined with each hydrologic procedure given below.  +<'52/2*,& 352&('85(6 The methods presented in this manual were selected to be consistent with the methods available in the computer program HYDRAIN Integrated Drainage Design Computer System and HEC 1. The hydrologic model within the HYDRAIN system is called HYDRO and this model allows the user to select among several hydrologic procedures. The possibilities generally applicable to available data for Ethiopia include:

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Rational Method - Provides peak runoff rates for small urban and rural catchment areas, less than 50 hectares, but is best suited to urban storm drain systems and rural ditches. It shall be used with caution if the time of concentration exceeds 30 minutes. Rainfall is a necessary input. SCS Synthetic Unit Hydrograph The U.S. Soil Conservation Service has developed a synthetic unit hydrograph procedure that has been used widely for developing rural and urban hydrographs. The unit hydrograph used by the SCS method is based upon an analysis of a large number of natural unit hydrographs from a broad cross section of geographic locations and hydrologic regions. The rainfall depth to be used as input is presented in Figure 5-13 at the end of this chapter.
 

5.7

RATIONAL METHOD

 ,1752'8&7,21 The Rational Method is most accurate for estimating the design storm peak runoff for areas up to 50 hectares (0.5 km2). This method, while first introduced in 1889, is still widely used. Even though it has come under frequent criticism for its simplistic approach, no other drainage design method has achieved such widespread use.
 

 $33/,&$7,21 Some precautions shall be considered when applying the Rational Method: The first step in applying the Rational Method is to obtain a good topographic map and define the boundaries of the catchment area in question. A field inspection of the area should also be made to determine if the natural drainage divides have been altered. In determining the runoff coefficient C value for the catchment area, thought shall be given to future changes in land use that might occur during the service life of the proposed facility that could result in an inadequate drainage system. Also, the effects of upstream detention structures must be taken into account. Restrictions to the natural flow such as highway crossings and dams that exist in the catchment area shall be investigated to see how they affect the design flows. The charts, graphs, and tables included in this section are not intended to replace reasonable and prudent engineering judgment that should permeate each step in the design process.

 &+$5$&7(5,67,&6 Characteristics of the Rational Method that generally limit its use to 50 hectares include: (1) The rate of runoff resulting from any rainfall intensity is a maximum when the rainfall intensity lasts as long or longer than the time of concentration. That is, the entire catchment area does not contribute to the peak discharge until the time of concentration has elapsed.

This assumption limits the size of the drainage basin that can be evaluated by the Rational Method. For large catchment areas, the time of concentration can be so large that constant rainfall intensities for such long periods do not occur and shorter more intense rainfalls can produce larger peak flows. Further, in semi-arid and arid regions,
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storm cells are relatively small with extreme intensity variations thus making the Rational Method inappropriate for catchment areas greater than 50 hectares. (2) The frequency of peak discharges is the same as that of the rainfall intensity for the given time of concentration.

Frequencies of peak discharges depend on rainfall frequencies, antecedent moisture conditions in the catchment area, and the response characteristics of the drainage system. For small and largely impervious areas, rainfall frequency is the dominant factor. For larger drainage basins, the response characteristics control. For catchment areas with few impervious surfaces (little urban development), antecedent moisture conditions usually govern, especially for rainfall events with a return period of 10 years or less. (3) The fraction of rainfall that becomes runoff (C) is independent of rainfall intensity or volume.

This assumption is only reasonable for impervious areas, such as streets, rooftops, and parking lots. For pervious areas, the fraction of runoff does vary with rainfall intensity and the accumulated volume of rainfall. Thus, the application of the Rational Method requires the selection of a coefficient that is appropriate for the storm, soil, and land use conditions. Many guidelines and tables have been established, but seldom, if ever, have they been supported with empirical evidence. (4) The peak rate of runoff is sufficient information for the design.

Modern drainage practice includes detention of urban storm runoff to reduce the peak rate of runoff downstream. Using only the peak rate of runoff, the Rational Method severely limits the evaluation of design alternatives available in urban and in some instances, rural drainage design.  (48$7,21 The rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a catchment area as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient, and mean rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration (the time required for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the location being analyzed). The rational formula is expressed as: Q = 0.00278 CIA where: Q C I A = maximum rate of runoff, m3/s = runoff coefficient representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall (see Tables 5-3 through 5-5) = average rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration, for a selected return period, mm/hr = catchment area tributary to the design location, ha
 

(5.1)

 ,1)5(48(17 67250 The coefficients given in Tables 5-3 through 5-5 are applicable for storms of 5-yr to 10yr frequencies. Less frequent, higher intensity storms will require modification of the
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coefficient because infiltration and other losses have a proportionally smaller effect on runoff (11). The adjustment of the Rational Method for use with major storms can be made by multiplying the right side of the rational formula by a frequency factor Cf. The rational formula now becomes:

Q = 0.00278 CCf IA

(5.2)

Cf values are listed below. The product of Cf times C shall not exceed 1.0.

