LAB III Energy Cost of Exercise, Efficiency of Movement, & Body Composition It is important to remember that every change

that takes place in the body during exercise is directly, or very closely indirectly, related to supporting the metabolic processes of the tissues (e.g. delivery of oxygen to the working muscle) or dealing with the consequences of those metabolic processes (e.g. dissipating excess metabolic heat). That is, understanding the metabolic processes in the working muscles is central to understanding exercise physiology. In the previous two labs we have studied oxygen consumption during steady state exercise and during graded exercise tests. In this lab, we return to using steady state oxygen consumption, but this time we will use it to help us determine the metabolic cost of the exercise. If one performs exercise that is principally aerobic in nature, then oxygen consumption reflects the energy expended via aerobic metabolism. nowledge about the aerobic energy cost of activity is relevant to understanding !) the role of exercise in weight management and ") understanding the economy, or efficiency, of movement, which is an important predictor of endurance performance. To fully grasp these concepts, students will also learn procedures that are used to determine body composition and in calculating work accomplished on an ergometer. #hysics, $orms of %nergy, & 'nits (elated to )tudying %nergy The human body, like any other engine, operates within the laws of physics. It obeys the law of conservation of energy* the energy that appears as work must have previously entered the body in the form of food. +ork is a form of energy. ,owever, nothing, and no one, is !--. efficient. Thus, energy must be expended in excess of the amount of worked performed. /ccording to the law of conservation of energy, the energy that does not result in work does not disappear, but rather, changes forms* in this case it is given off as heat 0uring today1s lab, in addition to learning how to calculate energy expended, students will learn how to calculate power output during exercise and work accomplished using a variety of ergometers. /n ergometer (ergo 2 work, meter 2 measure) is a device that allows the amount of mechanical work accomplished to be determined. The apparatus enables sub3ects to perform prescribed amount of work while physiological data can be measured simultaneously with stationary instruments. It is important that students do not confuse work accomplished with energy expended, even though they are closely related. The energy expended during exercise is at least three to five times the work accomplished during exercise. /s you learned in human physiology, humans are usually only "-45-. mechanically efficient. This means that if a sub3ect expends !-- kilocalories (energy expended), they will only be able to accomplish "-45kilocalories of work on an ergometer (work accomplished). /ccording to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can not be created or destroyed* the remaining 6-47-. of the energy expended by the sub3ect1s body during the exercise bout is given off as heat. In this lab, students will learn to calculate power and work accomplished on treadmill and cycle ergometers. 8uidelines for calculating power and work accomplished are also provided in the lab manual for determining the work accomplished using arm crank ergometers, bench step ergometers, and rowing ergometers. 9efore learning to calculate work accomplished it may be necessary for some of you to review the following definitions: Mass Mass is the quantity of matter in a body. It is measured in units of grams, or more frequently in this class, kilograms. 1kg = 2.2 pounds. Force Force is the cause that puts an object at rest into motion. According to Newtons
;ab III 4 !

second law of motion the rate of acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force that acts upon it and indirectly proportional to the mass of the object. Therefore force can be calculated as follows: Force = Mass x Acceleration. The effect of the acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2) on a mass produces a force measured in units called Newtons. Newtons = Mass (Kg) x Acceleration (9.8 m/s2) Work - A force that acts over a set distance results in work. It is measured in Newtonmeters or Joules (1 Joule = 1Nm). A Joule can easily be converted into kilocalories by multiplying the number of Joules by 0.00024. Thus Joules and kilocalories are both units of work. Work is a form of energy. Later this quarter we will also use these units when calculating energy expended. Power Power is the rate at which work is accomplished (or work accomplished per unit time). Power is measured in Watts. One Watt is equal to 1 Joule per second. In older exercise physiology literature the units of Kgm/min (kilogram meters per minute) were frequently used, although it was not technically a unit of power. Thus, this unit was given a a new name, a kilopond (Kp). One kilogram of mass is defined as exerting one kilopond of force. Therefore Kgm/min is equal to Kpm/min. We will not use these units in this class but you should be familiar with them as you will see them in older scientific literature and in some calculations of energy expenditure during exercise.
Table 1. Common conversions used in this class. 1 Kp = 1 Kg 1 Kg = 2.2 pounds 1 inch = 2.54 cm or 0.0254m 1 mile = 1.6 Km or 1,600m 1 Kgm = 9.8 Joules 1 Ftlb = 0.1383 Kgm 1 HP = 745.7 Watts 1Kgm/min = 0.1633 Watts 1 Joule = 0.00024 Kilocalories 1 Watt = 1 Joule/sec = 0.00024 Kilocalories/sec

