Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial

Part 1: Observations of Global Properties Part 2: Homogeneity and Isotropy; Many Distances; Scale actor Part !: Spatial "#rvat#re; latness$Oldness; Hori%on Part &: Inflation; 'nisotropy and In(omogeneity )ibliograp(y '* + ,#torial : Part 1 + Part 2 + Part ! + Part & + 'ge + Distances + )ibliograp(y + -elativity .ntil a fe/ (#ndred years ago0 t(e Solar System and t(e .niverse /ere e1#ivalent in t(e minds of scientists0 so t(e discovery t(at t(e 2art( is not t(e center of t(e Solar System /as an important step in t(e development of cosmology3 2arly in t(e 24t( cent#ry S(apley establis(ed t(at t(e Solar System is far from t(e center of t(e Mil5y 6ay3 So by t(e 17248s0 t(e stage /as set for t(e critical observational discoveries t(at led to t(e )ig )ang model of t(e .niverse3

Critical Observations
In 1727 H#bble 9 10 20 !: p#blis(ed a claim t(at t(e radial velocities of gala;ies are proportional to t(eir distance3 ,(e reds(ift of a gala;y is a meas#re of its radial velocity0 and it can be meas#red #sing a spectrograp( to determine t(e Doppler s(ift3 ,(e plot belo/ s(o/s H#bble8s 1727 data:

,(e slope of t(e fitted line is &<& 5m=sec=Mpc0 and is no/ 5no/n as t(e H#bble constant0 Ho3 9Sometimes I /ill #se >,e?> mode0 so '@; means t(at ; is a s#bscript0 ';0 /(ile 'A; means t(at ; is a s#perscript0 ';3: Since bot( 5ilometers and Megaparsecs B1 Mpc C !34D<22& cm 9t(e >22&> means m#ltiply t(e !34D< by 14 to t(e 2&t( po/er:E are #nits of distance0 t(e simplified #nits of Ho

are 1=time0 and t(e conversion is given by

1/Ho = (978 Gyr)/(Ho in km/sec/Mpc)

,(#s H#bble8s val#e is e1#ivalent to appro;imately 2 Gyr3 Since t(is s(o#ld be close to t(e age of t(e .niverse0 and /e 5no/ Band it /as 5no/n in 1727E t(at t(e age of t(e 2art( is larger t(an 2 billion years0 H#bble8s val#e for Ho led to considerable s5epticism abo#t cosmological models0 and motivated t(e Steady State model3 Ho/ever0 later /or5 fo#nd t(at H#bble (ad conf#sed t/o different 5inds of "ep(eid variable stars #sed for calibrating distances0 and also t(at /(at H#bble t(o#g(t /ere brig(t stars in distant gala;ies /ere act#ally H II regions3 "orrecting for t(ese errors (as led to a lo/ering of t(e val#e of t(e H#bble constant: t(ere are no/ primarily t/o gro#ps #sing "ep(eids: t(e HS, Distance Scale Fey ProGect team B reedman0 Fennic#tt0 Mo#ld etalE /(ic( gets H2I=$D 5m=sec=Mpc0 /(ile t(e Sandage team0 also #sing HS, observations of "ep(eids to calibrate ,ype Ia s#pernovae0 gets JHI=$& 5m=sec=Mpc3 Ot(er met(ods to determine t(e distance scale incl#de t(e time delay in gravitational lenses and t(e S#nyaev$Keldovic( effect in distant cl#sters: bot( are independent of t(e "ep(eid calibration and give val#es consistent /it( t(e average of t(e t/o HS, gro#ps: <JI=$D 5m=sec=Mpc3 ,(ese res#lts are consistent /it( a combination of res#lts from "M) anisotropy and t(e accelerating e;pansion of t(e .niverse /(ic( give H1I=$!3J 5m=sec=Mpc3 6it( t(is val#e for Ho0 t(e >age> 1=Ho is 1& Gyr /(ile t(e act#al age from t(e consistent model is 1!3HI=$432 Gyr3 9H#c(ra8s Ho (istory: H#bble8s data in 1727 is act#ally 1#ite poor0 since individ#al gala;ies (ave pec#liar velocities of several (#ndred 5m=sec0 and H#bble8s data only /ent o#t to 1244 5m=sec3 ,(is (as led some people to propose 1#adratic reds(ift$distance la/s0 b#t t(e data s(o/n belo/ on ,ype Ia SLe from -iess0 Press and Firs(ner B177<E

e;tend beyond !40444 5m=sec and provide a dramatic confirmation of t(e H#bble la/0
v = dD/dt = H*D

,(e fitted line in t(is grap( (as a slope of <& 5m=sec=Mpc3 Since /e meas#re t(e radial velocity #sing t(e Doppler s(ift0 it is often called t(e redshift3 ,(e reds(ift % is defined s#c( t(at:
1 + z = l m!d (o!served)/l m!d (emitted)

/(ere lambda is t(e /avelengt( of a line or feat#re in t(e spectr#m of an obGect3 In special relativity /e 5no/ t(at t(e reds(ift is given by
1 + z = s"rt((1+v/c)/(1#v/c)) so v = cz + $$$

b#t t(e (ig(er order corrections Bt(e >333>E in cosmology depend on general relativity and t(e specific model of t(e .niverse3 ,(e s#bscript >o> in Ho Bprono#nced >aitc( na#g(t>E indicates t(e c#rrent val#e of a time variable 1#antity3 Since t(e 1=Ho is appro;imately t(e age of t(e .niverse0 t(e val#e of H depends on time3 'not(er 1#antity /it( a na#g(t is to0 t(e age of t(e .niverse3 ,(e linear distance$reds(ift la/ fo#nd by H#bble is compatible /it( a "opernican vie/ of t(e .niverse: o#r position is not a special one3 irst note t(at t(e recession velocity is symmetric: if ' sees ) receding0 t(en ) sees t(at ' is receding0 as s(o/n in t(is diagram:

/(ic( is based on a s5etc( by )ob Firs(ner3 ,(en consider t(e follo/ing space$time diagram s(o/ing several nearby gala;ies moving a/ay from #s from o#r point of vie/ Bgala;y '0 t(e bl#e /orldlineE on t(e top and from gala;y )8s Bt(e green /orldlineE point of vie/ on t(e bottom3

,(e diagrams from t(e t/o different points of vie/ are identical e;cept for t(e names of t(e gala;ies3 ,(e vBs1E C D2 1#adratic la/0 on t(e ot(er (and0 transforms into an anisotropic non$1#adratic la/ /(en c(anging points of vie/0 as s(o/n belo/3

,(#s if /e sa/ a 1#adratic velocity vs3 distance la/0 t(en an observer in a different gala;y /o#ld see a different la/ $$ and one t(at /o#ld be different in different directions3 ,(#s if /e sa/ vBs1E0 t(en ) /o#ld see m#c( (ig(er radial velocities in t(e >pl#s> direction t(an in t(e >min#s> direction3 ,(is effect /o#ld allo/ one to locate t(e >center of .niverse> by finding t(e one place /(ere t(e reds(ift$distance la/ /as t(e same in all directions3 Since /e act#ally see t(e same reds(ift$distance la/ in all directions0 eit(er t(e reds(ift$distance la/ is linear or else /e are at t(e center /(ic( is anti$"opernican3 ,(e H#bble la/ generates a (omologo#s e;pansion /(ic( does not c(ange t(e s(apes of obGects0 /(ile ot(er possible velocity$distance relations lead to distortions d#ring e;pansion3 ,(e H#bble la/ defines a special frame of reference at any point in t(e .niverse3 'n observer /it( a large motion /it( respect to t(e H#bble flo/ /o#ld meas#re bl#es(ifts in front and large reds(ifts be(ind0 instead of t(e same reds(ifts proportional to distance in all directions3 ,(#s /e can meas#re o#r motion relative to t(e H#bble flo/0 /(ic( is also o#r motion relative to t(e observable .niverse3 ' comoving observer is at rest in t(is special frame of reference3 O#r Solar System is not 1#ite comoving: /e (ave a velocity of !H4 5m=sec relative to t(e observable .niverse3 ,(e Mocal Gro#p of gala;ies0 /(ic( incl#des t(e Mil5y 6ay0 appears to be moving at <44 5m=sec relative to t(e observable .niverse3 H#bble also meas#red t(e n#mber of gala;ies in different directions and at different brig(tness in t(e s5y3 He fo#nd appro;imately t(e same n#mber of faint gala;ies in all directions0 even t(o#g( t(ere is a large e;cess of brig(t gala;ies in t(e Lort(ern part of t(e s5y3 6(en a distrib#tion is t(e same in all directions0 it is isotropic3 'nd /(en (e loo5ed for gala;ies /it( fl#;es brig(ter t(an =& (e sa/ appro;imately D times more gala;ies t(an (e co#nted /(ic( /ere brig(ter t(an 3 Since a fl#; & times smaller implies a do#bled distance0 and (ence a detection vol#me t(at is D times larger0 t(is indicated t(at t(e .niverse is close to homogeneous B(aving #niform densityE on large scales3

,(e fig#re above s(o/s a (omogeneo#s b#t not isotropic pattern on t(e left and an isotropic b#t not (omogeneo#s pattern on t(e rig(t3 If a fig#re is isotropic from more t(an 1 B2 if sp(ericalE points0

t(en it m#st also be (omogeneo#s3 Of co#rse t(e .niverse is not really (omogeneo#s and isotropic0 beca#se it contains dense regions li5e t(e 2art(3 )#t it can still be statistically (omogeneo#s and isotropic0 li5e t(is 2& 5) sim#lated gala;y field0 /(ic( is (omogeneo#s and isotropic after smoot(ing o#t small scale details3 Peacoc5 and Dodds B177&0 ML-'S0 2<H0 1424E (ave loo5ed at t(e fractional density fl#ct#ations in t(e nearby .niverse as a f#nction of t(e radi#s of a top$(at smoot(ing filter0 and find:

,(#s for 144 Mpc regions t(e .niverse is smoot( to /it(in several percent3 -eds(ift s#rveys of very large regions confirm t(is tendency to/ard smoot(ness on t(e largest scales0 even t(o#g( nearby gala;ies s(o/ large in(omogeneities li5e t(e Nirgo "l#ster and t(e s#pergalactic plane3 ,(e case for an isotropic and (omogeneo#s .niverse became m#c( stronger after Pen%ias and 6ilson anno#nced t(e discovery of t(e "osmic Micro/ave )ac5gro#nd in 17<J3 ,(ey observed an e;cess fl#; at H3!J cm /avelengt( e1#ivalent to t(e radiation from a blac5body /it( a temperat#re of !3JI=$1 degrees Felvin3 9,(e Felvin temperat#re scale (as degrees of t(e same si%e as t(e "elsi#s scale0 b#t it is referenced at absol#te %ero0 so t(e free%ing point of /ater is 2H!31J F3: ' blac5body radiator is an obGect t(at absorbs any radiation t(at (its it0 and (as a constant temperat#re3 Many gro#ps (ave meas#red t(e intensity of t(e "M) at different /avelengt(s3 "#rrently t(e best information on t(e spectr#m of t(e "M) comes from t(e I-'S instr#ment on t(e "O)2 satellite0 and it is s(o/n belo/:

,(e ; a;is variable is t(e /aven#mber or 1=9/avelengt( in cm:3 ,(e y a;is variable is t(e po/er per #nit area per #nit fre1#ency per #nit solid angle in MegaOans5ies per steradian3 1 Oans5y is 14$2< 6atts per s1#are meter per Hert%3 ,(e error bars (ave been m#ltiplied by &44 so t(ey can be seen0 b#t t(e data points are consistent /it( t(e radiation from a blac5body /it( ,o C 23H2J F3 ,(e temperat#re of t(e "M) is almost t(e same all over t(e s5y3 ,(e fig#re belo/ s(o/s a map of t(e temperat#re on a scale /(ere 4 F is blac5 and ! F is /(ite3

,(#s t(e micro/ave s5y is e;tremely isotropic3 ,(ese observations are combined into t(e "osmological Principle:

The Universe is Homogeneous and Isotropic

'not(er piece of evidence in favor of t(e )ig )ang is t(e ab#ndance of t(e lig(t elements0 li5e (ydrogen0 de#teri#m B(eavy (ydrogenE0 (eli#m and lit(i#m3 's t(e .niverse e;pands0 t(e p(otons of t(e "M) lose energy d#e to t(e reds(ift and t(e "M) becomes cooler3 ,(at means t(at t(e "M) temperat#re /as (ig(er in t(e past3 6(en t(e .niverse /as only a fe/ min#tes old0 t(e temperat#re /as (ig( eno#g( to ma5e t(e lig(t elements by n#clear f#sion3 ,(e t(eory of )ig )ang L#cleosynt(esis predicts t(at abo#t 1=& of t(e mass of t(e .niverse s(o#ld be (eli#m0 /(ic( is very close to /(at is observed3 ,(e ab#ndance of de#teri#m is inversely related to t(e density of n#cleons in t(e .niverse0 and t(e observed val#e of t(e de#teri#m ab#ndance s#ggests t(at t(ere is one n#cleon for every & c#bic meters of space in t(e t(e .niverse3

Homogeneity and Isotropy

,(e "osmological Principle:

The Universe is Homogeneous and Isotropic

,o say t(e .niverse is (omogeneo#s means t(at any meas#rable property of t(e .niverse is t(e same every/(ere3 ,(is is only appro;imately tr#e0 b#t it appears to be an e;cellent appro;imation /(en one averages over large regions3 Since t(e age of t(e .niverse is one of t(e meas#rable 1#antities0 t(e (omogeneity of t(e .niverse m#st be defined on a s#rface of constant proper time since t(e )ig )ang3 ,ime dilation ca#ses t(e proper time meas#red by an observer to depend on t(e velocity of t(e observer0 so /e specify t(at t(e time variable t in t(e H#bble la/ is t(e proper time since t(e )ig )ang for comoving observers3

Many Distances
6it( t(e correct interpretation of t(e variables0 t(e H#bble la/ Bv = HDE is tr#e for all val#es of D0 even very large ones /(ic( give v P c3 )#t one m#st be caref#l in interpreting t(e distance and velocity3 ,(e distance in t(e H#bble la/ m#st be defined so t(at if ' and ) are t/o distant gala;ies seen by #s in t(e same direction0 and ' and ) are not too far from eac( ot(er0 t(en t(e difference in distances from #s0 DB'E$DB)E0 is t(e distance ' /o#ld meas#re to )3 )#t t(is meas#rement m#st be made >no/> $$ so ' m#st meas#re t(e distance to ) at t(e same proper time since t(e )ig )ang as /e see no/3 ,(#s to determine Dno/ for a distant gala;y K /e /o#ld find a c(ain of gala;ies ')"333?QK along t(e pat( to K0 /it( eac( element of t(e c(ain close to its neig(bors0 and t(en (ave eac( gala;y in t(e c(ain meas#re t(e distance to t(e ne;t gala;y at time to since t(e )ig )ang3 ,(e distance to K0 DB#s to KE0 is t(e s#m of all t(ese s#bintervals:
Dno% = D(&s to ') = D(&s to () + D(( to )) + $$$ D(* to +) + D(+ to ')

'nd t(e velocity in t(e H#bble la/ is G#st t(e c(ange of Dno/ per #nit time3 It is close to cz for small reds(ifts b#t deviates for large ones3 ,(e space$time diagram belo/ repeats t(e e;ample from Part 1 s(o/ing (o/ a c(ange in point$of$vie/ from observer ' to observer ) leaves t(e linear velocity vs. distance H#bble la/ #nc(anged:

b#t no/ s(o/ing t(e lig(tcones3 Lote (o/ t(e lig(tcones m#st tip over along /it( t(e /orldlines of t(e gala;ies0 s(o/ing t(at in t(ese cosmological variables t(e speed of lig(t is c with respect to local comoving observers. ,(e time and distance #sed in t(e H#bble la/ are not t(e same as t(e ; and t #sed in special relativity0 and t(is often leads to conf#sion3 In partic#lar0 gala;ies t(at are far eno#g( a/ay from #s necessarily (ave velocities greater t(an t(e speed of lig(t:

,(e lig(t cones for distant gala;ies in t(e diagram above are tipped over past t(e vertical0 indicating v > c3 ,(e space$time diagram belo/ s(o/s a >%ero> Breally very lo/E density cosmological model plotted #sing t(e Dno/ and t of t(e H#bble la/3

6orldlines of comoving observers are plotted and decorated /it( small0 sc(ematic lig(tcones3 ,(e red pear$s(aped obGect is o#r past lig(t cone3 Lotice t(at t(e red c#rve al/ays (as t(e same slope as t(e little lig(t cones3 In t(ese variables0 velocities greater t(an c are certainly possible0 and since t(e open .niverses are spatially infinite0 t(ey are act#ally re1#ired3 )#t t(ere is no contradiction /it(

t(e special relativistic principle t(at obGects do not travel faster t(an t(e speed of lig(t0 beca#se if /e plot e;actly t(e same space$time in t(e special relativistic ; and t coordinates /e get:

,(e grey (yperbolae s(o/ t(e s#rfaces of constant proper time since t(e )ig )ang3 6(en /e flatten t(ese o#t to ma5e t(e previo#s space$time diagram0 t(e /orldlines of t(e gala;ies get flatter and giving velocities v C dDno/=dt t(at are greater t(an c3 )#t in special relativistic coordinates t(e velocities are less t(an c3 6e also see t(at o#r past lig(t cone crosses t(e /orldline of t(e most distant gala;ies at a special relativistic distance ; C cRto=23 )#t t(e H#bble la/ distance Dno/0 /(ic( is measured now, of t(ese most distant gala;ies is infinity Bin t(is modelE3 #rt(ermore0 t(is gala;y /it( infinite H#bble la/ distance and (ence infinite H#bble la/ velocity is visible to #s0 since in t(is model t(e observable .niverse is t(e entire .niverse3 ,(e relations(ips bet/een t(e H#bble la/ distance and velocity BDno/ S vE and t(e reds(ift % for t(e %ero density model are given belo/:
v = HoDno% Dno% = (c/Ho)ln(1+z) 1+z = e,p(v/c)

Lote t(at t(e reds(ift$velocity la/ is not t(e special relativistic Doppler s(ift la/
1+z = s"rt-(1+v/c)/(1#v/c).

/(ic( only applies to special relativistic coordinates0 not to cosmological coordinates3 6(ile t(e H#bble la/ distance is in principle meas#rable0 t(e need for (elpers all along t(e c(ain of gala;ies o#t to a distant gala;y ma5es its #se 1#ite impractical3 Ot(er distances can be defined and meas#red more easily3 One is t(e angular size distance0 defined by
t/et = size/D( so D( = size/t/et

/(ere >si%e> is t(e transverse e;tent of an obGect and >t(eta> is t(e angle Bin radiansE t(at it s#btends on t(e s5y3 or t(e %ero density model0 t(e special relativistic ; is e1#al to t(e ang#lar si%e distance0 ; C D'3 'not(er important distance indicator is t(e fl#; received from an obGect0 and t(is defines t(e luminosity distance DM t(ro#g(
0l&, = 1&minosity/(2*pi*D13)

' fo#rt( distance is based on t(e lig(t travel time: Dltt C cRBto$temE3 People /(o say t(at t(e greatest distance /e can see is cRto are #sing t(is distance3 )#t Dltt C cRBto$temE is not a very #sef#l distance beca#se it is very (ard to determine tem0 t(e age of t(e .niverse at t(e time of emission of t(e lig(t /e see3 'nd finally0 t(e redshift is a very important distance indicator0 since astronomers can meas#re it easily0 /(ile t(e si%e or l#minosity needed to comp#te D' or DM are al/ays very (ard to determine3 ,(e reds(ift is s#c( a #sef#l distance indicator t(at it is a s(ame t(at science Go#rnalists conspire to leave it o#t of stories: t(ey m#st be ta#g(t t(e >J /8s b#t no %> r#le in Go#rnalism sc(ool3 ,(e predicted c#rve relating one distance indicator to anot(er depends on t(e cosmological model3 ,(e plot of reds(ift vs distance for ,ype Ia s#pernovae s(o/n earlier is really a plot of c% vs DM0 since fl#;es /ere #sed to determine t(e distances of t(e s#pernovae3 ,(is data clearly r#le o#t models t(at do not give a linear c% vs DM relation for small c%3 2;tension of t(ese observations to more distant s#pernovae (ave started to allo/ #s to meas#re t(e c#rvat#re of t(e c% vs DM relation0 and provide more val#able information abo#t t(e .niverse3 ,(e perfect fit of t(e "M) to a blac5body allo/s #s to determine t(e D' vs DM relation3 Since t(e "M) is prod#ced at great distance b#t still loo5s li5e a blac5body0 a distant blac5body m#st loo5 li5e a blac5body Beven t(o#g( t(e temperat#re /ill c(ange d#e to t(e reds(iftE3 ,(e l#minosity of blac5body is
1 = 2*pi*43*si5m *6em2

/(ere - is t(e radi#s0 ,em is t(e temperat#re of t(e emitting blac5body0 and sigma is t(e Step(an$)olt%mann constant3 If seen at a reds(ift %0 t(e observed temperat#re /ill be
6o!s = 6em/(1+z)

and t(e fl#; /ill be

0 = t/et
3*si5m

*6o!s2

/(ere t(e ang#lar radi#s is related to t(e p(ysical radi#s by

t/et = 4/D(

"ombining t(ese e1#ations gives

D13 = 1/(2*pi*0) = D(3*(1+z)2 or = D(*(1+z)3 = (2*pi*43*si5m *6em2)/(2*pi*t/et
3*si5m

*6o!s2)

D1

Models t(at do not predict t(is relations(ip bet/een D' and DM0 s#c( as t(e c(ronometric model or t(e tired lig(t model0 are r#led o#t by t(e properties of t(e "M)3 Here is a Oavascript calc#lator t(at ta5es Ho0 OmegaM0 t(e normali%ed cosmological constant lambda and t(e reds(ift % and t(en comp#tes all of t(e t(ese distances3 Here are t(e tec(nical form#lae for t(ese distances3 ,(e grap(s belo/ s(o/ t(ese distances vs3 reds(ift for t(ree models: t(e critical density matter dominated 2instein $ de Sitter model B2dSE0 t(e empty model0 and t(e accelerating Mambda$"DM model BM"DME t(at is t(e c#rrent consens#s model3

Lote t(at all t(e distances are very similar for small distances0 /it( D = cz/Ho0 b#t t(e different types of distances deviate s#bstantially at large reds(ifts3 'lso note t(at t(ese deviations depend on /(at 5ind of .niverse /e live in3 Precise meas#rements of deviations of DM from c%=Ho are /(at tell #s t(at t(e e;pansion of t(e .niverse is accelerating3

cale !actor a"t#

)eca#se t(e velocity or dDno/=dt is strictly proportional to Dno/0 t(e distance bet/een any pair of comoving obGects gro/s by a factor B1IHRdtE d#ring a time interval dt3 ,(is means /e can /rite t(e distance to any comoving observer as
DG(t) = (t)*DG(to)