7DEOH  5HFRPPHQGHG 5XQRII &RHIILFLHQW & IRU 3HUYLRXV 6XUIDFHV E\ 6HOHFWHG +\GURORJLF 6RLO *URXSLQJV DQG 6ORSH 5DQJHV VHH DOVR 7DEOH 


Soil Type Terrain Type Flat, <2% Rolling, 2-6% Mountain, 6-15% Escarpment, >15%


A


B


C


D


0.04-0.09 0.09-0.14 0.13-0.18 0.18-0.22

0.07-0.12 0.12-0.17 0.18-0.24 0.24-0.30

0.11-0.16 0.16-0.21 0.23-0.31 0.30-0.40

0.15-0.20 0.20-0.25 0.28-0.38 0.38-0.48

7DEOH  5HFRPPHQGHG 5XQRII &RHIILFLHQW & IRU 9DULRXV 6HOHFWHG /DQG 8VHV Description of Area
  

Runoff Coefficients 0.70-0.95 0.50-0.70 0.30-0.50 0.40-0.60 0.60-0.75 0.25-0.40 0.30-0.45 0.50-0.70 0.50-0.80 0.60-0.90 0.10-0.25 0.20-0.40 0.20-0.40 0.10-0.30

Business: Downtown areas Neighborhood areas Residential: Single-family areas Multi units, detached Multi units, attached Suburban Residential (0.5 hectare lots or more) Apartment dwelling areas Industrial: Light areas Heavy areas Parks, cemeteries Playgrounds Railroad yard areas Unimproved areas

Source: Hydrology, Federal Highway Administration, HEC No. 19, 1984

7DEOH  &RHIILFLHQWV IRU &RPSRVLWH 5XQRII $QDO\VLV Surface

  

Runoff Coefficients 0.70-0.95 0.80-0.95 0.75-0.85 0.75-0.95

Street :

Asphalt Concrete Drives and walks Roofs

Source: Hydrology, Federal Highway Administration, HEC No. 19, 1984 3DJH  (WKLRSLDQ 5RDGV $XWKRULW\

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7DEOH  )UHTXHQF\ )DFWRUV IRU 5DWLRQDO )RUPXOD Recurrence Interval (years) 5 10 25 50 100  352&('85(6 The results of using the Rational Formula to estimate peak discharges is very sensitive to the parameters that are used. The designer must use good engineering judgment in estimating values that are used in the method. Time of Concentration


Cf

1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.25

The time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the hydraulically most remote point of the catchment area to the point under investigation. Use of the Rational Method requires the time of concentration (tc) for each design point within the catchment area. The duration of rainfall is then set equal to the time of concentration and is used to estimate the design average rainfall intensity (I). For a specific drainage basin, the time of concentration consists of an inlet time plus the time of flow in a closed conduit or open channel to the design point. Inlet time is the time required for runoff to flow over the surface to the nearest inlet and is primarily a function of the length of overland flow, the slope of the drainage basin, and surface cover. Pipe or open channel flow time can be estimated from the hydraulic properties of the conduit or channel. An alternative way to estimate the overland flow time is to use Figure 5-2 to estimate overland flow velocity and divide the velocity into the overland travel distance.

For design conditions that do not involve complex drainage conditions, Figure 5-3 can be used to estimate inlet time. For each catchment area, the distance is determined from the inlet to the most remote point in the tributary area. From a topographic map, the average slope is determined for the same distance. The runoff coefficient (C) is determined by the procedure described in a subsequent section of this chapter. To obtain the total time of concentration, the pipe or open channel flow time must be calculated and added to the inlet time. After first determining the average flow velocity in the pipe or channel, the travel time is obtained by dividing velocity into the pipe or channel length. Mannings Equation can be used to determine velocity (see &KDSWHU  &KDQQHOV). Common Errors


Three common errors should be avoided when calculating tc. First, application of simplified general equations such as Kirpich for determining tc can result in too short of a time of concentration particularly when the average basin slope varies significantly from the mean channel slope as in steep mountainous areas. Neglecting the overland flow time can also dramatically shorten the time of concentration thus increasing the design peak

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runoff. Computing tc for two reaches of main channel, from the low point to the 0.7 point, then from there to the end of the channel, has been found to give better results.

Second, in some cases runoff from a portion of the catchment area that is highly impervious may result in a greater peak discharge than would occur if the entire area were considered. In these cases, adjustments can be made to the catchment area by disregarding those areas where flow time is too slow to add to the peak discharge. Sometimes it is necessary to estimate several different times of concentration to determine the design flow that is critical for a particular application.

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Third, when designing a drainage system, the overland flow path is not necessarily perpendicular to the contours shown on available mapping. Especially in urban areas, the land will be graded and swales will intercept the natural contour and conduct the water to the streets, which reduces the time of concentration. Care shall be exercised in selecting overland flow paths in excess of 100 meters in urban areas and 200 meters in rural areas. Rainfall Intensity


The rainfall intensity (I) is the average rainfall rate in mm/hr for a duration equal to the time of concentration for a selected return period. Once a particular return period has been selected for design and a time of concentration calculated for the catchment area, the rainfall intensity can be determined from Rainfall-Intensity-Duration curves. RainfallIntensity-Duration curves for use in Ethiopia are given in Figures 5-9 through 5-12 at the end of this chapter. Runoff Coefficient


The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the Rational Method least susceptible to precise determination and requires judgment and understanding on the part of the designer. A typical coefficient represents the integrated effects of many drainage basin parameters. The following discussion considers the effects of soil groups, land use, and average land slope. Three methods for determining the runoff coefficient are presented based on soil groups and land slope (Table 5-3), land use (Table 5-4), and a composite coefficient for complex catchment areas (Table 5-5). Table 5-3 gives the recommended runoff coefficient (C) for pervious surfaces by selected hydrologic soil groupings and slope ranges. From this table the C values for non-urban areas such as forest land, agricultural land, and open space can be determined. Hydrological Soil Groups for Ethiopia


Soil properties influence the relationship between runoff and rainfall since soils have differing rates of infiltration. Permeability and infiltration are the principal data required to classify soils into Hydrologic Soils Groups (HSG). Based on infiltration rates, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has divided soils into four hydrologic soil groups as follows: Group A: Sand, loamy sand or sandy loam. Soils having a low runoff potential due to high infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of deep, well-drained sands and gravels.
 