<any factors influence the physiological response to exercise. Two attributes of an exercise bout that influence the physiological response to exercise, intensity and duration, are of particular importance for today1s lab. The intensity of an exercise bout is frequently presented in +atts, which are a unit of power. Thus, the rate at which work is accomplished is a ma3or determinant of the intensity of the exercise bout. 9ecause the intensity of an exercise bout is such an important determinant of the physiological response to exercise, repeated exercise tests or work bouts require the use of ergometers. $or example if you want to compare some physiological variable (e.g. heart rate) before and after exercise training, you will need to use the same specific workload before and after training in order to make valid comparisons. Again, power is the rate at which work is accomplished. The ability to use or prescribe a precise exercise power output is essential for exercise-related research, serial fitness evaluations and exercise prescription. Thus, ergometers are an essential laboratory tool for all exercise professionals. In a research setting, ergometers are very important because it is necessary to control intensity. Likewise, in a clinical setting it would not be appropriate to tell a heart patient to simply say, go exercise; too much exercise may be risky for the patient and too little may not yield optimal results. Thus, the use of an ergometer allows the exercise professional to prescribe a specific workload to a patient.
;ab III 4 "

'nderstanding and =alculating +ork and #ower +hereas the power output during an exercise bout determines the intensity of the exercise bout, the work accomplished during an exercise bout is determined by both the power output and the duration of the exercise bout. Thus, if one wants to accomplish more work (and thus expend more energy) the intensity (power) of the exercise bout or the duration of the exercise can be increased. There are many ways to calculate work and power from each of these ergometers. These calculations will be much easier for you if you recognize the similarities in these calculations between the different ergometers. For example, the only major difference between how you calculate power or work between the different ergometers is in the calculation of velocity. One way that you can keep from getting overwhelmed by these formulas is to consistently perform them in the same order. For example, you could organize your calculations as follows: A) B) C) D) E) calculate kg from pounds (if necessary) calculate Force in Newtons (kg x 9/8m/s2) calculate velocity in meters/second calculate power in watts (Force x velocity, or Newtons x meters/second) calculate work in joules (Power x duration of the exercise bout, or Watts x seconds) F) calculate work in kcal (Joules x .00024kcal/J) Usually the intensity, or power, that the subject is to perform is known and the corresponding ergometer settings must be determined by using the following formulas backwards. Thus, students are expected to be able to perform these calculations forwards AND backwards! Students are expected to figure out, on their own (with help if necessary), how to perform these calculations backwards. It is also important to note that students may need to set subjects up on these ergometers at the appropriate intensities during practical exams. 0etermining the /erobic %nergy =ost of an %xercise 9out The human body, like any other engine, operates within the laws of physics. It obeys the law of conservation of energy* the energy that appears as work must have previously entered the body in the form of food. +hen we work we must consume a certain quantity of oxygen to ensure the adequate release of energy derived indirectly from food to perform this work. If the work is not too strenuous, the energy demands may be met almost totally by the oxygen consumed during exercise and this is referred to as aerobic work and thus oxygen consumption can be used as an indicator of energy cost. ,owever, if the exercise is very strenuous, the release of energy might have to be carried out with an oxygen deficit since the energy demands could be greater than the physiological systems capability to deliver oxygen. The body has a limited capacity for energy expenditure. The maximum rate of energy use for an untrained sub3ect is about " horsepower (,#), which can be maintained for only a few seconds, and the all4day activity level is about -." ,#. )ome competitive oarsmen have achieved energy expenditures in excess of 5.> ,# for a ? minute exercise. #lease keep in mind that energy expenditure is different from work accomplished. %nergy expenditure is the amount of energy used by the body to perform an activity, whereas work accomplished is dependent upon how the distance over which a force was applied (e.g. a sub3ect moving their body mass against gravity while on a treadmill).
;ab III 4 5