/(ere DGBtoE is t(e distance Dno/ to gala;y G now0 /(ile aBtE is #niversal scale factor t(at applies to all comoving obGects3 rom its definition /e see t(at aBtoE C 13 6e can comp#te t(e dynamics of t(e .niverse by considering an obGect /it( distance DBtE C aBtE Do3 ,(is distance and t(e corresponding velocity dD=dt are meas#red /it( respect to #s at t(e center of t(e coordinate system3 ,(e gravitational acceleration d#e to t(e sp(erical ball of matter /it( radi#s DBtE is g C $GRM=DBtE2 /(ere t(e mass is M C &RpiRDBtE!Rr(oBtE=!3 -(oBtE is t(e density of matter /(ic( depends only on t(e time since t(e .niverse is (omogeneo#s3 ,(e mass contained /it(in DBtE is independent of t(e time since t(e interior matter (as slo/er e;pansion velocity /(ile

t(e e;terior matter (as (ig(er e;pansion velocity and t(#s stays o#tside3 ,(e gravitational effect of t(e e;ternal matter vanis(es: t(e gravitational acceleration inside a sp(erical s(ell is %ero0 and all t(e matter in t(e .niverse /it( distance from #s greater t(an DBtE can be represented as #nion of sp(erical s(ells3 6it( a constant mass interior to DBtE prod#cing t(e acceleration of t(e edge0 t(e problem red#ces to t(e problem of a body moving radially in t(e gravitational field of a point mass3 If t(e velocity is less t(an t(e escape velocity0 t(e e;pansion /ill stop and recollapse3 If t(e velocity e1#als t(e escape velocity /e (ave t(e critical case3 ,(is gives
v = H*D = v(esc) = s"rt(3*G*M/D) H3*D3 = 3*G*(2*pi/7)*r/o*D3 or r/o(crit) = 7*H3/(8*pi*G)

or r(o less t(an or e1#al to t(e critical density r(oBcritE0 t(e .niverse e;pands forever0 /(ile for r(o greater t(an r(oBcritE0 t(e .niverse /ill event#ally stop e;panding and recollapse3 ,(e val#e of r(oBcritE for Ho C H1 5m=sec=Mpc is 72$!4 C 7R14$!4 gm=cc or < protons per c#bic meter or 13&211 C 13&R1411 solar masses per c#bic Megaparsec3 ,(e latter can be compared to t(e observed 13DJ2D C 13DJR14D solar l#minosities per Mpc!0 re1#iring a mass$to$lig(t ratio of H<4 in solar #nits to close t(e .niverse3 If t(e density is any/(ere close to critical most of t(e matter m#st be too dar5 to be observed3 "#rrent density estimates s#ggest t(at t(e matter density is bet/een 432 to 1 times t(e critical density0 and t(is does re1#ire t(at most of t(e matter in t(e .niverse is dar53

patial Curvature
One conse1#ence of general relativity is t(at t(e c#rvat#re of space depends on t(e ratio of r(o to r(oBcritE3 6e call t(is ratio T C r(o=r(oBcritE3 or T less t(an 10 t(e .niverse (as negatively c#rved or (yperbolic geometry3 or T C 10 t(e .niverse (as 2#clidean or flat geometry3 or T greater t(an 10 t(e .niverse (as positively c#rved or sp(erical geometry3 6e (ave already seen t(at t(e %ero density case (as (yperbolic geometry0 since t(e cosmic time slices in t(e special relativistic coordinates /ere (yperboloids in t(is model3

,(e fig#re above s(o/s t(e t(ree c#rvat#re cases plotted along side of t(e corresponding aBtE8s3 ,(ese aBtE c#rves ass#me t(at t(e cosmological constant is %ero0 /(ic( is not t(e c#rrent standard model3 T P 1 still corresponds to a sp(erical s(ape0 b#t co#ld e;pand forever even t(o#g( t(e density is greater t(an t(e critical density beca#se of t(e rep#lsive gravitational effect of t(e cosmological constant3 ,(e age of t(e .niverse depends on To as /ell as Ho3 or TC10 t(e critical density case0 t(e scale factor is
(t) = (t/to)3/7

and t(e age of t(e .niverse is

to = (3/7)/Ho

/(ile in t(e %ero density case0 TC40 and

(t) = t/to %it/ to = 1/Ho

If To is greater t(an 1 t(e age of t(e .niverse is even smaller t(an B2=!E=Ho3

,(e fig#re above s(o/s t(e scale factor vs time meas#red from t(e present for Ho C H1 5m=sec=Mpc and for To C 4 BgreenE0 To C 1 Bblac5E0 and To C 2 BredE /it( no vac##m energy; t(e 6M'P model /it( TMC 432H and TN C 43H! BmagentaE; and t(e Steady State model /it( TN C 1 Bbl#eE3 ,(e ages of t(e .niverse in t(ese five models are 1!3D0 7320 H370 1!3H and infinity Gyr3 ,(e recollapse of t(e To C 2 model occ#rs /(en t(e .niverse is 11 times older t(an it is no/0 and all observations indicate To U 20 so /e (ave at least D4 billion more years before any )ig "r#nc(3 ,(e val#e of HoRto is a dimensionless n#mber t(at s(o#ld be 1 if t(e .niverse is almost empty and 2=! if t(e .niverse (as t(e critical density3 In 177& reedman et al. BLat#re0 !H10 HJHE fo#nd Ho C D4 I=$ 1H and /(en combined /it( to C 1&3< I=$ 13H Gyr0 /e find t(at HoRto C 1317 I=$ 43273 't face val#e t(is favored t(e empty .niverse case0 b#t a 2 standard deviation error in t(e do/n/ard direction /o#ld ta5e #s to t(e critical density case3 Since bot( t(e age of glob#lar cl#sters #sed above and t(e val#e of Ho depend on t(e distance scale in t(e same /ay0 an #nderlying error in t(e distance scale co#ld ma5e a large c(ange in HoRto3 In fact0 recent data from t(e HIPP'-"OS satellite s#ggest t(at t(e "ep(eid distance scale m#st be increased by 14V0 and also t(at t(e age of glob#lar cl#sters m#st be red#ced by 24V3 If /e ta5e t(e latest HS, val#e for Ho C H2 I=$ D B reedman et al. 24410 'pO0 JJ!0 &HE and t(e latest glob#lar cl#ster ages giving to C 1!3J I=$ 43H Gyr0 /e find t(at HoRto C 4377 I=$ 4312 /(ic( is consistent /it( an empty .niverse0 b#t also consistent /it( t(e accelerating .niverse t(at is t(e c#rrent standard model3

!latness$Oldness %roblem
Ho/ever0 if To is s#fficiently greater t(an 10 t(e .niverse /ill event#ally stop e;panding0 and t(en T /ill become infinite3 If To is less t(an 10 t(e .niverse /ill e;pand forever and t(e density goes do/n faster t(an t(e critical density so T gets smaller and smaller3 ,(#s T C 1 is an #nstable stationary point #nless t(e e;pansion of t(e #niverse is accelerating0 and it is 1#ite remar5able t(at T is any/(ere close to 1 no/3

,(e fig#re above s(o/s aBtE for t(ree models /it( t(ree different densities at a time 1 nanosecond after t(e )ig )ang3 ,(e blac5 c#rve s(o/s a critical density case t(at matc(es t(e 6M'P$based concordance model0 /(ic( (as density C &&H022J071H021D0J4H0&4102D&041< gm=cc at 1 ns after t(e )ig )ang3 'dding only 432 gm=cc to t(is &&H se;tillion gm=cc ca#ses t(e )ig "r#nc( to be rig(t no/W ,a5ing a/ay 432 gm=cc gives a model /it( a matter density TM t(at is too lo/ for o#r observations3 ,(#s t(e density 1 ns after t(e )ig )ang /as set to an acc#racy of better t(an 1 part in 22!J se;tillion3 2ven earlier it /as set to an acc#racy better t(an 1 part in 14J7W Since if t(e density is slig(tly (ig(0 t(e .niverse /ill die in an early )ig "r#nc(0 t(is is called t(e >oldness> problem in cosmology3 'nd since t(e critical density .niverse (as flat spatial geometry0 it is also called t(e >flatness> problem $$ or t(e >flatness$oldness> problem3 6(atever t(e mec(anism for setting t(e density to e1#al t(e critical density0 it /or5s e;tremely /ell0 and it /o#ld be a remar5able coincidence if To /ere close to 1 b#t not e;actly 13 Lote t(at t(e old version of t(is fig#re /as based on a model /it( (ig(er c#rrent matter density0 and also ro#nded t(e tr#e XY of 43& gm=cc to 1 based on ro#nding t(e logarit(m3

Manipulating pace$Time Diagrams

,(e critical density model is s(o/n in t(e space$time diagram belo/3

Lote t(at t(e /orldlines for gala;ies are no/ c#rved d#e to t(e force of gravity ca#sing t(e e;pansion to decelerate3 In fact0 eac( /orldline is a constant factor times aBtE /(ic( is Bt=toE2=! for t(is To C 1 model3 ,(e red pears(aped obGect is o#r past lig(tcone3 6(ile t(is diagram is dra/n from o#r point$of$vie/0 t(e .niverse is (omogeneo#s so t(e diagram dra/n from t(e point$of$vie/ of any of t(e gala;ies on t(e diagram /o#ld be identical3

,(e diagram above s(o/s t(e space$time diagram dra/n on a dec5 of cards0 and t(e diagram belo/ s(o/s t(e dec5 p#s(ed over to p#t it into '8s point$of$vie/3

Lote t(at t(is is not a Morent% transformation0 and t(at t(ese coordinates are not t(e special relativistic coordinates for /(ic( a Morent% transformation applies3 ,(e Galilean transformation /(ic( co#ld be done by s5e/ing cards in t(is /ay re1#ired t(at t(e edge of t(e dec5 remain straig(t0 and in any case t(e Morent% transformation can not be done on cards in t(is /ay beca#se t(ere is no absol#te time3 )#t in cosmological models /e do (ave cosmic time0 /(ic( is t(e proper time since t(e )ig )ang meas#red by comoving observers0 and it can be #sed to set #p a dec5 of cards3 ,(e presence of gravity in t(is model leads to a c#rved spacetime t(at can not be plotted on a flat space$time diagram /it(o#t distortion3 If every coordinate system is a distorted representation of t(e .niverse0 /e may as /ell #se a convenient coordinate system and G#st 5eep trac5 of t(e distortion by follo/ing t(e lig(tcones3 Sometimes it is convenient to >divide o#t> t(e e;pansion of t(e .niverse0 and t(e space$time diagram s(o/s t(e res#lt of dividing t(e spatial coordinate by aBtE3 Lo/ t(e /orldlines of gala;ies are all vertical lines3

,(is division (as e;panded o#r past line cone so m#c( t(at /e (ave to replot to s(o/ it all:

If /e no/ >stretc(> t(e time a;is near t(e )ig )ang /e get t(e follo/ing space$time diagram /(ic( (as straig(t line past lig(tcones:

,(is 5ind of space$time diagram is called a >conformal> space$time diagram0 and /(ile it is (ig(ly distorted it ma5es it easy to see /(ere t(e lig(t goes3 ,(is transformation /e (ave done is analogo#s to t(e transformation from t(e side vie/ of t(e 2art( on t(e left belo/ and t(e Mercator c(art on t(e rig(t3

Lote t(at a constant So#t(2ast co#rse is a straig(t line on t(e Mercator c(art /(ic( is analogo#s to (aving straig(t line past lig(tcones on t(e conformal space$time diagram3 'lso remember t(at t(e To C 1 spacetime is infinite in e;tent so t(e conformal space$time diagram can go on far beyond o#r past lig(tcone0

as s(o/n above3

Ot(er coordinates can be #sed as /ell3 Plotting t(e spatial coordinate as angle on polar grap( paper ma5es t(e translation to a different point$of$vie/ easy3 On t(e diagram belo/0

an To C 2 model B/(ic( really is >ro#nd>E is plotted t(is /ay /it( aBtE #sed as t(e radial coordinate3 ,(e past lig(tcone of an observer reac(s (alf/ay aro#nd t(e .niverse in t(is model3

Hori&on %roblem
,(e conformal space$time diagram is a good tool #se for describing t(e meaning of "M) anisotropy observations3 ,(e .niverse /as opa1#e before protons and electrons combined to form (ydrogen atoms /(en t(e temperat#re fell to abo#t !0444 F at a reds(ift of 1I% C 14743 'fter t(is time t(e p(otons of t(e "M) (ave traveled freely t(ro#g( t(e transparent .niverse /e see today3 ,(#s t(e temperat#re of t(e "M) at a given spot on t(e s5y (ad to be determined by t(e time t(e (ydrogen atoms formed0 #s#ally called >recombination> even t(o#g( it /as t(e first time so >combination> /o#ld be a better name3 Since t(e /avelengt(s in t(e "M) scale t(e same /ay t(at intergala;y distances do d#ring t(e e;pansion of t(e .niverse0 /e 5no/ t(at aBtE (ad to be 434447 at recombination3 or t(e To C 1 model t(is implies t(at t=to C 434444! so for to abo#t 1& Gyr t(e time is abo#t !D40444 years after t(e )ig )ang3 ,(is is s#c( a small fraction of t(e c#rrent age t(at t(e >stretc(ing> of t(e time a;is /(en ma5ing a conformal space$time diagram is very #sef#l to magnify t(is part of t(e (istory of t(e .niverse3