Group B: Silt loam, or loam. Soils having a moderately low runoff potential due to moderate infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained soils with moderately fine to moderately coarse textures.
 

Group C: Sandy clay loam. Soils having a moderately high runoff potential due to slow infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of soils in which a layer exists near the surface that impedes the downward movement of water or soils with moderately fine to fine texture.
 

Group D: Clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay or clay. Soils having a high runoff potential due to very slow infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of clays with high swelling potential, soils with permanently-high water tables, soils with a
 

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claypan or clay layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious parent material. Data from direct field measurements on soil permeability and infiltration rates for Ethiopian soils are very limited. Data is generally available only for soil types located near major irrigation projects and agricultural research stations. The hydrological soils groups presented in Table 5-7 are based on limited field measurements and from profile morphology and physical characteristics, and are subject to further review and refinement. 7DEOH  7\SLFDO +\GURORJLF 6RLOV *URXSV IRU (WKLRSLD Ao Bc Bd Be Bh Bk Bv Ck E Hh Hl I Jc Je Lc Lo Lv Nd Ne Od Oe Qc Rc Re Th Tm Tv Vc Vp Xh Xk Xl Yy Zg Zo Soil Types Orthic Acrisols Chromic Cambisols Dystric Cambisols Eutric Cambisols Humic Cambisols Calcic Cambisols Vertic Cambisols Calcic Chernozems Rendzinas Haplic Phaeozems Luvic Phaeozems Lithosols Calcaric Fluvisols Eutric Fluvisols Chromic Luvisols Orthic Luvisols Vertic Luvisols Dystric Nitosols Eutric Nitosols Dystric Histosols Eutric Histosols Cambric Arenosols Calcaric Regosols Eutric Regosols Humic Andosols Mollic Andosols Vitric Andosols Chromic Vertisols Pellic Vertisols Haplic Xerosols Caloic Xerosols Luvic Xerosols Gypsic Yermosols Gleyic Solonchaks Orthic Solonchaks Hydrologic Soil Group B B B B C B B B D C C D B B B B C B B D D A A A B B B D D B B C B D B

Source: Ministry of Agriculture

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As the slope of the drainage basin increases, the selected runoff coefficient C should also increase. This is caused by the fact that as the slope of the catchment area increases, the velocity of overland and channel flow will increase allowing less opportunity for water to infiltrate the ground surface. Thus, more of the rainfall will become runoff from the catchment area. It is often desirable to develop a composite runoff coefficient based on the percentage of different types of surface in the catchment area. Composites can be made with Tables 5-3 and 5-4. At a more detailed level composites can be made with Table 5-3 and the coefficients with respect to surface type given in Table 5-5. The composite procedure can be applied to an entire catchment area or to typical "sample blocks as a guide to selection of reasonable values of the coefficient for an entire area. 5.8 EXAMPLE PROBLEM - RATIONAL METHOD

The following is an example problem which illustrates the application of the Rational Method to estimate peak discharges. Estimate the maximum rate of runoff at the inlet to a culvert on a road near Debre Markos. Site Data
 

From a topographic map and field survey, the area of the drainage basin upstream from the point in question is found to be 35 hectares. The Rational Method is selected as per subsection 5.2 as the area in question is less than 50 hectares. The initial estimate is that the structure required is a small culvert. The road has a functional classification of a Link Road, with a design standard of DS3 (VHH (5$ *HRPHWULF 'HVLJQ 0DQXDO   7DEOH ), indicating, as per Table 2-1, a design storm frequency of 10 years. Determine the maximum rate of runoff for a 10-year and check a 25-year return period. The following data were measured: Length of overland flow = 45 m Average overland slope = 2.0% Length of main basin channel = 700 m Slope of channel = 0.018 m/m = 1.8 % Estimated Mannings n Roughness coefficient (n) of channel: See &KDSWHU  &KDQQHOV 7DEOH : Channels not maintained, dense brush, n = 0.090 Hydraulic radius = A/P, or, as per Glossary, can be approximated by average depth, = 0.6m


Land Use and Soil Data

From existing land use maps, land use for the drainage basin was estimated to be: Residential (multi-units, attached) 40% Undeveloped (2.0% slope),with good vegetative cover 60% For the undeveloped area the soil group was determined from field analysis to be: Ao Orthic Acrisols Hydrologic Soils Group B 100%

The land use for the overland flow area at the head of the basin was estimated to be: Undeveloped, (Soil Group B, 2.5% slope)
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Overland Flow


The runoff coefficient (C) for the overland flow area from Table 5-3 is 0.12-0.17, use 0.14. Time of Concentration
 

From Figure 5-3 with an overland flow length of 45 m, slope of 2.0 % and a C of 0.14, the inlet time is 17 min. Channel flow velocity is determined from Mannings formula (see &KDSWHU  &KDQQHOV, Formula 6.6): V = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
   

Using n = 0.090, R = 0.6 m and S = 0.018m/m, V = 1/1 m/s. Therefore, Flow Time = (700 m)/(1.1 m/s)(60 s/min) = 10.61 min and tc = 17 + 10.61 = 28.61 min - say 29 min

Rainfall Intensity


From Figure 5-8 Debre Markos is in Region A2. From Figure 5-10 for Region A2 with a duration equal to 29 minutes, I10

(10-yr return period) =

67 mm/hr 80 mm/hr

I25


(25-yr return period) =



Runoff Coefficient

A weighted runoff coefficient (C) for the total catchment area is determined in the following table by using the values from Tables 5-3 and 5-4. (1) (2) Percent Weighted Total Runoff Land Use Land Area Residential (multi-units, attached) .40 Undeveloped (Soil Group B) .60
    

(3) Runoff Coefficient Coefficient .68 .14

 

(1) x (2) .27 .08

 

Total Weighted Runoff Coefficient Peak Runoff

 

.35

From the rational equation (5-1): Q10 = 0.00278CIA = 0.00278 x 0.35 x 67 mm/h x 35 ha = 2.28 m3/s
 

Q25 = CfCIA = 1.1 x 0.00278 x 0.35 x 100 mm/h x 35 ha = 3.75 m3/s

 

These are the estimates of peak runoff for a 10-year and 100-year design storm for the given basin. The culvert, channel, and erosion protection design would proceed with these values.