@xygen consumption is not only related to energy expenditure but to heat production as well. ,owever, oxygen consumption is reported in ;Amin, which is not a unit of energy, so it must be converted to an energy equivalent. If a sub3ect is using only carbohydrates as an energy source, then one liter of oxygen consumed is the equivalent of >.-> cal of heat production. The use of these equivalents, frequently referred to as caloric equivalents, can be very useful for assessing energy expenditure during exercise or for determining a sub3ectBs metabolic rate. 9ecause the caloric equivalents are different depending on the fuel substrate being used by the body, the type of substrate combusted must be known in order to determine the caloric equivalent. =aloric equivalents are usually obtained from well established tables. The (%( chart in your /ppendix (page >C) is an example of one of these tables. /fter determining the sub3ectBs D=@" and D@", the respiratory exchange ratio ((%() can be calculated (remember it is the proportion of =@" expired to @" consumed). @nce the (%( is known, the caloric equivalent can be obtained from the table. %nergy expenditure, measured in cals, can then be calculated by multiplying the sub3ectBs D@" (in ;Amin) times the caloric equivalent (in calA;), and then multiplying times the number of minutes of exercise. @ne of the purposes of todayBs lab is to learn how to calculate energy expenditure during steady state (below anaerobic threshold) exercise and to use this to determine mechanical efficiency. Eou will also make a comparison of mechanical efficiency between two forms of exercise. To perform these procedures you must remember that the amount of oxygen consumed during exercise represents the oxygen required to perform the exercise as well as the amount normally needed to support life. The total amount of oxygen consumed per minute during exercise is called the gross oxygen consumption, and it represents not only the oxygen needed to perform the activity, but also the amount of oxygen needed to support life. 9ecause we want to determine the energy cost of the activity we do not want to include the oxygen that would normally be needed 3ust to support life. Thus, the amount of oxygen needed to perform the exercise, referred to as the net oxygen consumption, can be calculated as follows: Net VO2 = ross VO2 ! "est VO2 'sing oxygen consumption and (%( the energy cost of exercise can be expressed in kilocalories but the units of metabolic equivalents (<%Ts) are also sometimes used. @ne <%T is theoretically equal to the sub3ectBs resting metabolic rate, which is approximately a metabolic rate of 5>4C! calAm"Ahr in college age students, or a D@" of 5.> mlAkgAmin. <ore on the (espiratory Fuotient and (espiratory %xchange (atio The ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen consumed at the cellular level is known as the respiratory quotient ((F). /s discussed in previous labs, the respiratory exchange ratio is an estimate of the (F. The (F for carbohydrate metabolism is !.-whereas for fat it is about -.6-. This is because oxygen and hydrogen are present in carbohydrate in the same proportions as water, whereas in various fats extra oxygen is necessary for the formation of water. This can be demonstrated by the following reactions: =arbohydrate: $at: =?,!"@? G ? @" ? =@" G ? ,"@ (F 2 ? =@" produced A ? @" consumed 2 !.-" =>! ,H7@? G !C> @" !-" =@" G H7 ,"@ (F 2 !-" =@" producedA !C> @" consumed 2 -.6-5