,(e conformal space$time diagram above (as e;aggerated t(is part even f#rt(er by ta5ing t(e reds(ift of recombination to be 1I% C 1&&0 /(ic( occ#rs at t(e bl#e (ori%ontal line3 ,(e yello/ regions are t(e past lig(tcones of t(e events /(ic( are on o#r past lig(tcone at recombination3 'ny event t(at infl#ences t(e temperat#re of t(e "M) t(at /e see on t(e left side of t(e s5y m#st be /it(in t(e left$(and yello/ region3 'ny event t(at affects t(e temperat#re of t(e "M) on t(e rig(t side of t(e s5y m#st be /it(in t(e rig(t$(and yello/ region3 ,(ese regions (ave no events in common0 b#t t(e t/o temperat#res are e1#al to better t(an 1 part in 1404443 Ho/ is t(is possibleZ ,(is is 5no/n as t(e >(ori%on> problem in cosmology3

In'lation
,(e >inflationary scenario>0 developed by Starobins5y and by G#t(0 offers a sol#tion to t(e flatness$oldness problem and t(e (ori%on problem3 ,(e inflationary scenario invo5es a vac##m energy density3 6e normally t(in5 of t(e vac##m as empty and massless0 and /e can determine t(at t(e density of t(e vac##m is less t(an 14$27 gm=cc no/3 )#t in 1#ant#m field t(eory0 t(e vac##m is not empty0 b#t rat(er filled /it( virt#al particles:

,(e space$time diagram above s(o/s virt#al particle$antiparticle pairs forming o#t of not(ing and t(en anni(ilating bac5 into not(ing3 or particles of mass m0 one e;pects abo#t one virt#al particle in eac( c#bical vol#me /it( sides given by t(e "ompton /avelengt( of t(e particle0 (=mc0 /(ere ( is Planc58s constant3 ,(#s t(e e;pected density of t(e vac##m is r(o C m&Rc!=(! /(ic( is rat(er large3 or t(e largest elementary particle mass #s#ally considered0 t(e Planc5 mass M defined by 2RpiRGRM2 C (Rc0 t(is density is 2R1471 gm=cc3 ,(at8s a 2 follo/ed by 71 %eroesW ,(#s t(e vac##m energy density is at least 124 orders of magnit#de smaller t(an t(e naive 1#ant#m estimate0 so t(ere m#st be a very effective s#ppression mec(anism at /or53 If a small resid#al vac##m energy density e;ists no/0 it leads to a >cosmological constant> /(ic( is one proposed mec(anism to relieve t(e tig(t s1#ee%e bet/een t(e OmegaoC1 model age of t(e .niverse0 to C B2=!E=Ho C 7 Gyr0 and t(e apparent age of t(e oldest glob#lar cl#sters0 12$1& Gyr3 ,(e vac##m energy density can do t(is beca#se it prod#ces a >rep#lsive gravity> t(at ca#ses t(e e;pansion of t(e .niverse to accelerate instead of decelerate0 and t(is increases to for a given Ho3 ,(e inflationary scenario proposes t(at t(e vac##m energy /as very large d#ring a brief period early in t(e (istory of t(e .niverse3 6(en t(e .niverse is dominated by a vac##m energy density t(e scale factor gro/s e;ponentially0 aBtE C e;pBHBt$toEE3 ,(e H#bble constant really is constant d#ring t(is epoc( so it doesn8t need t(e >na#g(t>3 If t(e inflationary epoc( lasts long eno#g( t(e e;ponential f#nction gets very large3 ,(is ma5es aBtE very large0 and t(#s ma5es t(e radi#s of c#rvat#re of t(e .niverse very large3 ,(e diagram belo/ s(o/s o#r (ori%on s#perimposed on a very large radi#s sp(ere on top0 or a smaller sp(ere on t(e bottom3 Since /e can only see as far as o#r (ori%on0 for t(e inflationary case on top t(e large radi#s sp(ere loo5s almost flat to #s3

,(is solves t(e flatness$oldness problem as long as t(e e;ponential gro/t( d#ring t(e inflationary epoc( contin#es for at least 144 do#blings3 Inflation also solves t(e (ori%on problem0 beca#se t(e f#t#re lig(tcone of an event t(at (appens before inflation is e;panded to a (#ge region by t(e gro/t( d#ring inflation3

,(is space$time diagram s(o/s t(e inflationary epoc( tinted green0 and t(e f#t#re lig(tcones of t/o events in red3 ,(e early event (as a f#t#re lig(tcone t(at covers a (#ge area0 t(at can easily encompass all of o#r (ori%on3 ,(#s /e can e;plain /(y t(e temperat#re of t(e micro/ave bac5gro#nd is so #niform across t(e s5y3

Details( )arge$ cale tructure and *nisotropy

Of co#rse t(e .niverse is not really (omogeneo#s0 since it contains dense regions li5e gala;ies and people3 ,(ese dense regions s(o#ld affect t(e temperat#re of t(e micro/ave bac5gro#nd3 Sac(s and 6olfe B17<H0 'pO0 1&H0 H!E derived t(e effect of t(e gravitational potential pert#rbations on t(e "M)3 ,(e gravitational potential0 p(i C $GM=r0 /ill be negative in dense l#mps0 and positive in less dense regions3 P(otons lose energy /(en t(ey climb o#t of t(e gravitational potential /ells of t(e l#mps:

,(is conformal space$time diagram above s(o/s l#mps as gray vertical bars0 t(e epoc( before recombination as t(e (atc(ed region0 and t(e gravitational potential as t(e color$coded c#rve p(iB;E3 6(ere o#r past lig(tcone intersects t(e s#rface of recombination0 /e see a temperat#re pert#rbed by d,=, C p(i=B!Rc2E3 Sac(s and 6olfe predicted temperat#re fl#ct#ations d,=, as large as 1 percent0 b#t /e 5no/ no/ t(at t(e .niverse is far more (omogeneo#s t(an Sac(s and 6olfe t(o#g(t3 So observers /or5ed for years to get eno#g( sensitivity to see t(e temperat#re differences aro#nd t(e s5y3 ,(e first anisotropy to be detected /as t(e dipole anisotropy by "on5lin in 17<7:

,(e map above is from "O)2 and is m#c( better t(an "on5lin8s 2 standard deviation detection3 ,(e red part of t(e s5y is (otter by Bv=cER,o0 /(ile t(e bl#e part of t(e s5y is colder by Bv=cER,o0 /(ere t(e inferred velocity is v C !<D 5m=sec3 ,(is is (o/ /e meas#re t(e velocity of t(e Solar System relative to t(e observable .niverse3 It /as anot(er 2! years before t(e anisotropy predicted by Sac(s and 6olfe /as detected by Smoot et al. B17720 'pOM0 !7<0 1E3 ,(e amplit#de /as 1 part in 1440444 instead of 1 part in 1440 b#t /as perfectly consistent /it( Mambda$"DM 96rig(t et al. 17720 'pOM0 !7<0 1!:3

,(e map above s(o/s cosmic anisotropy Band detector noiseE after t(e dipole pattern and t(e radiation from t(e Mil5y 6ay (ave been s#btracted o#t3 ,(e anisotropy in t(is map (as an -MS val#e of !4 microF0 and if it is converted into a gravitational potential #sing Sac(s and 6olfe8s res#lt and t(at potential is t(en e;pressed as a (eig(t ass#ming a constant acceleration of gravity e1#al to t(e gravity on t(e 2art(0 /e get a (eig(t of t/ice t(e distance from t(e 2art( to t(e S#n3 ,(e >mo#ntains and valleys> of t(e .niverse are really 1#ite large3 Inflation predicts a certain statistical pattern in t(e anisotropy3 ,(e 1#ant#m fl#ct#ations normally

affect very small regions of space0 b#t t(e (#ge e;ponential e;pansion d#ring t(e inflationary epoc( ma5es t(ese tiny regions observable3

,(e space$time diagram on t(e left above s(o/s t(e f#t#re lig(tcones of 1#ant#m fl#ct#ation events3 ,(e top of t(is diagram is really a vol#me /(ic( intersects o#r past lig(tcone ma5ing t(e s5y3 ,(e f#t#re lig(tcones of events become circles on t(e s5y3 2vents early in t(e inflationary epoc( ma5e large circles on t(e s5y0 as s(o/n in t(e bottom map on t(e rig(t3 Mater events ma5e smaller circles as s(o/n in t(e middle map0 b#t t(ere are more of t(em so t(e s5y coverage is t(e same as before3 2ven later events ma5e many small circles /(ic( again give t(e same s5y coverage as seen on t(e top map3 'n animated GI file s(o/ing t(e spatial part of t(e above space$time diagram as a f#nction of time is available (ere 9132 M):3

,(e pattern formed by adding all of t(e effects from events of all ages is 5no/n as >e1#al po/er on all scales>0 and it agrees /it( t(e "O)2 data3 Having fo#nd t(at t(e observed pattern of anisotropy is consistent /it( inflation0 /e can also as5 /(et(er t(e amplit#de implies gravitational forces large eno#g( to prod#ce t(e observed cl#stering

of gala;ies3

,(e conformal space$time diagram above s(o/s t(e p(iB;E at recombination determined by "O)28s d, data0 and t(e /orldlines of gala;ies /(ic( are pert#rbed by t(e gravitational forces prod#ced by t(e gradient of t(e potential3 Matter flo/s >do/n(ill> a/ay from pea5s of t(e potential Bred spots on t(e "O)2 mapE0 prod#cing voids in t(e c#rrent distrib#tion of gala;ies0 /(ile valleys in t(e potential Bbl#e spotsE are /(ere t(e cl#sters of gala;ies form3 "O)2 /as not able to see spots as small as cl#sters or even s#percl#sters of gala;ies0 b#t if /e #se >e1#al po/er on all scales> to e;trapolate t(e "O)2 data to smaller scales0 /e find t(at t(e gravitational forces are large eno#g( to prod#ce t(e observed cl#stering0 b#t only if t(ese forces are not opposed by ot(er forces3 If t(e all t(e matter in t(e .niverse is made o#t of t(e ordinary c(emical elements0 t(en t(ere /as a very effective opposing force before recombination0 beca#se t(e free electrons /(ic( are no/ bo#nd into atoms /ere very effective at scattering t(e p(otons of t(e cosmic bac5gro#nd3 6e can t(erefore concl#de t(at most of t(e matter in t(e .niverse is >dar5 matter> t(at does not emit0 absorb or scatter lig(t3 #rt(ermore0 observations of distant s#pernovae (ave s(o/n t(at most of t(e energy density of t(e .niverse is a vac##m energy density Ba >dar5 energy>E li5e 2instein8s cosmological constant t(at ca#ses an accelerating e;pansion of t(e .niverse3 ,(ese strange concl#sions (ave been greatly strengt(ened by temperat#re anisotropy data at smaller ang#lar scales /(ic( /as provided by t(e 6il5inson Micro/ave 'nisotropy Probe B6M'PE in 244!3

*ge o' the Universe

,(ere are at least ! /ays t(at t(e age of t(e .niverse can be estimated3 I /ill describe ,(e age of t(e c(emical elements3 ,(e age of t(e oldest star cl#sters3 ,(e age of t(e oldest /(ite d/arf stars3 ,(e age of t(e .niverse can also be estimated from a cosmological model based on t(e H#bble constant and t(e densities of matter and dar5 energy3 ,(is model$based age is c#rrently 1!3HJ I=$ 431 Gyr3 )#t t(is 6eb page /ill only deal /it( act#al age meas#rements0 not estimates from cosmological models3 ,(e act#al age meas#rements are consistent /it( t(e model$based age /(ic( increases o#r confidence in t(e )ig )ang model3