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5.9

SCS UNIT HYDROGRAPH

 ,1752'8&7,21 Techniques developed by the U. S. Soil Conservation Service (12) for calculating rates of runoff require the same basic data as the Rational Method: catchment area, a runoff factor, time of concentration, and rainfall. The SCS approach, however, is more sophisticated in that it considers also the time distribution of the rainfall, the initial rainfall losses to interception and depression storage, and an infiltration rate that decreases during the course of a storm. With the SCS method, the direct runoff can be calculated for any storm, either real or fabricated, by subtracting infiltration and other losses from the rainfall to obtain the precipitation excess (14).  &$7&+0(17 $5($ A catchment area is determined from topographic maps and field surveys. For large catchment areas it might be necessary to divide the area into sub-catchment areas to account for major land use changes, obtain analysis results at different points within the catchment area, or locate stormwater drainage structures and assess their effects on the flood flows. A field inspection of existing or proposed drainage systems shall be made to determine if the natural drainage divides have been altered. These alterations could make significant changes in the size and slope of the subcatchment areas.  5$,1)$// The SCS method is based on a 24-hour storm event which has a Type II time distribution. The Type II storm distribution is a typical" time distribution which the SCS has prepared from rainfall records. It is applicable for interior rather than the coastal regions and should be appropriate for Ethiopia. The Type II rainfall distribution will usually give a higher runoff than a Type I distribution. Figure 5-4 shows this distribution. To use this distribution it is necessary for the user to obtain 1) the 24-hour rainfall value (from Figure 5-13) for the frequency of the design storm desired, and then 2) multiply this value by 24 to obtain the total 24-hour storm volume in millimeters.  5$,1)$//5812)) (48$7,21 A relationship between accumulated rainfall and accumulated runoff was derived by SCS from experimental plots for numerous hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions. Data for land-treatment measures, such as contouring and terracing, from experimental catchment areas were included. The equation was developed mainly for small catchment areas for which daily rainfall and catchment area data are ordinarily available. It was developed from recorded storm data that included total amount of rainfall in a calendar day but not its distribution with respect to time. The SCS runoff equation is therefore a method of estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day storm rainfall. The equation is: Q = (P- Ia)2 / (P - Ia) + S
 

(5.3)

Where: Q P Ia

= = = =

S
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accumulated direct runoff, mm accumulated rainfall (potential maximum runoff), mm initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior to runoff, mm (see Table 5-15) potential maximum retention, mm
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The relationship between Ia and S was developed from experimental catchment area data. It removes the necessity for estimating Ia for common usage. The empirical relationship used in the SCS runoff equation is:

Ia = 0.2S

(5.4)

Substituting 0.2S for Ia in equation 5.3, the SCS rainfall-runoff equation becomes: Q = (P - 0.2S)2 / (P + 0.8S)
 

(5.5)

S is related to the soil and cover conditions of the catchment area through the CN. CN has a range of 0 to 100, and S is related to CN by: S = 1000/CN 10 (5.6)

Figure 5-5 shows a graphical solution of this equation which enables the precipitation excess from a storm to be obtained if the total rainfall and catchment area curve number are known. For example, 180 mm of rainfall with a Curve Number of 85 would result in direct runoff of would result in 135 mm of runoff.  5812)) )$&7256 Runoff is rainfall excess or effective rainfall - the amount by which rainfall exceeds the capability of the land to infiltrate or otherwise retain the rainwater. The principal physical catchment area characteristics affecting the relationship between rainfall and runoff are land use, land treatment, soil types, and land slope. /DQG XVH is the catchment area cover, and it includes both agricultural and nonagricultural uses. Items such as type of vegetation, water surfaces, roads, roofs, etc. are all part of the land use. /DQG WUHDWPHQW applies mainly to agricultural land use, and it includes mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as rotation of crops. The SCS uses a combination of soil conditions and land-use (ground cover) to assign a runoff factor to an area. These runoff factors, called runoff curve numbers (CN), indicate the runoff potential of an area. The higher the CN, the higher is the runoff potential.  +<'52/2*,& 62,/ *52836 6RLO SURSHUWLHV influence the relationship between rainfall and runoff by affecting the rate of infiltration. The SCS has divided soils into four hydrologic soil groups based on infiltration rates (Groups A, B, C, and D). These groups were previously described for the Rational Formula (see Section 5.7, Table 5-7). Consideration shall be given to the effects of urbanization on the natural hydrologic soil group. If heavy equipment can be expected to compact the soil during construction or if grading will mix the surface and subsurface soils, appropriate changes shall be made in the soil group selected. Also runoff curve numbers vary with the antecedent soil moisture conditions, defined as the amount of rainfall occurring in a selected period preceding a given storm. In general, the greater the antecedent rainfall, the more direct runoff there is from a given storm. A five-day period is used as the minimum for estimating antecedent moisture conditions.
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Antecedent soil moisture conditions also vary during a storm; heavy rain falling on a dry soil can change the soil moisture condition from dry to average to wet during the storm period.  5812)) &859( 180%(56 The following pages give a series of tables related to runoff factors. The first tables (Tables 5-8 through 5-11) give curve numbers for various land uses. These tables are based on an average antecedent moisture condition, i.e., soils that are neither very wet nor very dry when the design storm begins. Curve numbers shall be selected only after a field inspection of the catchment area and a review of cover type and soil maps. Table 512 gives conversion factors to convert average curve numbers to wet and dry curve numbers. Table 5-13 gives the antecedent conditions for the three classifications. Care shall be taken in the selection of curve numbers (CNs). Use a representative average curve number, CN, for the catchment area. Selection of overly conservative CNs will result in the estimation of excessively high runoff and consequently excessively costly drainage structures. Selection of conservatively high values for all runoff variables results in compounding the runoff estimation. It is better to use average values and design for a longer storm frequency. Often the runoff computed using conservative CN's for a ten year storm will greatly exceed the computed runoff for average CN's for a 25 or even 50 year storm. The hydrologic designer could consider doing both in making the most appropriate selection of design discharge. For antecedent moisture conditions (AMC) in Ethiopia, use dry for Region D1, wet for Region B1, and average AMC for all other regions. The portion of Region A2 in the vicinity of Bahir Dar should also be treated as wet. When wet AMC is used, it is unlikely that the vegetation density will also be poor to sparse.