;ab III 4 C

/n average (F for protein is about -.7". ,owever, determining a caloric equivalent for protein is much more complex because proteins contain nitrogen in addition to oxygen, hydrogen and carbon atoms. The nitrogen derived from protein metabolism is not given off by the lungs, but rather is excreted via the urinary system. Thus, determining the amount of calories coming from protein metabolism is very complex. The bulk of the calories expended by humans at rest, and during exercise, are derived from fats and carbohydrates. $or this reason, and because of difficulties in assessing energy derived from protein metabolism, a non4protein (%( is frequently used. 'nder resting conditions or during low intensity exercise the (%( will usually be an accurate estimate of the (F and will allow for an accurate assessment of metaboliIed nutrients and the caloric equivalent of oxygen consumed. $or example, an (F of -.7" represents a blend of C-. carbohydrates and ?-. fats at a caloric equivalent of C.76> calA; of oxygen consumed. 9y using this ratio and tables that include caloric equivalents for oxygen accurate metabolic rates can be determined. ,owever, during intense exercise the relationship between carbon dioxide produced and oxygen consumed is complicated by the respiratory system1s function as a buffering mechanism. It is not uncommon to obtain (%( values of over !.-- during moderate to high intensity exercise, due to the buffering of the blood. +hen the body increases its reliance on anaerobic metabolism, lactic acid production increases. 'nder normal physiological conditions, one of the hydrogen ions associated with the lactic acid dissociates (thus we frequently refer to it by the name of its salt, lactate). The body can only tolerate small changes in p,, and thus must buffer the increase in hydrogen ions associated with the increase in production of lactate. The following formula is frequently referred to as the bicarbonate buffering system , and it is one quick mechanism by which the body can reduce the p, of the blood and other body fluids. =@" carbon dioxide G ,"@ water 2 ,"=@5 2 carbonic acid ,G G hydrogen ion ,=@5 bicarbonate ion

The bicarbonate buffering system helps to lower ,G concentration in the blood as follows. +hen there is an increase in hydrogen ions in the blood there will also be more carbon dioxide in the blood (according to the above equation these are all in equilibrium). These elevated levels of ,G and =@" stimulate an increase in ventilation (D%). +hen D% increases, it increases the rate at which =@" is being expelled from the body by the lungs (an increase in carbon dioxide production, D=@"), thus decreasing the amount of =@" and ,G in the blood back towards normal. %conomy of <ovement & <echanical %fficiency If the amount of work done is measurable (i.e., Joules, K gmK etc.) and oxygen consumption is determined, it is possible to determine how much of the energy released results in the production of useful work. <echanical efficiency is the percentage of energy released that results in work. <echanical or work efficiency is calculated as follows: o#tp#t $%or& 'ccomp(is)ed* Mec)'nic'( Efficiency = inp#t $energy expended* /ccording to the first law of thermodynamics, the law of conservation of energy, the energy that does not result in the performance of work is converted to another form of energy* heat. The mechanical efficiency for most human physical activity is around "- 4 5-. with 6- 4 7-. of the energy used ending up as heat. The non productive energy is due to energy loss
;ab III 4 >