The *ge o' the +lements

,(e age of t(e c(emical elements can be estimated #sing radioactive decay to determine (o/ old a given mi;t#re of atoms is3 ,(e most definite ages t(at can be determined t(is /ay are ages since t(e solidification of roc5 samples3 6(en a roc5 solidifies0 t(e c(emical elements often get separated

into different crystalline grains in t(e roc53 or e;ample0 sodi#m and calci#m are bot( common elements0 b#t t(eir c(emical be(avio#rs are 1#ite different0 so one #s#ally finds sodi#m and calci#m in different grains in a differentiated roc53 -#bidi#m and stronti#m are (eavier elements t(at be(ave c(emically m#c( li5e sodi#m and calci#m3 ,(#s r#bidi#m and stronti#m are #s#ally fo#nd in different grains in a roc53 )#t -b$DH decays into Sr$DH /it( a (alf$life of &H billion years3 'nd t(ere is anot(er isotope of stronti#m0 Sr$D<0 /(ic( is not prod#ced by any r#bidi#m decay3 ,(e isotope Sr$DH is called radiogenic0 beca#se it can be prod#ced by radioactive decay0 /(ile Sr$D< is non$radiogenic3 ,(e Sr$D< is #sed to determine /(at fraction of t(e Sr$DH /as prod#ced by radioactive decay3 ,(is is done by plotting t(e Sr$DH=Sr$D< ratio vers#s t(e -b$DH=Sr$D< ratio3 6(en a roc5 is first formed0 t(e different grains (ave a /ide range of -b$DH=Sr$D< ratios0 b#t t(e Sr$DH=Sr$D< ratio is t(e same in all grains beca#se t(e c(emical processes leading to differentiated grains do not separate isotopes3 'fter t(e roc5 (as been solid for several billion years0 a fraction of t(e -b$DH /ill (ave decayed into Sr$DH3 ,(en t(e Sr$DH=Sr$D< ratio /ill be larger in grains /it( a large -b$DH=Sr$D< ratio3 Do a linear fit of
8r#87/8r#89 = + !*(4!#87/8r#89)

and t(en t(e slope term is given by

! = 3, # 1

/it( x being t(e n#mber of (alf$lives t(at t(e roc5 (as been solid3 See t(e tal53origins isoc(rone '* for more on radioactive dating3 6(en applied to roc5s on t(e s#rface of t(e 2art(0 t(e oldest roc5s are abo#t !3D billion years old3 6(en applied to meteorites0 t(e oldest are &3J< billion years old3 ,(is very /ell determined age is t(e age of t(e Solar System3 See t(e tal53origins age of t(e 2art( '* for more on t(e age of t(e solar system3 6(en applied to a mi;ed toget(er and evolving system li5e t(e gas in t(e Mil5y 6ay0 no great precision is possible3 One problem is t(at t(ere is no c(emical separation into grains of different crystals0 so t(e absol#te val#es of t(e isotope ratios (ave to be #sed instead of t(e slopes of a linear fit3 ,(is re1#ires t(at /e 5no/ precisely (o/ m#c( of eac( isotope /as originally present0 so an acc#rate model for element prod#ction is needed3 One isotope pair t(at (as been #sed is r(eni#m and osmi#m: in partic#lar -e$1DH /(ic( decays into Os$1DH /it( a (alf$life of &4 billion years3 It loo5s li5e 1JV of t(e original -e$1DH (as decayed0 /(ic( leads to an age of D$11 billion years3 )#t t(is is G#st t(e mean formation age of t(e st#ff in t(e Solar System0 and no r(eni#m or osmi#m (as been made for t(e last &3J< billion years3 ,(#s to #se t(is age to determine t(e age of t(e .niverse0 a model of /(en t(e elements /ere made is needed3 If all t(e elements /ere made in a b#rst soon after t(e )ig )ang0 t(en t(e age of t(e .niverse /o#ld be to C D$11 billion years3 )#t if t(e elements are made contin#o#sly at a constant rate0 t(en t(e mean age of st#ff in t(e Solar System is
(to + t88)/3 = 8#11 Gyr

/(ic( /e can solve for t(e age of t(e .niverse giving

to = 11$:#17$: Gyr
2!D.

and 2!2,( are bot( radioactive /it( (alf$lives of &3&<D and 1&34J Gyrs0 b#t t(e #rani#m is #nderab#ndant in t(e Solar System compared to t(e e;pected prod#ction ratio in s#pernovae3 ,(is is not s#rprising since t(e 2!D. (as a s(orter (alf$life0 and t(e magnit#de of t(e difference gives an estimate for t(e age of t(e .niverse3 Da#p(as B244J0 Lat#re0 &!J0 124!E combines t(e Solar System 2!D.:2!2,( ratio /it( t(e ratio observed in very old0 metal poor stars to solve sim#ltaneo#s e1#ations for bot( t(e prod#ction ratio and t(e age of t(e .niverse0 obtaining 1&3JI23D$232 Gyr3

,adioactive Dating o' an Old tar

' very interesting paper by "o/an et al. B177H0 'pO0 &D40 2&<E disc#sses t(e t(ori#m ab#ndance in an old (alo star3 Lormally it is not possible to meas#re t(e ab#ndance of radioactive isotopes in ot(er stars beca#se t(e lines are too /ea53 )#t in "S 22D72$4J2 t(e t(ori#m lines can be seen beca#se t(e iron lines are very /ea53 ,(e ,(=2# B2#ropi#mE ratio in t(is star is 43217 compared to 43!<7 in t(e Solar System no/3 ,(ori#m decays /it( a (alf$life of 1&34J Gyr0 so t(e Solar System formed /it( ,(=2# C 2&3<=1&34JR43!<7 C 43&<!3 If "S 22D72$4J2 formed /it( t(e same ,(=2# ratio it is t(en 1J32 I=$ !3J Gyr old3 It is act#ally probably slig(tly older beca#se some of t(e t(ori#m t(at /o#ld (ave gone into t(e Solar System decayed before t(e S#n formed0 and t(is correction depends on t(e n#cleosynt(esis (istory of t(e Mil5y 6ay3 Lonet(eless0 t(is is still an interesting meas#re of t(e age of t(e oldest stars t(at is independent of t(e main$se1#ence lifetime met(od3 ' later paper by "o/an et al. B17770 'pO0 J210 17&E gives 1J3< I=$ &3< Gyr for t(e age based on t/o stars: "S 22D72$4J2 and HD 11J&&&3 ' anot(er star0 "S !14D2$4410 s(o/s an age of 123J I=$ ! Gyr based on t(e decay of .$2!D 9"ayrel0 et al. 24410 Lat#re0 &470 <71$<72:3 6anaGo et al. refine t(e predicted .=,( prod#ction ratio and get 1&31 I=$ 23J Gyr for t(e age of t(is star3

The *ge o' the Oldest tar Clusters

6(en stars are b#rning (ydrogen to (eli#m in t(eir cores0 t(ey fall on a single c#rve in t(e l#minosity$temperat#re plot 5no/n as t(e H$- diagram after its inventors0 Hert%spr#ng and -#ssell3 ,(is trac5 is 5no/n as t(e main se1#ence0 since most stars are fo#nd t(ere3 Since t(e l#minosity of a star varies li5e M! or M&0 t(e lifetime of a star on t(e main se1#ence varies li5e tCconstRM=MC5=M43H3 ,(#s if yo# meas#re t(e l#minosity of t(e most l#mino#s star on t(e main se1#ence0 yo# get an #pper limit for t(e age of t(e cl#ster:
(5e ; k/1(M8<m ,)=$7

,(is is an #pper limit beca#se t(e absence of stars brig(ter t(an t(e observed MBMS@ma;E co#ld be d#e to no stars being formed in t(e appropriate mass range3 )#t for cl#sters /it( t(o#sands of members0 s#c( a gap in t(e mass f#nction is very #nli5ely0 t(e age is e1#al to 5=MBMS@ma;E43H3 "(aboyer0 Demar1#e0 Fernan and Fra#ss B177<0 Science0 2H10 7JHE apply t(is tec(ni1#e to glob#lar cl#sters and find t(at t(e age of t(e .niverse is greater t(an 1234H Gyr /it( 7JV confidence3 ,(ey say t(e age is proportional to one over t(e l#minosity of t(e -- Myra stars /(ic( are #sed to determine t(e distances to glob#lar cl#sters3 "(aboyer B177HE gives a best estimate of 1&3< I=$ 13H Gyr for t(e age of t(e glob#lar cl#sters3 )#t recent Hipparcos res#lts s(o/ t(at t(e glob#lar cl#sters are f#rt(er a/ay t(an previo#sly t(o#g(t0 so t(eir stars are more l#mino#s3 Gratton et al. give ages bet/een D3J and 1!3! Gyr /it( 1231 being most li5ely0 /(ile -eid gives ages bet/een 11 and 1! Gyr0 and "(aboyer et al. give 113J I=$ 13! Gyr for t(e mean age of t(e oldest glob#lar cl#sters3

The *ge o' the Oldest White D-ar's

' /(ite d/arf star is an obGect t(at is abo#t as (eavy as t(e S#n b#t only t(e radi#s of t(e 2art(3 ,(e average density of a /(ite d/arf is a million times denser t(an /ater3 6(ite d/arf stars form in t(e centers of red giant stars0 b#t are not visible #ntil t(e envelope of t(e red giant is eGected into space3 6(en t(is (appens t(e #ltraviolet radiation from t(e very (ot stellar core ioni%es t(e gas and prod#ces a planetary neb#la3 ,(e envelope of t(e star contin#es to move a/ay from t(e central core0 and event#ally t(e planetary neb#la fades to invisibility0 leaving G#st t(e very (ot core /(ic( is no/ a /(ite d/arf3 6(ite d/arf stars glo/ G#st from resid#al (eat3 ,(e oldest /(ite d/arfs /ill be t(e coldest and t(#s t(e faintest3 )y searc(ing for faint /(ite d/arfs0 one can estimate t(e lengt( of

time t(e oldest /(ite d/arfs (ave been cooling3 Os/alt0 Smit(0 6ood and Hint%en B177<0 Lat#re0 !D20 <72E (ave done t(is and get an age of 73JI131$43D Gyr for t(e dis5 of t(e Mil5y 6ay3 ,(ey estimate an age of t(e .niverse /(ic( is at least 2 Gyr older t(an t(e dis50 so to > .! "yr3 Hansen et al3 (ave #sed t(e HS, to meas#re t(e ages of /(ite d/arfs in t(e glob#lar cl#ster M&0 obtaining 123H I=$ 43H Gyr3 In 244& Hansen et al3 #pdated t(eir analysis to give an age for M& of 1231 I=$ 437 Gyr0 /(ic( is very consistent /it( t(e age of glob#lar cl#sters from t(e main se1#ence t#rnoff3 'llo/ing allo/ing for t(e time bet/een t(e )ig )ang and t(e formation of glob#lar cl#sters Band its #ncertaintyE implies an age for t(e .niverse of 123D I=$ 131 Gyr3

ummary
Met(od 2lements Old Stars G" MS,O Dis5 6Ds G" 6Ds 6eig(ted Mean Nal#e 9Gyr: 1&3J 1&3& 1232 113J 123D 1237& I2rrorbar I23D I232 I13! Iinfinity I131 I43HJ $2rrorbar $23J $232 $13! $1 $131 $43HJ

The *.C's o' Distances

It is almost impossible to tell t(e distances of obGects /e see in t(e s5y3 'lmost0 b#t not 1#ite0 and astronomers (ave developed a large variety of tec(ni1#es3 Here I /ill describe 2< of t(em3 I /ill ignore t(e /or5 t(at /ent into determining t(e astronomical #nit: t(e scale factor for t(e Solar System0 and G#st consider distances o#tside of t(e Solar System3

*/ T,I0ONOM+T,IC %*,*))*1
,(is met(od rates an ' beca#se it is t(e gold standard for astronomical distances3 It is based on meas#ring t/o angles and t(e incl#ded side of a triangle formed by 1E t(e star0 2E t(e 2art( on one side of its orbit0 and !E t(e 2art( si; mont(s later on t(e ot(er side of its orbit3

,(e top part of t(e diagram above s(o/s t(e 2art( at t/o different times0 and t(e triangle formed /it( a nearby star and t(ese t/o positions of t(e 2art(3 ,(e bottom part s(o/s t/o pict#res of t(e nearby star proGected onto more distant stars ta5en from t(e t/o sides of t(e 2art(8s orbit3 If yo# cross yo#r eyes to merge t(ese t/o pict#res0 yo# /ill eit(er see t(e nearby star standing in front of t(e bac5gro#nd in !$D0 or else get a (eadac(e3 ,(e parallax of a star is one$(alf t(e angle at t(e star in t(e diagram above3 ,(#s t(e paralla; is t(e angle at t(e star in an 2art($S#n$star triangle3 Since t(is angle is al/ays very small0 t(e sine and tangent of t(e paralla; are very /ell appro;imated by t(e paralla; angle meas#red in radians3 ,(erefore t(e distance to a star is
D-in cm. = -> rt/#8&n dist nce in cm./-p r ll , in r di ns.