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7DEOH  5XQRII &XUYH 1XPEHUV 8UEDQ $UHDV



Cover description Cover type and Hydrologic condition

Curve numbers for hydrologic soil groups Average % impervious area2

  

Open space (lawns, parks, cemeteries, etc.)3 Poor condition (grass cover <50%) Fair condition (grass cover 50 % to 75%) Good condition (grass cover >75%) Impervious areas: Paved parking lots, roofs, driveways, etc. (excluding right-of-way) Streets and roads: Paved; curbs and storm drains (excluding right-of-way) Paved; open ditches (including right-of-way) Gravel (including right-of-way) Dirt (including right-of-way) Desert urban areas: Natural desert cover Urban districts: Commercial and business Industrial Residential districts by average plot size: 0.05 hectare or less 0.1 hectare 0.135 hectare 0.2 hectare 0.4 hectare 0.8 hectare Developing urban areas Newly graded areas (pervious areas only, no vegetation)
1
 

68 49 39

79 69 61

86 79 74

89 84 80

98

98

98

98

98 83 76 72 63 85 72 65 38 30 25 20 12 89 81 77 61 57 54 51 46 77

98 89 85 82 77 92 88 85 75 72 70 68 65 86

98 92 89 87 85 94 91 90 83 81 80 79 77 91

98 93 91 89 88 95 93 92 87 86 85 84 82 94

Average runoff condition, and Ia = 0.2S The average percent impervious area shown was used to develop the composite CNs. Other assumptions are as follows: impervious areas are directly connected to the drainage system, impervious areas have a CN of 98, and pervious areas are considered equivalent to open space in good hydrologic condition. If the impervious area is not connected, the SCS method has an adjustment to reduce the effect. 3 CNs shown are equivalent to those of pasture. Composite CNs may be computed for other combinations of open space cover type.
2
   

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7DEOH  &XOWLYDWHG $JULFXOWXUDO /DQG



Cover description Cover Type Fallow Treatment2

 

Curve numbers for Hydrologic soil group Hydrologic condtion3 Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good Poor Good
 

A 77 76 74 72 67 71 64 70 65 69 64 66 62 65 61 65 63 64 60 63 61 62 60 61 59 60 58 66 58 64 55 63 51

B 86 85 83 81 78 80 75 79 75 78 74 74 71 73 70 76 75 75 72 74 73 73 72 72 70 71 69 77 72 75 69 73 67

C 91 90 88 88 85 87 82 84 82 83 81 80 78 79 77 84 83 83 80 82 81 81 80 79 78 78 77 85 81 83 78 80 76

D 94 93 90 91 89 90 85 88 86 87 85 82 81 81 80 88 87 86 84 85 84 84 83 82 81 81 80 89 85 85 83 83 80

Row Crops

Bare soil Crop residue cover (CR) Straight row (SR) SR + CR Contoured (C) C + CR Contoured & terraced (C & T) C&T + CR Small grain SR SR + CR C C + CR C&T C&T + CR Close-seeded SR or broadcast Legumes or C Rotation Meadow C&T

1


Average runoff condition, and Ia = 0.2S. Crop residue cover applies only if residue is on at least 5% of the surface throughout the year. 3 Hydrologic condition is based on a combination of factors that affect infiltration and runoff, including (a) density and canopy of vegetative areas, (b) amount of year-round cover, (c) amount of grass or closedseeded legumes in rotations, (d) percent of residue cover on the land surface (good > 20%), and (e) degree of roughness. Poor : Factors impair infiltration and tend to increase runoff. Good : Factors encourage average and better than average infiltration and tend to decrease runoff.


2
 

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7DEOH  2WKHU $JULFXOWXUDO /DQGV



Cover description Cover type Pasture, grassland, or rangecontinuous forage for grazing2


Curve numbers for hydrologic soil group Hydrologic condition Poor Fair Good -Poor Fair Good Poor Fair Good Poor Fair Good -A 68 49 39 35 48 35 304 57 43 32 45 36 304
 

B 79 69 61 59 67 56 48 73 65 58 66 60 55 74

C 86 79 74 72 77 70 65 82 76 72 77 73 70 82

D 89 84 80 79 83 77 73 86 82 79 83 79 77 86

Meadow-continuous grass, protected from grazing Brush-weed-grass mixture with brush the major element3


