STEEL SRUCTURES

STRUCTURE:
A set of connected parts called members used to resist the applied loads is called structure

STEEL STRUCTURE:
It is an assembly of the structural shapes join together by means of riveted, bolted and welded connection

Four Stages for the Engineering Projects a)PLANNING:

1) Function 2) Size 3) Cost (Budget)

b)DESIGN STAGE:
1) Architectural 2) Structural

c) CONSTRUCTION STAGE: d)OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE STAGE: STRUCTURAL DESIGN:

It is a mixture of art and science to produce a safe and economical structure that serves its intended purpose.

ITERATIVE DESIGN CYCLE:

1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: Planning, Function Design. Preliminary Structural Configuration. Establish Load Cases & Load Combinations. Preliminary Member Selection. Structural Analysis. Evaluation of all members to meet strength and serviceability Criteria. Redesign by going to step 3 above. Final Design thus optimum design is achieved

Factor of Safety:
Allowable Stress Design (ASD): suppose R is the reduction in resistance. suppose Q is the increase in loading.

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Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
1.4 D = 0.90 R (First load case) 1.56 D = R LRFD F.S. = R/D = 1.56 LRFD, compared to: F.S. = R/Q = 1.67 ASD

LOADS:
1 Dead Loads: Also known as gravity loads, includes the weight of the structure and all fixed and attachments. 2 Live Loads: Also belong to gravity loads, but their intensity and location may vary (non-permanent loads). 3 Highways / Rail Live Loads: AASHTO, AREA3 Impact Loads: Associated with Live Loads. 4 Snow Loads: 20 to 40 psf ( 1000 to 2000 Pa ) Wind Loads: 5 Wind Loads: Static Wind Pressure = q CeCgCp Where q = Dynamic pressure = 1/2pv2 Ce = Exposure Factor (1 to 2) Cg = Gust Factor (above 2) Cp = Shape Factor (about 1.5) Latitude Load on structure. 7 - Thermal Loads: For Indeterminate Structures. 8 Other Loads: e.g. Rain Loads Ponding Hydrostatic Loads Blast Loads.

6 - Earthquake Load:

Structural steel:
Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape or cross section and certain standards of chemical composition and mechanical properties. Structural steel shape, size, composition, strength, storage, etc., is regulated in most industrialized countries. Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of area, which allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area

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Common structural shapes:
In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in published standards, although a number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available.

I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams (UB) and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD and other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF) and H sections)

Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions) HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) andelliptical cross sections) Angle (L-shaped cross-section) Channel ( [-shaped cross-section) Tee (T-shaped cross-section) Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)

Railway rail Vignoles rail Flanged T rail Grooved rail

Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so wide so as to be called a sheet. Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and dowel. Plate, sheet metal thicker than 6 mm or 1/4 in. Open web steel joist

While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and seam-welded).

Standard structural steels (USA):

Steels used for building construction in the US use standard alloys identified and specified by ASTM International. These steels have an alloy identification beginning with A and then two, three, or four numbers. The four-number AISI steel grades commonly used for mechanical engineering, machines, and vehicles are a completely different specification series. The standard commonly used structural steels are: 08-CIVIL-31

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Carbon steels

A36 - structural shapes and plate A53 - structural pipe and tubing A500 - structural pipe and tubing A501 - structural pipe and tubing A529 - structural shapes and plate A441 - structural shapes and plates A572 - structural shapes and plates A618 - structural pipe and tubing A992 - W shapes beams only A270 - structural shapes and plates A242 - structural shapes and plates A588 - structural shapes and plates A514 - structural shapes and plates A517 - boilers and pressure vessels

High strength low alloy steels

Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels

Quenched and tempered alloy steels

STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
Steel has been used in commercial construction for many years. In the past decade it has been used more and more in residential construction. Steel studs construction has gained in popularity because trees aren't cut to make studs, they also are price stable and don't fluctuate as much as lumber. When lumber prices are up steel studs are an attractive option.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

Steel is very useful in construction. There are many

advantages using steel in construction. That why many construction in the world use steel as main materials for the construction. Some of ADVANTAGES of steel construction are:-