x +,,

during chemical to chemical and chemical to mechanical energy exchanges, as well as from energy used to overcome internal resistance or friction (in the muscles, 3oints, blood vessels, etc.), and results in the production of heat. <echanical efficiency is affected by a number of things, including: biomechanical skill, training, muscle fiber type composition, muscle groups used, the type of exercise activity, various diseases, and the substrates being used by the sub3ect to perform the activity. / smart student might write these down as a list so that it is easier to remember on exam days. D@" at the anaerobic threshold (D@"4/T, discussed in future labs) is a ma3or physiological determinant of endurance performance (the sub3ect can work at higher work rates without accumulating lactic acid). If two athletes could run at this same D@", then the more efficient runner could go faster for this rate of metabolism. It is therefore important that a distance runner have a running style or form that provides the greatest amount of work accomplished for the least amount of oxygen (or energy) utiliIed. This would translate to a faster running speed at D@"4/T. The determination of mechanical efficiency has been used to help runners develop their most efficient running style. In general, the more an athlete can minimiIe movements that do not directly contribute to the production of work, the greater their mechanical efficiency. 9ecause many runners race on flat surfaces, and because treadmills require a percent gradeAmovement against gravity to calculate work accomplished, a related measure, running economy, can be calculated to reflect efficiency. "#nning Economy $m(-&g.&m* = re( VO2 $m(-&g.min* x p'ce $min-&m* (unning economy at moderate to race paces are in the range of !?-4""- mlAkg.km. / more economical runner (more efficient) would consume less oxygen for a given pace, and would thus be expending less energy. Typical numbers of untrained runners are in the neighborhood of "-- mlAkg.km and for elite runners are on the order of !7- mlAkg.km, suggesting elite runners expend less energy per unit distance moved. The energy cost of aerobic metabolism is usually determined indirectly by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed during the performance of a given activity. /s will be discussed in future labs, the amount of energy provided by anaerobic metabolism is limited. ,owever, if the exercise bout is below anaerobic threshold and steady state and is of constant intensity, then the energy cost of the first minute of exercise should not be different from the last minute of exercise. Therefore, the total energy cost (aerobic and anaerobic) of the first minutes of exercise (when the oxygen deficit is being produced) can be assumed to be the same as those that occur after steady state exercise is attained. 'sing these assumptions we can calculate the energy cost of the entire exercise bout based on the oxygen cost of the last minute. The determination of energy cost for constant work rate activities above Kanaerobic thresholdK can be estimated based on the linear relationship between work rate and oxygen consumption. @nce this relationship has been established below Kanaerobic thresholdK the amount oxygen required for exercise intensities above Kanaerobic thresholdK can be predicted. This allows the estimation of total energy demand of the activity as well as the amount of energy supplied by aerobic and anaerobic pathways. This procedure is called the K/ccumulated @xygen 0eficitK method. ,owever, methods for estimating the energy cost of activities that are non4 steady state and above anaerobic threshold require making several assumptions, and thus are not always completely accurate. )ome of these will be used in future labs. 9ody =omposition & $itness There are many methods to evaluate physical fitness. ,owever, the definition of LfitnessM for one person may not be adequate or appropriate for another person. %very individual has
;ab III 4 ?

unique demands placed upon them during the course of their normal daily activities, and thus require different LtypesM andAor LquantitiesM of LfitnessM. @ne very broad definition of physical fitness is related to the ability of the person to meet the demands placed upon the body during their daily living tasks. 9ased on your daily living tasks, how would you define Lphysical fitnessMN +e have previously discussed the role of maximal oxygen consumption in describing physical fitness. 9ecause a D@"max test requires at least a minimal amount muscular strength and endurance and stresses to a great extent the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems, this one number can say a lot about one1s fitness. +hile some consider D@"max as synonymous with LfitnessM, it does not provide any information about other aspects of what have been called health related physical fitness attributes, which include the following: a) b) c) d) e) Cardiopulmonary endurance Flexibility Muscular strength Muscular endurance Body composition.