Woods-grass combination5


Woods6


Farmsbuildings, lanes, driveways, and surrounding lots

1
 

59

Average runoff condition, and Ia = 0.2S Poor: < 50% ground cover or heavily grazed with no mulch Fair: 50 to 75% ground cover and not heavily grazed Good: > 75% ground cover and lightly or only occasionally grazed 3 Poor: < 50% ground cover Fair: 50 to 75% ground cover Good: > 75% ground cover 4 Actual curve number is less than 30; use CN = 30 for runoff computations. 5 CNs shown were computed for areas with 50% grass (pasture) cover. Other combinations of conditions may be computed from CNs for woods and pasture. 6 Poor : Forest litter, small trees, and brush are destroyed by heavy grazing or regular burning. Fair : Woods grazed but not burned, and some forest litter covers the soil. Good : Woods protected from grazing, litter and brush adequately cover soil.
2
         

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7DEOH  $ULG DQG 6HPLDULG 5DQJHODQGV Hydrologic A3 B Cover type condition2 80 Poor Mixture of grass, weeds, and low71 Fair growing brush, with brush the minor 62 Good element 66 Mountain brush mixture of small trees Poor 48 Fair and brush 30 Good 75 Poor Small trees with grass understory 58 Fair 41 Good 67 Poor Brush with grass understory 51 Fair 35 Good 77 63 Poor Desert shrub brush 72 55 Fair 68 49 Good
   

C 87 81 74 74 57 41 85 73 61 80 63 47 85 81 79

D 93 89 85 79 63 48 89 80 71 85 70 55 88 86 84

1
 

2
 

3
 

Average runoff condition, and Ia = 0.2S Poor : < 30 % ground cover (litter, grass, and brush overstory) Fair : 30 to 70 % ground cover Good: > 70 % ground cover Curve numbers for Group A have been developed only for desert shrub

7DEOH  &RQYHUVLRQ IURP $YHUDJH $QWHFHGHQW 0RLVWXUH &RQGLWLRQV WR 'U\ DQG :HW &RQGLWLRQV CN For Average Conditions
  

Corresponding CNs For Dry 100 87 78 70 63 57 51 45 40 35 31 26 22 18 15 12 6 2

 

100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 15 5

Wet 100 98 96 94 91 88 85 82 78 74 70 65 60 55 50 43 30 13

Ethiopian Rainfall Region D1 (< 100 mm) Source: Ref. 15 Ethiopian Rainfall Region A2 & B1 (mean monthly Peak > 300 mm) 3DJH  (WKLRSLDQ 5RDGV $XWKRULW\

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7DEOH  5DLQIDOO *URXSV IRU $QWHFHGHQW 6RLO 0RLVWXUH &RQGLWLRQV 'XULQJ *URZLQJ DQG 'RUPDQW 6HDVRQV Antecedent Condition Dry Conditions Description An optimum Condition of catchment area soils, where soils are dry but not to the wilting point, and when satisfactory plowing or cultivation takes place The average case for annual floods When a heavy rainfall, or light rainfall and low temperatures, have occurred during the five days previous to a given storm Growing Season Five-Day Antecedent Rainfall Less than 36 mm Dormant Season Five-Day Antecedent Rainfall Less than 13 mm

Average Wet

36 to 53 mm Over 53 mm

13 to 28 mm Over 28 mm

Source: Soil Conservation Service

 75$9(/ 7,0( (67,0$7,21 The next step in the SCS Method is to determine the Time of Concentration. Travel Time


Travel time (Tt) is the time it takes water to travel from one location to another in a catchment area. Tt is a component of time of concentration (Tc), which is the time for runoff to travel from the hydraulically most distant point of the catchment area to a point of interest within the catchment area. Tc is computed by summing all the travel times for consecutive components of the drainage conveyance system.

Following is a discussion of procedures and equations for calculating travel time and time of concentration. Travel Time


Water moves through a catchment area as sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, open channel flow, or some combination of these. The type that occurs is a function of the conveyance system and is best determined by field inspection. Travel time is the ratio of flow length to flow velocity: Tt = L/(3600V)

(5.7)

Where: Tt = travel time, hr L = flow length, m V = average velocity, m/s 3600 = conversion factor from seconds to hours.

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Time of Concentration


The time of concentration is the sum of Tt values for the various consecutive flow segments:

Tc = Tt1 + Tt2 + Ttm

(5.8)

Where: Tc = time of concentration, hr m = number of flow segments.

Sheet Flow


Sheet flow is flow over plane surfaces. It usually occurs in the headwater of streams. With sheet flow, the friction value (Manning's n) is an effective roughness coefficient that includes the effect of raindrop impact; drag over the plane surface; obstacles such as litter, crop ridges, and rocks; and erosion and transportation of sediment. These n values are for very shallow flow depths of about 0.03 m or so. Table 5-14 gives Manning's n values for sheet flow for various surface conditions.

7DEOH  5RXJKQHVV &RHIILFLHQWV 0DQQLQJV Q IRU 6KHHW )ORZ n1 Surface Description


Smooth surfaces (concrete, asphalt, gravel, or bare soil Fallow (no residue) Cultivated soils: Residue cover 20% Residue cover > 20% Grasses: Short grass Dense Grasses Range (natural) Woods:2 Light underbrush Dense underbrush
 

0.011 0.05

0.06 0.17 0.15 0.24 0.13 0.40 0.80

1


The n values are a composite of information complied by Engman (1986). When selecting n, consider cover to a height of about 0.03 m. This is the only part of the plant cover that will obstruct sheet flow.


2


For sheet flow of less than 100 meters, use Manning's kinematic solution (Overton and Meadows 1976) to compute Tt:

Tt = [0.091 (nL)0.8 / (P2)0.5s0.4]

     

(5.9)

Where: Tt n L P2 s

= = = = =

travel time, hr Manning's roughness coefficient (Table 5-14) flow length, m 2-year, 24-hour rainfall, mm slope of hydraulic grade line (land slope), m/m
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This simplified form of the Mannings kinematic solution is based on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. shallow steady uniform flow, constant intensity of rainfall excess (rain available for runoff), rainfall duration of 24 hours, and minor effect of infiltration on travel time.