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1- RECYLING:
Steel components generate minimal waste and all light gauge steel construction materials are 100% recyclable. In the last decade, over a trillion pounds of steel was recycled. The steel industry annually saves enough energy to power 18 million households for a year. Steel framing material is significantly stronger than wood. No other construction material can match steel's superior strength and durability. Steel has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any construction material. Steel's strength and non-combustible qualities enable a steel framed structure to better resist such devastating events as fires, earthquakes, and hurricanes. 4-Climate & Condition Steel is simply impervious to termites and other dam agecausing bugs and pests. Termites strike more American structures than fire. Steel studs are impervious to insects, rot, and mildew. You will never have to worry about wood rot, termites or carpenter ants destroying the backbone of your building. Steel will not crack, shrink, splinter, creep, split, warp, or swell. Individual members of a wood-framed building react differently to climate changes. This wood movement may include expansion, contraction, warping, twisting, etc. Steel studs are non-flammable, and won't add fuel to a fire. Insurance rates for steel homes are often cheaper than wood framed homes. companies love steel framed buildings! It qualifies for what they refer to as superior construction, typically resulting in lower premiums. Steel is environmentally friendly. Steel-framed housing dramatically reduces the amount of trees consumed for residential construction, thus conserving one of nature's most precious resources. The only wood products used for light gauge steel construction are plywood sheathing and door and window trim components.

2- STRENGTH AND DURABILITY:

3- TERMITES:

4- CLIMATE AND CONDITION OR DIMENTIONALLY STABLE:

5- COST EFECTIVE:

6- STEEL IS A GREEN STRUCTURE-ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY:

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DISADVANTAGES:
Although there are many of advantages using steel in construction, steel also have disadvantages in construction. Steel has a consistent quality because it is a manufactured product and during construction there is not the 10-20% material waste that is typically experienced with wood operations (Yost 1995). As previously discussed steel also has its own disadvantages which were best identified by Yost (1995) as Follow: In many areas it is difficult to find framing crews that are trained in light steel construction. This disadvantage usually raises the overall project cost. Because Steel studs are a poor insulator they suffer from thermal bridging which reduces overall wall insulation value. Even though steel components will not burn they will actually fail (collapse) before a wood component in a house fire. Steel is an excellent thermal conductor requiring additional exterior insulation or thermal breaks to overcome this disadvantage. Thermal conductivity is probably the most serious of steel's disadvantages. Steel components can rust if left exposed in marine climates. Finding steel roof trusses is difficult in most areas so it is common to used wood roof trusses (and sometimes floor trusses). In addition to the labor training required to convert to the use of steel, builders and laborers must obtain some new tools not presently used by carpenters. The combination of additional training and tools translate to increased costs of construction for a short period of time. Because light-gauge steel frame construction is relatively new and innovative within the residential construction industry, it is not only unfamiliar to craftsmen but it is also unfamiliar to engineers and code officials.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION
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STEEL CONNECTIONS:
INTRODUCTION: Connections are structural elements used for joining different members of a structural steel framework. Any steel structure is an assemblage of different members such as beam, columns, and tension members, which are fastened or connected to one another, usually at the member ends. Many members in steel structures may themselves be made of different components such as plates, angles, Ibeams, or channels. These different components have to be connected properly by means of fasteners, so that they will act together as a single composite unit. Connections between different members of a steel frame work not only facilitate the flow of forces and moments from one member to another, but also allow the transfer of forces up to the foundation level1. IMPORTANCE A structure is only as strong as its weakest link. Unless properly designed and detailed, the connections may become weaker than the members being joined due to following reasons1: a. A connection failure may lead to a catastrophic failure of the whole structure. b. Normally, a connection failure is not as ductile as that of a steel member failure. c. For achieving an economical design, it is important that connectors develop full or little extra strength of the members it is joining. To properly design a connection, a designer must have a thorough understanding of the behavior of the joint under loads. Different modes of failure can occur depending on the geometry of the connection and the relative strengths and stiffnesss of the various components of the connection. To ensure that the connection can carry the applied loads, a designer must check for all perceivable modes of failure pertinent to each component of the connection and the connection as a whole

COMPONENTS OF A CONNECTION:
Connections mainly include any or in combination with some of the components given below: Bolts (Shop or Site) Welds (Shop or Site) Connecting Plates Connecting Angle Cut sections

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CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIONS:
Connections are basically classified: 1-According the type of connecting medium used: Bolted connections welded connection boltedwelded connections riveted connections Shear (semi rigid, simple) connections moment (rigid) connections Singleplateangle connections doublewebangle connections top and seatedangle connections, Seated beam connections, etc. Beamtobeam connections columntocolumn connections (column splices) beamtocolumn connections Hanger connections Column base plate, e

2- According to the type of internal forces the connections are expected to transmit:

3- According to the type of structural elements that made up the connections:

4- According to the type of members the connections are joining:

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