D@"max obviously relates to cardiopulmonary endurance, and perhaps to some extent muscular abilities, but this still leaves us with an incomplete description of the sub3ect1s health related physical fitness. In this lab we will also assess body composition. Obesity is a major risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease (CAD), the number one cause of death in the United States. 1 in every 2.4 deaths in the U.S. can be attributed to some type of cardiovascular disease. Not only is obesity a risk factor for developing CAD, it is also associated with poor blood lipid profiles (high cholesterol levels), diabetes mellitus, and hypertension. High cholesterol levels, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension are also major risk factors for the development of CAD. Not all major CAD risk factors are preventable or treatable, but obesity can be treated. It is true that genetics influences the tendency to become obese. However, increasing fat stores requires specific environmental conditions; specifically, chronic excess energy intake, chronic excessively low energy expenditure, or some combination. This means that it is, to some extent, treatable through diet, exercise, and in some cases medication. Obesity also has a negative impact on many fitness factors. The presence of obesity is best determined by assessing the subjects body composition. However, all current methods for assessing body composition are imperfect. Not only are most methods for determining body composition inaccurate, they are frequently also time consuming and they can be expensive. The body mass index and waist-hip ratio are some fairly simple calculations that insurance companies have used in the past to estimate whether a population of subjects is obese or not. However, it is important to note that these are not measurements of body composition. The body mass index (BMI) is calculated as the subjects mass in kg divided by their height (in meters) squared. A value of over 30kg/m2 is commonly used to suggest that the subject may be obese. It should be noted that in many cases a subject can exceed this value but not be obese (e.g. stocky, muscular individuals will be heavier for a given weight than people who are less muscular or stocky). Normal Values for Percent Body Fat of 20 to 29 Year Old Women and Men men women th 90 percentile 7.1 % 14.5 % 70th percentile 11.8 % 19.0 % th 50 percentile 15.9 % 22.1 % 30th percentile 19.5 % 25.4 %
;ab III 4 6

10th percentile

25.9 %

32.1 %

Body size and shape are largely determined by skeletal size, but are affected by the amount of muscle mass and other body tissues. The ideal body weight includes only a minimal amount of fat and depends largely on skeletal size. Early attempts to assess ideal body weight involved developing tables based on sex, height, age and weight. An individual simply weighed himself, and compared this weight to the ideal listed in the table. If his weight was greater than that listed he could be determined as overweight. However, these tables took no account of body composition. It was possible for an individual to have very little fat but be overweight, or to be underweight but have a relatively large percentage of body fat. We now have several methods to determine body composition, i.e., what proportion of the body weight is fat and what proportion is lean (lean body mass, or LBM). Using these methods one can determine if someone is actually overfat or obese, or if they are simply overweight because of greater than average muscle mass. Some of the methods used for assessing body composition are: body densitometry (e.g. hydrostatic weighing) skin-fold thickness body diameters dual X-ray absorptiometry bioelectrical impedance +eight loss and energy expenditure 9eing able to calculate energy expenditure during exercise can be very useful to if you are trying to help someone loose weight. It has been suggested that to lose weight and keep it off, weight loss should not exceed one pound of weight loss per week for most individuals, with a maximal rate of weight loss of no more than two pounds per week. If weight loss at rates higher than two pounds per week is necessary, this should only be done with medical supervision. ,ow do you go about losing one pound per week of fat weightN @ne pound equals C>C grams, and complete oxidation of one gram of fat yields H kcal, thus we would expect that one pound of fat weight would equal C,-7?kcal. ,owever, since adipose tissue contains some amount of protein, minerals, and water in addition to fat, one pound of body fat actually represents about 5,>-- kcal of stored energy. )o, if you were to use exercise alone to accomplish this weight loss, with no change in diet, you would need to KburnK >-- kcal per day (5,>-- 6daysAweek). $or a !>- pound female running a pace of ten minutes per mile, this translates to approximately C" minute workouts every day. Oot everyone feels comfortable running !minute miles and not everyone has C" minutes a day to workout. Thus, for many people , a combination of dietary restriction and exercise may be the best bet. $or example, the same female from above could do "! minutes at the same intensity (KburningK P">- kcal), and reduce caloric intake by ">- kcalAday, for a total of >-- kcalAday.