Another approach is to use the kinematic wave equation. For details on using this equation consult Ref. 16. Shallow Concentrated Flow


After a maximum of 100 meters, sheet flow usually becomes shallow concentrated flow. The average velocity for this flow can be determined from equations 5.10 and 5.11, in which average velocity is a function of watercourse slope and type of channel. Unpaved Paved Where: V S = average velocity, m/s = slope of hydraulic grade line (watercourse slope), m/m V = 4.9178 (s)0.5 V = 6.1961 (s)0.5
   

(5.10) (5.11)

These two equations are based on the solution of Mannings equation with different assumptions for n (Mannings roughness coefficient) and r (hydraulic radius, meters). For unpaved areas, n is 0.05 and r is 0.12; for paved areas, n is 0.025 and r is 0.06. After determining average velocity, use equation 5.7 to estimate travel time for the shallow concentrated flow segment. Open Channels


Open channels are assumed to begin where surveyed cross section information has been obtained, where channels are visible on aerial photographs, or where blue lines (indicating streams) appear on Ethiopian Mapping Authority (EMA) topographic maps (1:50,000). Average flow velocity is usually determined for bank-full elevation. Mannings equation or water surface profile information can be used to estimate average flow velocity. When the channel section and roughness coefficient (Mannings n) are available, then the velocity can be computed using the Manning Equation V = (r2/3 s1/2)/n
   

(5.12) average velocity, m/s hydraulic radius, m (equal to a/pw) cross sectional flow area, m2 wetted perimeter, m slope of the hydraulic grade line, m/m Mannings roughness coefficient


Where: V r a Pw s n
 

= = = = = =

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After average velocity is computed using equation 5.12, Tt for the channel segment can be estimated using equation 5.7. Reservoir or Lake


Sometimes it is necessary to compute a Tc for a catchment area having a relatively large body of water in the flow path. In such cases, Tc is computed to the upstream end of the lake or reservoir, and for the body of water the travel time is computed using the equation:

Vw = (gDm)0.5
 

(5.13)

Where: Vw = the wave velocity across the water, m/s g = 9.81 m/s2 Dm = mean depth of lake or reservoir, m
 

Generally, Vw will be high (2.44 9.14 m/s)

One must not overlook the fact that equation 5.13 only provides for estimating travel time across the lake and for the inflow hydrograph to the lake's outlet. It does not account for the travel time involved with the passage of the inflow hydrograph through spillway storage and the reservoir or lake outlet. This time is generally much longer and is added to the travel time across the lake. The travel time through lake storage and its outlet can be determined by the storage routing procedures in &KDSWHU  6WRUDJH )DFLOLWLHV. Equation 5.13 can be used for swamps with much open water, but where the vegetation or debris is relatively thick (less than about 25 percent open water), Manning's equation is more appropriate.


Limitations Manning's kinematic solution should not be used for sheet flow longer than 100 m. Equation 5.9 was developed for use with the four standard rainfall intensity-duration relationships. In catchment areas with storm drains, carefully identify the appropriate hydraulic flow path to estimate Tc. Storm drains generally handle only a small portion of a large event. The rest of the peak flow travels by streets, grassed areas, and so on, to the outlet. Consult a standard hydraulics textbook to determine average velocity in pipes for either pressure or non-pressure flow. A culvert or bridge can act as a reservoir outlet if there is significant storage behind it. Detailed storage routing procedures shall be used to determine the outflow through the culvert.

5.10 EXAMPLE PROBLEM: SCS METHOD The following is an example problem which illustrates the application of the SCS Method to estimate peak discharges. Estimate the maximum rate of runoff at the inlet to a proposed drainage structure located near Nekempte.

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From a topographic map and field survey, the area of the drainage basin upstream from the point in question is found to be 100 hectares. The SCS Method is selected as per subsection 5.2 as the area in question is greater than 50 hectares. The road has a functional classification of a Trunk Road, with a design standard of DS2 (see *HRPHWULF 'HVLJQ 0DQXDO, Table 2-1, &KDSWHU ). The type of structure required is not known, but Table 2-1 indicates a range of design storm frequencies between 25 and 100 years. Thus, determine the maximum rate of runoff for a 25-, 50year, and 100-year return period. The following data were measured: Site Data
 

From a topographic map and field survey, the following data were measured: From the Soils Map of Ethiopia, and from the field survey, it appears that the soils are Eutric and Humic Cambisols (BE and BH). From Table 5-7, BE is a silt loam of Hydrologic Soil Group B, and BH is a sandy clay loam of Hydrologic Soil Group C. Approximatly 30% (30 ha) is BE and 70% (70ha) is BH. The cover type is pasture in poor hydrologic condition. Curve Runoff Number


From Table 5-10: Pasture, poor condition, Soil Group B Pasture, poor condition, Soil Group C CN = (0.30 x 79) + (0.70 x 86) = 84 From Figure 5-8, Nekempte is in Rainfall Region B1. As per page 5-25, this is a Wet Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) Region. From Table 5-12, CN84avg = CN93wet. However, use CN = 84, as we require the peak discharge for 25-year and greater storm periods (see definition of Antecedent Moisture Conditions, page 5-1).