'stronomers #s#ally say t(e 2art($S#n distance is 1 astronomical unit0 /(ere 1 a# C 13J21! cm0 and meas#re small angles in arc$seconds3 9Lote t(at 13J21! is comp#terese for 1J0444044404440444: One radian (as <&D444=pi arc$seconds3 If /e #se t(ese #nits0 t(e #nit of distance is 9<&D444=pi: a# C !34DJ<HD21D cm C 1 parsec3 ' star /it( a paralla; of 1 arc$second (as a distance of 1 parsec3 Lo 5no/n stars (ave paralla;es t(is big3 Pro;ima "enta#ri (as a paralla; of 43H<>3 9,(e do#ble 1#ote is #sed to denote arc$seconds Bas /ell as inc(esE3: ,(e first stellar paralla; Bof t(e star <1 "ygniE /as meas#red by riedric( 6il(elm )essel B1HD&$1D&<E in 1D!D3 )essel is also 5no/n for t(e )essel f#nctions in mat(ematical p(ysics3

./ Moving Clusters
Lot many stars are close eno#g( to (ave #sef#l trigonometric paralla;es3 )#t /(en stars are in a stable star cl#ster /(ose p(ysical si%e is not c(anging0 li5e t(e Pleiades0 t(en t(e apparent motions of t(e stars /it(in t(e cl#ster can be #sed to determine t(e distance to t(e cl#ster3

,(e top part of t(e diagram above s(o/s t(e space motion of a cl#ster of stars3 Lotice t(at t(e velocity vectors are parallel so t(e cl#ster is neit(er e;panding nor contracting3 )#t /(en /e loo5 at t(e motions of t(e stars proGected on t(e s5y /e see t(em converging beca#se of perspective effects3 ,(e angle to t(e convergent point is t(eta3 If t(e cl#ster is moving to/ards #s t(en t(e convergent point is be(ind t(e cl#ster b#t t(ere is second convergent point on t(e opposite side of t(e s5y and /e #se t(at3 rom t(e motions of t(e stars on t(e s5y0 5no/n as proper motions beca#se t(ey are properties of individ#al stars0 /e meas#re t(eta and its rate of c(ange0 dBt(etaE=dt3 6e also need t(e radial velocity N- of t(e cl#ster meas#red #sing a spectrograp( to see t(e Doppler s(ift3 ,(e transverse velocity0 N,0 Bside/ays motionE of t(e cl#ster can be fo#nd #sing #$/#% = tan&theta'. ,(e distance of t(e cl#ster is t(en

D-in cm. = ?6-in cm/sec./-d(t/et )/dt. D-in pc. = (?4/2$72 km/sec)*t n(t/et )/@d(t/et )/dt-in A/yr.B

,(e odd constant &3H& 5m=sec is one a#=year3 )eca#se a time interval of 144 years can be #sed to meas#re dBt(etaE=dt0 precise distances to nearby star cl#sters are possible3 ,(is met(od (as been applied to t(e Hyades cl#ster giving a distance of &J3J! I=$ 23<& pc3 ,(e average of HIPP'-"OS trigonometric paralla;es for Hyades members gives a distance of &<3!& I=$ 432H pc BPerryman et al.E3

C/ ecular %aralla2
'not(er met(od can be #sed to meas#re t(e average distance to a set of stars0 c(osen to be all abo#t t(e same distance from t(e 2art(3

,(e diagram above s(o/s s#c( a set of stars0 b#t /it( t/o possible mean distances3 ,(e green stars s(o/ a small mean distance0 /(ile t(e red stars s(o/ a large mean distance3 )eca#se of t(e mean motion of t(e Solar system at 24 5m=sec relative to t(e average of nearby stars t(ere /ill be an average proper motion a/ay from t(e point of t(e s5y t(e Solar System is moving to/ards3 ,(is point is 5no/n as t(e apex3 Met t(e angle to t(e ape; be t(eta3 ,(en t(e proper motion dBt(etaE=dt /ill (ave a mean component proportional to sinBt(etaE0 s(o/n by t(e lines in t(e plot of dBt(etaE=dt vs sinBt(etaE3 Met t(e slope of t(is line be m#3 ,(en t(e mean distance of t(e stars is
D-in cm. = ?(s&n)-in cm/sec./(m& -in r di ns/sec.) D-in pc. = 2$19/(m& -in A/yr.)

/(ere t(e odd constant &31< is t(e Solar motion in a#=yr3

D/ tatistical %aralla2
6(en t(e stars (ave meas#red radial velocities0 t(en t(e scatter in t(eir proper motions can be #sed to determine t(e mean distance3 It is
(sc tter in ?4)-in cm/sec.

D-in cm. = ######################################## (sc tter in d(t/et )/dt)-in r di ns/sec.

+/ 3inematic Distance
,(e pattern of differential rotation in o#r gala;y can be #sed to determine t(e distance of a so#rce /(en its radial velocity is 5no/n3

!/ +2pansion %aralla2
,(e distance to an e;panding obGect li5e a s#pernova remnant s#c( as ,yc(o can be determined by meas#ring: 13 t(e ang#lar e;pansion rate dBt(etaE=dt #sing pict#res ta5en many years apart0 and 23 t(e radial velocity of e;pansion0 N-0 #sing t(e Doppler s(ift of lines emitted from t(e front and bac5 of t(e e;panding s(ell3 6(en a spectrograp( is pointed at t(e center of t(e remnant a do#ble line is seen0 /it( t(e red s(ifted emission coming from t(e bac5 of t(e s(ell /(ile t(e bl#e s(ifted emission comes from t(e front3 ,(e distance is t(en calc#lated #sing
D = ?4/d(t/et )/dt %it/ t/et in r di ns

,(is met(od is s#bGect to a systematic error /(en t(e velocity of t(e material be(ind t(e s(oc5 is less t(an t(e velocity of t(e s(oc53 In s#pernova remnants in t(e adiabatic p(ase t(is is in fact t(e case0 /it( #% = (.)! #&shoc*'0 so t(e calc#lated distance can be too small by 2JV3

0/ )ight +cho Distance

,(e center elliptical ring aro#nd SL17DH' in t(e MM" appears to be d#e to an inclined circ#lar ring aro#nd t(e progenitor3 6(en t(e p#lse of #ltraviolet lig(t from t(e s#pernova (it t(e ring0 it lit #p in #ltraviolet emission lines /(ic( /ere observed by t(e International .ltraviolet 2;plorer BI.2E3 ,(e first detection of t(ese lines at time0 t10 and also t(e time /(en t(e lines from t(e last part of t(e ring to be ill#minated0 t20 /ere bot( clearly evident in t(e I.2 lig(t c#rve of t(e .N lines3 If t4 is t(e time t(at /e first sa/ t(e s#pernova0 t(en t(e e;tra lig(t travel times to t(e front and bac5 of t(e ring are:
t1 # t= = 4(1 # sin(i))/c t3 # t= = 4(1 + sin(i))/c

/(ere - is t(e radi#s of t(e ring in cm3 ,(#s

4 = c(t1#t= + t3#t=)/3

6(en t(e HS, /as la#nc(ed it too5 a pict#re of SL 17DH' and sa/ t(e ring0 and meas#red t(e ang#lar radi#s of t(e ring0 t(eta3 ,(e ratio gives t(e distance:
D = 4/t/et %it/ t/et in r di ns

'pplied to t(e MM" #sing SL 17DH' one gets D C &H I=$ 1 5pc0 based on t1$t4 C HJ I=$ 23< days0 t2 $ t4 C !74 I=$ 13D days0 and a ring ang#lar semimaGor a;is of 43DJD arc$seconds3 BGo#ld 177J0 'pO0 &J20 1D7E ,(is met(od is basically t(e e;pansion met(od applied to t(e e;pansion of t(e s(ell of s#pernova radiation t(at e;pands at t(e speed of lig(t3 It can be applied to ot(er 5no/n geometries0 as /ell3

H/ pectroscopic 4isual .inaries

If a binary orbit is observed bot( vis#ally and spectroscopically0 t(en bot( t(e ang#lar si%e and t(e p(ysical si%e of t(e orbit are 5no/n3 ,(e ratio gives t(e distance3 ,(e follo/ing met(ods need t(e s#rface brig(tness of stars3 ,(e pict#re belo/ s(o/s (o/ t(e s#rface brig(tness of stars depends on t(eir colors:

,(e colors correspond appro;imately to star temperat#res of J4440 <444 and H444 F3 ,(e color s(ifts are 1#ite small0 b#t t(e s#rface brig(tness c(anges are large: in fact0 I (ave c#t t(e s#rface brig(tness c(ange in (alf in order to ma5e t(e cool star visible3 )y meas#ring t(e ratio of t(e bl#e fl#; of a star to its yello/$green fl#;0 astronomers meas#re t(e )$N color of t(e star3 ,(is meas#re of t(e bl#e:vis#al fl#; ratio can be #sed to estimate t(e s#rface brig(tness +, of t(e star3 Since t(e vis#al fl#; is meas#red as /ell0 t(e ang#lar radi#s theta of t(e star is 5no/n from theta = s-rt./lux/ &pi0+,'13 If t(e p(ysical radi#s % can be fo#nd as /ell0 t(e distance follo/s from D = %/theta /it( theta in radians3

I/ .aade$Wesselin5 Method
,(e )aade$6esselin5 met(od is applied to p#lsating stars3 .sing t(e color and fl#; lig(t c#rves0 one finds t(e ratio of t(e radii at different times:
s"rt-0l&,(t3)/8)(Color(t3). 4(t3)/4(t1) = ########################### s"rt-0l&,(t1)/8)(Color(t1).

,(en spectra of t(e star t(ro#g(o#t its p#lsation period are #sed to find its radial velocity #r&t'3 Fno/ing (o/ fast t(e star8s s#rface is moving0 one finds %&t2'3%&t ' by adding #p velocityRtime d#ring t(e time interval bet/een t1 and t23 If yo# 5no/ bot( t(e ratio of t(e radii %&t2'/%&t ' from fl#;es and colors and t(e difference in t(e radii %&t2'3%&t ' from spectroscopy0 t(en yo# (ave t/o e1#ations in t/o #n5no/ns and it is easy to solve for t(e radii3 6it( t(e radi#s and angle0 t(e distance is fo#nd #sing D = %/theta3

6/ pectroscopic +clipsing .inaries

In a do#ble$lined spectroscopic binary0 t(e proGected si%e of t(e orbit a0sin&i' is fo#nd from t(e radial velocity amplit#de and t(e period3 In an eclipsing binary0 t(e relative radii of t(e stars % /a and %2/a and t(e inclination of t(e orbit i are fo#nd by analy%ing t(e s(apes of t(e eclipse lig(t c#rves3 .sing t(e observed fl#;es and colors to get s#rface brig(tnesses0 t(e ang#lar radii of t(e stars can be estimated3 % is fo#nd from i0 a0sin&i' and % /a; and /it( theta t(e distance can be fo#nd3

or t(e (ot O stars in t(e binary #sed to meas#re t(e distance to M!! t(e atmosp(ere contains a large n#mber of free electrons3 ,(ese scatter and reflect lig(t /it(o#t c(anging t(e spectr#m3 ,(#s t(e s#rface brig(tness can be lo/er t(an t(e s#rface brig(tness e;pected from t(e colors and line ratios if t(ere is a larger t(an e;pected amo#nt of electron scattering3 ,(e calc#lated distance /o#ld t(en be too large3

3/ +2panding %hotosphere Method

,(e )aade$6esselin5 met(od can be applied to an e;panding star: t(e variations in radi#s do not (ave to be periodic3 It (as been applied to ,ype II s#pernovae0 /(ic( are massive stars /it( a (ydrogen ric( envelope t(at e;plode /(en t(eir cores collapse to from ne#tron stars3 It can also be applied to ,ype Ia s#pernovae0 b#t t(ese obGects (ave no (ydrogen lines in t(eir spectra3 Since t(e s#rface brig(tness vs color la/ is calibrated #sing normal0 (ydrogen$ric( stars0 t(e 2PM is normally #sed on (ydrogen$ric( s#pernovae0 /(ic( are ,ype II3 ,(e ,ype II SL17DH' in t(e Marge Magellanic "lo#d (as been #sed to calibrate t(is distance indicator3 ,(e follo/ing met(ods #se t(e H$- diagram of stars0 /(ic( gives t(e l#minosity as a f#nction of temperat#re3 6(en t(e l#minosity and fl#; of an obGect are 5no/n0 t(e distance can be fo#nd #sing
D = s"rt-1/(2*pi*0).

)/ Main e7uence !itting

6(en distances to nearby stars /ere fo#nd #sing trigonometric paralla;es in t(e late 17t( and early 24t( cent#ry0 it became possible to st#dy t(e l#minosities of stars3 2inar Hert%spr#ng and Henry Lorris -#ssell bot( plotted stars on a c(art of l#minosity and temperat#re3 Most stars fall on a single trac50 5no/n as t(e 4ain +e-uence0 in t(is diagram0 /(ic( is no/ 5no/n as t(e H$- diagram after Hert%spr#ng and -#ssell3 Often t(e absol#te magnit#de is #sed instead of t(e l#minosity0 and t(e spectral type or color is #sed instead of t(e temperat#re3 6(en loo5ing at a cl#ster of stars0 t(e apparent magnit#des and colors of t(e stars form a trac5 t(at is parallel to t(e Main Se1#ence0 and by correctly c(oosing t(e distance0 t(e apparent magnit#des convert to absol#te magnit#des t(at fall on t(e standard Main Se1#ence3

M/ pectroscopic %aralla2
6(en t(e spectr#m of a star is observed caref#lly0 it is possible to determine t/o parameters of t(e star as /ell as t(e c(emical ab#ndances in t(e star8s atmosp(ere3 ,(e first of t(ese t/o parameters is t(e s#rface temperat#re of t(e star0 /(ic( determines t(e spectral type in t(e range O)' GFM from (ottest to coolest3 ,(e (ot O stars s(o/ ioni%ed (eli#m lines0 t(e ) stars s(o/ ne#tral (eli#m lines0 t(e ' stars (ave strong (ydrogen lines0 t(e and G stars (ave vario#s metal lines0 and t(e coolest F and M stars (ave molec#lar bands3 ,(e spectral classes are f#rt(er s#bdivided /it( a digit0 so t(e S#n is a G2 star3 ,(e second parameter t(at can be determined is t(e s#rface gravity of t(e star3 ,(e (ig(er t(e s#rface gravity0 t(e (ig(er t(e press#re in t(e atmosp(ere0 and (ig( press#re leads to line broadening and also red#ces t(e amo#nt of ioni%ation in t(e atmosp(ere3 ,(e s#rface gravity is denoted by t(e dwarfs /(ile stars /it( medi#m gravity Bclass IIIE are called giants and stars /it( lo/ gravity Bclass IE are called supergiants3 ,(e #se of s#rface gravity to determine t(e l#minosity of a star depends on t(ree relations:
1 = 2*pi*si5m *62*43

1 = (*M! 5 = G*M/43

M ss#l&minosity l % %it/ ! = 7#2

Given t(e temperat#re from t(e spectral type0 and t(e s#rface gravity from t(e l#minosity class0 t(ese e1#ations can be #sed to find t(e mass and l#minosity3 If t(e l#minosity and fl#; are 5no/n t(e distance follo/s from t(e inverse s1#are la/3 One /arning abo#t t(is met(od: it only /or5s for normal stars0 and any given single obGect mig(t not be normal3 Main se1#ence fitting in a cl#ster is m#c( more reliable since /it( a large n#mber of stars it is easy to find t(e normal ones3 ,(e follo/ing met(ods #se t(e properties of p#lsating stars:

N/ ,, )yrae Distance
-- Myrae stars are p#lsating stars li5e "ep(eids0 b#t t(ey are lo/ mass stars /it( s(ort periods Bless t(an a dayE3 ,(ey are seen in glob#lar cl#sters0 and appear to all (ave t(e same l#minosity3 Since t(e masses of -- Myrae stars are determined by t(e masses of stars /(ic( are evolving off t(e main se1#ence0 t(is constant l#minosity may be ca#sed by t(e age similarity in glob#lar cl#sters3

O/ Cepheid Distance
"ep(eid variable stars are p#lsating stars0 named after t(e first 5no/n member of t(e class0 Delta "ep(ei3 ,(ese stars p#lsate beca#se t(e (ydrogen and (eli#m ioni%ation %ones are close to t(e s#rface of t(e star3 ,(is more or less fi;es t(e temperat#re of t(e variable star0 and prod#ces an instability strip in t(e H$- diagram3

,(e diagram above s(o/s t(e star getting bigger and cooler0 t(en smaller and (otter3 "ep(eids are brig(test /(en t(ey are (ottest0 close to t(e minim#m si%e3 Since all "ep(eids are abo#t t(e same temperat#re0 t(e si%e of a "ep(eid determines its l#minosity3 ' large p#lsating obGect nat#rally (as a longer oscillation period t(an a small p#lsating obGect of t(e same type3 ,(#s t(ere is a period$l#minosity relations(ip for "ep(eids3 If /e (ave t/o "ep(eids /it( periods t(at differ by a factor of t/o0 t(e longer period "ep(eid is appro;imately 23J times more l#mino#s t(an t(e s(ort period one3 Since it is easy to meas#re t(e period of a variable star0 "ep(eids are /onderf#l for determining distances to gala;ies3 #rt(ermore0 "ep(eids are 1#ite brig(t0 so t(ey can be seen in gala;ies as far a/ay as t(e Nirgo cl#ster0 s#c( as M144 ,(e only problem /it( "ep(eids is t(e calibration of t(e period$l#minosity relation0 /(ic( m#st be done indirectly #sing "ep(eids in t(e Magellanic clo#ds and "ep(eids in star cl#sters /it( distances determined by main se1#ence fitting3 'nd one (as to /orry t(at t(e calibration co#ld depend on t(e metal ab#ndance in t(e "ep(eids0 /(ic( is m#c( lo/er in t(e MM" t(an in l#mino#s spirals li5e M1443 ,(e follo/ing met(ods #se t(e properties of obGects in gala;ies and m#st be calibrated:

%/ %lanetary Nebula )uminosity !unction

Planetary neb#lae are stars /(ic( (ave evolved t(ro#g( t(e red giant and asymptotic giant p(ases0 and (ave eGected t(eir remaining (ydrogen envelope0 /(ic( forms an ioni%ed neb#la s#rro#nding a very (ot and small central star3 ,(ey emit large amo#nts of lig(t in t(e J41 nm line of do#bly ioni%ed o;ygen 9O III: /(ic( ma5es t(em easy to find3 ,(e brig(test planetary neb#lae seem to (ave t(e same brig(tness in many e;ternal gala;ies0 so t(eir fl#;es can be #sed as a distance indicator3 ,(is met(od is correlated /it( t(e S#rface )rig(tness l#ct#ation met(od0 /(ic( is sensitive to t(e asymptotic giant branc( B'G)E stars before t(ey eGect t(eir envelopes3

8/ .rightest tars
6(en a gala;y is very nearby0 individ#al stars can be resolved3 ,(e brig(tness of t(ese stars can be #sed to estimate t(e distance to t(e gala;y3 Often people ass#me t(at t(ere is a fi;ed #pper limit to t(e brig(tness of stars0 b#t t(is appears to be a poor ass#mption3 Lonet(eless0 if a large pop#lation of brig(t stars is st#died0 a reasonable distance estimate can be made3

,/ )argest H II ,egion Diameters

Hot l#mino#s stars ioni%e t(e (ydrogen gas aro#nd t(em0 prod#cing an H II region li5e t(e Orion neb#la3 ,(e diameter of t(e largest H II region in e;ternal gala;ies (as been ta5en as a >standard rod> t(at can be #sed to determine distances3 )#t t(is appears to be a poor ass#mption3

/ ur'ace .rightness !luctuations

6(en a gala;y is too distant to allo/ t(e detection of individ#al stars0 one can still estimate t(e distance #sing t(e statistical fl#ct#ation in t(e n#mber of stars in a pi;el3 ' nearby gala;y mig(t (ave 144 stars proGected into eac( pi;el of an image0 /(ile a more distant gala;y /o#ld (ave a larger n#mber li5e 14443 ,(e nearby gala;y /o#ld (ave I=$ 14V fl#ct#ations in s#rface brig(tness B1=s1rtBLEE0 /(ile t(e more distant gala;y /o#ld (ave !V fl#ct#ations3 ' fig#re 9HJ 5): to ill#strate t(is s(o/s a nearby d/arf gala;y0 a nearby giant gala;y0 and t(e giant gala;y at a distance s#c( t(at its total fl#; is t(e same as t(at of t(e nearby d/arf3 Lote t(at t(e distant giant gala;y (as a m#c( smoot(er image t(an t(e nearby d/arf3

T/ Type Ia upernovae
,ype Ia s#pernovae are t(e e;plosions of /(ite d/arf stars in binary systems3 'ccretion from a companion raises t(e mass above t(e ma;im#m mass for stable /(ite d/arfs0 t(e "(andrase5(ar limit3 ,(e /(ite d/arf t(en starts to collapse0 b#t t(e compression ignites e;plosive carbon b#rning leading to t(e total disr#ption of t(e star3 ,(e lig(t o#tp#t comes primarily from energy prod#ced by t(e decay of radioactive nic5el and cobalt prod#ced in t(e e;plosion3 ,(e pea5 l#minosity is correlated /it( t(e rate of decay in t(e lig(t c#rve: less l#mino#s s#pernovae decay 1#ic5ly /(ile more l#mino#s s#pernovae decay slo/ly3 6(en t(is correction is applied0 t(e relative l#minosity of a ,ype Ia SL can be determined to /it(in 24V3 ' fe/ SLe Ia (ave been in gala;ies close eno#g( to #s to allo/ t(e H#bble Space ,elescope to determine absol#te distances and l#minosities #sing "ep(eid variables0 leading to one of t(e best determinations of t(e H#bble constant3 ,ype Ia s#pernovae can be seen to s#c( great distances t(at one can meas#re t(e acceleration or c#rvat#re of t(e .niverse #sing observations of faint s#pernovae3 ,(e follo/ing met(ods #se t(e global properties of gala;ies and m#st be calibrated:

U/ Tully$!isher ,elation
,(e rotational velocity of a spiral gala;y is an indicator of its l#minosity3 ,(e relation is appro;imately
1 = Const * ?(rot)2

Since t(e rotational velocity of a spiral gala;y can be meas#red #sing an optical spectrograp( or radio telescopes0 t(e l#minosity can be determined3 "ombined /it( t(e meas#red fl#;0 t(is l#minosity gives t(e distance3 ,(e diagram belo/ s(o/s t/o gala;ies: a giant spiral and a d/arf spiral0 b#t t(e small gala;y is closer to t(e 2art( so t(ey bot( cover t(e same angle on t(e s5y and (ave t(e same apparent brig(tness3

)#t t(e distant gala;y (as a greater rotational velocity0 so t(e difference bet/een t(e reds(ifted and bl#es(ifted sides of t(is distant giant gala;y /ill be larger3 ,(#s t(e relative distances of t(e t/o gala;ies can be determined3

4/ !aber$6ac5son ,elation
,(e stellar velocity dispersion sigmaBvE of stars in an elliptical gala;y is an indicator of its l#minosity3 ,(e relation is appro;imately
1 = Const * si5m (v)2

Since t(e velocity dispersion of an elliptical gala;y can be meas#red #sing an optical spectrograp(0 t(e l#minosity can be determined3 "ombined /it( t(e meas#red fl#;0 t(is l#minosity gives t(e distance3

W/ .rightest Cluster 0ala2ies

,(e brig(test gala;y in a cl#ster of gala;ies (as been #sed as a standard candle3 ,(is ass#mption s#ffers from t(e same diffic#lties t(at plag#e t(e brig(test star and largest H II region met(ods: ric( cl#sters /it( many gala;ies /ill probably (ave e;amples of t(e most l#mino#s gala;ies even t(o#g( t(ese gala;ies are very rare0 /(ile less ric( cl#sters /ill probably not (ave s#c( l#mino#s brig(test members3 ,(e follo/ing met(ods re1#ire no calibration:

1/ 0ravitational )ens Time Delay

6(en a 1#asar is vie/ed t(ro#g( a gravitational lens0 m#ltiple images are seen0 as s(o/n in diagram belo/3

,(e lig(t pat(s from t(e 1#asar to #s t(at form t(ese images (ave different lengt(s t(at differ by appro;imately DR9cosBt(eta1E$cosBt(eta2E: /(ere t(eta is t(e deflection angle and D is t(e distance to t(e 1#asar3 Since 1#asars are time variable so#rces0 /e can meas#re t(e pat( lengt( difference by loo5ing for a time$s(ifted correlated variability in t(e m#ltiple images3 's of t(e end of 177<0 t(is time delay (as been meas#red in a fe/ 1#asars: t(e original do#ble *SO 47JHI4<10 giving a res#lt of Ho = .56 7/3 21 *m/sec/4pc; PG111JI4D40 giving a res#lt of Ho = 82 *m/sec/4pc0 b#t anot(er analysis of t(e same data gives Ho = .5( 7/3 )1 *m/sec/4pc; )1<44I&!& giving Ho = .!27 8391 *m/sec/4pc; )1<4DI<J< giving Ho = .567/3 !1 *m/sec/4pc; and 421DI!JH giving a res#lt of Ho = .) 7 )3261 *m/sec/4pc3

9/ unyaev$:eldovich +''ect
Hot gas in cl#sters of gala;ies distorts t(e spectr#m of t(e cosmic micro/ave bac5gro#nd observed t(ro#g( t(e cl#ster3 ,(e diagram belo/ s(o/s a s5etc( of t(is process3 ,(e (ot electrons in t(e cl#ster of gala;ies scatter a small fraction of t(e cosmic micro/ave bac5gro#nd p(otons and replace t(em /it( slig(tly (ig(er energy p(otons3

,(e difference bet/een t(e "M) seen t(ro#g( t(e cl#ster and t(e #nmodified "M) seen else/(ere on t(e s5y can be meas#red3 'ct#ally only abo#t 1V of t(e p(otons passing t(ro#g( t(e cl#ster are scattered by t(e electrons in t(e (ot ioni%ed gas in t(e cl#ster0 and t(ese p(otons (ave t(eir energies increased by an average of abo#t 2V3 ,(is leads to a s(ortage of lo/ energy p(otons of abo#t 4341R4342 C 434442 or 4342V /(ic( gives a decrease in t(e brig(tness temperat#re of abo#t J44 microF /(en loo5ing at t(e cl#ster3 't (ig( fre1#encies B(ig(er t(an abo#t 21D GH%E t(e cl#ster appears brig(ter t(an t(e bac5gro#nd3 Plots of t(e spectr#m can be fo#nd (ere3 ,(is effect is proportional to B1E t(e n#mber density of electrons0 B2E t(e t(ic5ness of t(e cl#ster along o#r line of sig(t0 and B!E t(e electron temperat#re3 ,(e parameter t(at combines t(ese factors is called t(e Fompaneets y parameter0 /it( y = tau0&*$/mc2'3 ,a# is t(e optical dept( or t(e fraction of p(otons

scattered0 /(ile B5,=mc2E is t(e electron temperat#re in #nits of t(e rest mass of t(e electron3 ,(e ?$ray emission0 :;0 from t(e (ot gas in t(e cl#ster is proportional to B1E t(e s1#are of t(e n#mber density of electrons0 B2E t(e t(ic5ness of t(e cl#ster along o#r line of sig(t0 and B!E depends on t(e electron temperat#re and ?$ray fre1#ency3 's a res#lt0 t(e ratio
y3/D* = CEF86 * (6/ickness lon5 1E8) * G(6)

If /e ass#me t(at t(e t(ic5ness along t(e MOS is t(e same as t(e diameter of t(e cl#ster0 /e can #se t(e observed ang#lar diameter to find t(e distance3 ,(is tec(ni1#e is very diffic#lt0 and years of (ard /or5 by pioneers li5e Mar5 )ir5ins(a/ yielded only a fe/ distances0 and val#es of Ho t(at tended to be on t(e lo/ side3 -ecent /or5 /it( close pac5ed radio interferometers operating at !4 GH% (as given precise meas#rements of t(e radio brig(tness decrement for 1D cl#sters0 b#t only a fe/ of t(ese (ave ade1#ate ?$ray data3 ' recent S#nyaev$Keldovic( determination of t(e H#bble constant gave HH I=$ 14 5m=sec=Mpc from !D cl#sters3 )ig ne/ instr#ments for meas#ring t(e S#nyaev$Keldovic( effect incl#de t(e So#t( Pole ,elescope t(e SK'0 and t(e 'tacama "osmology ,elescope3 'nd finally:

:/ The Hubble )a,(e Doppler s(ift gives t(e reds(ift of a distant obGect /(ic( is o#r best indicator of its distance0 b#t /e need to 5no/ t(e H#bble constant0 Ho3 ,(en
D = ?4/Ho

)#t t(e meas#red val#e of t(e H#bble constant (as c(anged by a factor of D since H#bble8s /or50 as disc#ssed in H#c(ra8s Ho (istory3 )#t /ait0 t(ere8s MO-2W P#lsar dispersion meas#res and interstellar e;tinction increase /it( distance along a given line of sig(t and can be #sed to determine distances3 ,(e pea5 l#minosity of a classical nova can be estimated from its rate of decay0 b#t t(e variation (as t(e opposite sense to t(at of ,ype Ia SLe: more l#mino#s novae decay more rapidly3 ,(e glob#lar cl#ster l#minosity f#nction can be #sed to estimate t(e distance to a gala;y from t(e observed brig(tness of its glob#lar cl#sters3

%opular Cosmology .oo5s

>,(e )ig )ang> by Simon Sing(3 History of cosmology from t(e ancient Gree5s t(ro#g( t(e cosmic micro/ave bac5gro#nd3 >,(e abric of t(e "osmos> by )rian Greene3 ' non$tec(nical loo5 at all t(e (ard problems in p(ysics and cosmology0 by a very good /riter3 Greene also /rote >,(e 2legant .niverse> /(ic( is all abo#t string t(eory0 >2c(o of t(e )ig )ang>0 by Mic(ael Memonic53 ' non$tec(nical (istory of t(e 6M'P mission3

 >,(e 2;travagant .niverse> by )ob Firs(ner3 ' >#sef#l and polite> and al/ays entertaining loo5 at t(e s#pernova evidence for t(e cosmological constant and t(e accelerating e;pansion of t(e .niverse3 >,(e Origin and 2vol#tion of t(e .niverse> edited by K#c5erman and Mal5an3 ' ."M' "enter for t(e St#dy of t(e 2vol#tion and Origin of Mife B"S2OME Symposi#m3 177<0 Oones and )artlett P#blis(ers3 I /rote t(e leadoff article in t(is collection3 >,(e Nery irst Mig(t>0 by Oo(n Mat(er and Oo(n )oslo#g(0 177<3 )asic)oo5s3 ,(e tr#e (istory of t(e "O)2 proGect /ritten by t(e ProGect Scientist3 >'fterglo/ of "reation> by Marc#s "(o/n3 Good science Go#rnalism3 >,(e ive 'ges of t(e .niverse : Inside t(e P(ysics of 2ternity> by red 'dams S Greg Ma#g(lin3 $$ ,(e very distant f#t#re of o#r .niverse3 >O#r 2volving .niverse> by Malcolm Mongair3 $$ ' boo5 /it( bea#tif#l pict#res and a good non$tec(nical introd#ction to cosmology3 >2instein8s Greatest )l#nderZ : ,(e "osmological "onstant and Ot(er #dge actors in t(e P(ysics of t(e .niverse> by Donald Goldsmit(3 I (aven8t read >,(e -#na/ay .niverse : ,(e -ace to Discover t(e #t#re of t(e "osmos> by t(e same a#t(or0 b#t it covers t(e accelerating e;pansion seen in t(e recent s#pernova data3 >*#intessence : ,(e Mystery of t(e Missing Mass in t(e .niverse> by Ma/rence Fra#ss3 'n #pdate of >,(e ift( 2ssence>3 Dar5 Matter3 >,(e Origin of t(e .niverse> by Oo(n D3 )arro/3 "overs a /ide range of topics: inflation0 incl#ding t(e c(aotic and perpet#al versions0 /orm(oles and space$time foam0 t(e ant(ropic principle0 /it( nice ill#strations3 >,(e Origins of o#r .niverse> by Malcolm Mongair3 ' small boo5 based on t(e "(ristmas lect#res at t(e -oyal Society3 O#t of print3 >)efore t(e )eginning : O#r .niverse and Ot(ers> by Martin -ees3 ,(ere are no e1#ations0 b#t also no grap(s0 fig#res or ill#strations of any 5ind3 >-ipples in t(e "osmos> by Mic(ael -o/an$-obinson3 Has t(e same erroneo#s , vs t grap( as >S(ado/s of "reation>3 O#t of print3 >,(e S(ado/s of "reation>0 by Mic(ael -iordan and David Sc(ramm3 Dar5 matter3 Has t(e same erroneo#s , vs t grap( as >-ipples in t(e "osmos>3 O#t of print3 >"oming of 'ge in t(e Mil5y 6ay> by ,imot(y erris3 ' more e;tensive coverage of t(e material in t(e >"reation of t(e .niverse> s(o/ on P)S3 >,(e 'lc(emy of t(e Heavens: Searc(ing for Meaning in t(e Mil5y 6ay>0 by Fen "ros/ell3 ' good boo5 abo#t o#r Gala;y3 >,(e irst ,(ree Min#tes> by Steven 6einberg3 Old b#t good treatment of lig(t element synt(esis3 O#t of print3 >,(e )ig )ang> by Oosep( Sil53 Many typos0 #nfort#nately3 >' S(ort History of t(e .niverse> by Oosep( Sil53 Many typos0 #nfort#nately3

College Introductory *stronomy Te2tboo5s

>'stronomy: ,(e 2volving .niverse>0 Mic(ael Keili53 >'stronomy: t(e "osmic Perspective>0 Keili5 S Ga#stad >Oo#rney ,(ro#g( t(e .niverse>0 Oay Pasac(off >'stronomy: rom t(e 2art( to t(e .niverse>0 Oay Pasac(off >'bell8s 2;ploration of t(e .niverse>0 David Morrison0 Sidney 6oolf S 'ndre/ ra5noi >-ealm of t(e .niverse>0 George O3 'bell0 Sidney 6oolf S David Morrison

College *strophysics Te2tboo5s

>Introd#ctory 'stronomy and 'strop(ysics>0 Keili50 Gregory S Smit( >'n Introd#ction to Modern 'strop(ysics>0 )radley "arroll S Dale Ostlie

College Cosmology Te2tboo5s

>"osmology>0 &t( edition0 Mic(ael -o/an$-obinson3 ' recently #pdated classic3 >Introd#ction to "osmology>0 )arbara -yden3 ' ne/ #pper division te;tboo53 > o#ndations of Modern "osmology>0 Ha/ley and Holcomb3 or #pper division non$science maGors3

0raduate Cosmology Te2tboo5s

>Spacetime and Geometry: 'n Introd#ction to General -elativity> by Sean "arroll3 G- /it( c(apters on applications incl#ding cosmology3 >Gravity: 'n Introd#ction to 2instein8s General -elativity> by Oames Hartle3 Good introd#ction to G-3 >Gravitation and "osmology> by Steven 6einberg3 >"osmological P(ysics>0 Oo(n Peacoc53 'll of p(ysics relevant to cosmology0 /(ic( is all of p(ysics3 >Principles of P(ysical "osmology> by P3 O3 23 Peebles3 >,(e 2arly .niverse> by Folb and ,#rner3 >Gravitation> by Misner0 ,(orne and 6(eeler3 'lso 5no/n is t(e >)ible> or t(e >telep(one boo5>0 t(is is primarily a very good te;tboo5 on general relativity3 121J pages0 23J 5g in paperbac5W