CN = 79 CN = 86

24- Hour Rainfall, P



For Region B1: 24-Hour rainfalls are: P25 = 118mm P50 = 132mm P100 = 147mm

Runoff, Q


From Figure 5-5 and CN = 84: Q25 = 81mm Q50 = 94mm Q100 = 108mm

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Travel Time


)LJXUH  &DWFKPHQW $UHD 6HJPHQWV For Segment A-B (see Figure 5-6): Sheet flow, natural range, slope = 0.10 m/m, length = 50m. From Table 5-14, Mannings n = 0.13. The 2-year, 24-Hour rainfall is determined from Figure 5-13 to be 65mm. From Equation 5.9, Tt = [0.091 (nL)0.8 / (P2)0.5s0.4] = 0.127 hr
     

For Segment B-C: Shallow concentrated flow, unpaved, s = 0.04 m/m, length = 500m. From Equation 5.10: V = 4.9178 (s)0.5
 

= 0.984 m/s

From Equation 5.7: Tt = L/(3600V) = 0.141 hr

For Segment C-D: channel flow, natural stream channel, winding with weeds and pools, s = 0.01m/m, length = 2000m. From the survey, bottom width = 2m, sideslopes = 1V:1H, 25-year storm depth = 1m. See Table 6-1 &KDSWHU  &KDQQHOV: Mannings n = 0.050. A = Cross-sectional flow area = (2 x 1) + 2[1/2(1)] = 3m2 Pw = wetted perimeter = 2m + 2 P R = Hydraulic radius = A/Pw = 3/4.828 = 0.621m From Equation 5.12
 

V = (r2/3 s1/2)/n = 1.46 m/s. From Equation 5.7: Tt = L/(3600V) = 0.381 hr

   

Total Time of Concentration = 0.127 + 0.141 + 0.381 = 0.649 hr Peak Runoff

 

From the above data and calculations, catchment area = 100ha, Runoff Curve Number = 84, Time of Concentration = 0.649 hr, 25-year, 24-hour Storm, P = 118mm, Run-Off Q25 = 81mm.

Determine Initial Abstraction from Table 5-15:

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Chapter 5 Hydrology

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Curve Number 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

Ia (mm) 76.2 73.1 70.2 67.3 64.6 62.1 59.6 57.3 55.0 52.9 50.8 48.8 46.9 45.1 43.3 41.6 39.9 38.3 36.8 35.3

Curve Number 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

Ia (mm) 33.9 32.5 31.1 29.8 28.6 27.4 26.2 25.0 23.9 22.8 21.8 20.6 19.8 18.8 17.9 16.9 16.1 15.2 14.3 13.5

Curve Number 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

Ia (mm) 12.7 11.9 11.2 10.4 9.7 9.0 8.3 7.6 6.9 6.3 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.8 3.3 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.0 0.4

For Curve Number = 84, Ia = 9.7mm Compute Ia/P = 9.7/118 = 0.082 Determine Unit Peak Discharge Qu from Figure 5-7 for Tc = 0.649 hr and Ia/P = 0.082, Unit Peak Discharge, Qu = 0.20 m3/s/100ha/mm Peak Discharge, Qp25 = Qu x A x Q25 = 0.20 x 1 x 81 = 16.2 m3/s
   

Use similar method to determine Qp50 and Qp100

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NOTE: RAINFALL DATA USED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS FIGURE HAVE BEEN COLLECTED FROM MANY MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES METEOROLOGY STATIONS (SEE TABLE 5-2). IN THE COURSE OF THE PREPARATION OF THIS MANUAL, THEY HAVE BEEN SUBJECTED TO STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES. THE RESULTS INDICATE THAT THE COUNTRY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THE ABOVE HYDROLOGICAL REGIONS DISPLAYING SIMILAR RAINFALL PATTERNS. THE INFORMATION IS SUBJECT TO REVIEW, AND FUTURE DATA MAY INDICATE THE NEED FOR A FURTHER REFINEMENT IN BOTH VALUES AND REGIONAL BOUNDARIES.

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Chapter 5 Hydrology

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5()(5(1&(6 1. 2. 3. 4. Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume 11, Guidelines for Hydrology, Task Force on Hydrology and Hydraulics, AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Design. Federal Highway Administration. 1990. HYDRAIN Documentation. Gebeyehu, Admasu, 5HJLRQDO )ORRG )UHTXHQF\ $QDO\VLV, Hydraulics Laboratory, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 1989. Newton, D. W., and Herin, Janet C. 1982. Assessment of Commonly Used Methods of Estimating Flood Frequency. Transportation Research Board. National Academy of Sciences, Record Number 896. Potter, W. D. Upper and Lower Frequency Curves for Peak Rates of Runoff. Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 39, No. 1, February 1958, pp. 100-105. Sauer, V. B., Thomas, W. O., Stricker, V. A., and Wilson, K. V. 1983. Flood Characteristics of Urban Catchment areas in the United States -- Techniques for Estimating Magnitude and Frequency of Urban Floods. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2204. Wahl, Kenneth L. 1983. Determining Stream Flow Characteristics Based on Channel Cross Section Properties. Transportation Research Board. National Academy of Sciences, Record Number 922. Overton, D. E. and M. E. Meadows. 1976. Storm Water Modeling. Academic Press. New York, N.Y. pp. 58-88. U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. 1984. Hydrology. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 19. Water Resources Council Bulletin 17B. 1981. Guidelines for determining flood flow frequency. Wright-McLaughlin 1969. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Technical Release No. 55 (2nd Edition). Applied Hydrology, V. T. Chow et al. SCS National Engineering Handbook, Section 4. USDA Soil Conservation Service TP-149 (SCS-TP-149), A Method for Estimating Volume and Rate of Runoff in Small Watersheds, revised April 1973. Regan, R. M., A Nomograph Based on Kinematic Wave Theory for Determining Time of Concentration for Overland Flow, Report No. 44, Civil Engineering Department, University of Maryland at College Park, 1971.
 

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