;/9@(/T@(E #(@=%0'(%) /. =ollect resting and exercise expired gas samples to determine oxygen consumption 9. =alculate #ower and +ork /ccomplished for your sub3ect1s exercise 9out
;ab III 4 7

=. 0etermine the aerobic energy cost of the exercise bout and then determine mechanical efficiency. 0. 0etermine body composition of your sub3ect andAor of a friend using hydrostatic weighing andAor skin fold measurements. %. %ven if your sub3ect is lean, perform a hypothetical weight loss calculation using the data you collected. /. =ollect resting and exercise gas samples !. =ollect a > minute sample of expired air during rest. +hile this sample is collected, some group members should obtain the ambient temperature, pressure, and water vapor pressure conditions which will be needed to calculate the )T#0 correction factor. /fter collecting the five minute resting sample, analyIe the sample to determine those variables needed to calculate absolute D@" (;Amin): $%@", $%=@", and the volume of the expired sample. (ecord your data. ". Eour sub3ect will perform two > minute submaximal exercise bouts of known work rate on assigned ergometer. The exercise bouts should be low to moderate intensity and should definitely be performed below the anaerobic threshold. %xpired air will be collected during the >th and final minute of exercise. If the intensity is moderate or below, this should allow enough time to ensure that their D@" has reached a steady state. $ollowing analysis of collected air (as above) a second exercise bout will be performed on the assigned ergometer using the same work rate as the first work bout. =alculate the needed speed, grade, (#<, resistance, etc. to provide the same desired work rate as you did in the ergometry lab (lab !). (emember,+atts 2 JoulesAsec 2 OmAsec 2 (kg Q H.7) m A sec. 9. =alculating #ower @utput and +ork /ccomplished Your instructor will assign your exercise bouts from among the following: 8roup %rgometer ! Treadmill, forward and backward (same work rate) " Treadmill, walking and 3ogging (same work rate) 5 9ike, normal and low seat (same work rate) C (ower and 9ike (same work rate) > Treadmill, " speeds (same work rate) ? 9ike, " different cadencesA(#< (same work rate) 6 9ike, high and low work rate 1) Monark cycle ergometer This ergometer will be used on a regular basis in this laboratory and is considered a standard piece of equipment in many or most exercise physiology labs. Work is accomplished by the friction force of a belt around a fly wheel that results in the lifting of a resistance. The force that the pedals must overcome to make the flywheel move can be calculated by the effect of gravity on the resistance. The pedal revolution speed (RPM, revolutions per minute) and the distance traveled per full pedal revolution determine the distance upon which the resistance is acted. On a Monark cycle ergometer, each full pedal revolution would cause the ergometer to travel 6 meters if the device were not stationary. Thus, 6.0m/rev is a constant that you should commit to memory. Force = Kg x 9.8 m/sec2 = Newtons
;ab III 4 H

Velocity = RPM x 6 meters/revolution x 1min/60 sec = meters/sec Power = force x distance / time = Newtons x meters/sec = Nm/sec = J/sec = Watts Work = Power x time = Watts x (total work time, sec) = Joules Joules x 0.00024 Kcal/ Joule = Kcal The cycle ergometer is probably the most adaptable of the ergometers used in this laboratory because it allows for the easy measurement of several physiological variables (due to the fact that the person remains relatively more stationary compared to running, rowing or arm cranking). It also allows a wide range of work intensities. This ergometer requires a nearly identical energy expenditure for a given work intensity irrespective of sex, age or body siIe. ,owever, it can be affected by mechanical efficiency. <echanical efficiency on a cycle ergometer is influenced by several factors including training, pedal speed and seat height. Optimal pedaling frequency for most subjects is 50-75 revolutions per minute. This is because this is the range of RPMs in which most subjects have their greatest mechanical efficiency. On the other hand, trained cyclists may prefer pedaling closer to 90 or 100 revolutions per minute. For optimum mechanical efficiency the height of the seat should be adjusted to allow for an almost completely extended leg at the lowest pedal position. There should be an approximately 5 to 10 bend in the knee (170-175 between the upper and lower leg) when the pedal is at the bottom of its rotation. Alternatively, with the front part of the foot on the pedal and the leg extended with the knee only slightly bent, the seat height is proper if the heel is an inch (2.54 cm) below the front part of the foot. /lthough most people are familiar with this type of exercise it does not stress a large muscle mass (in comparison to treadmill exercise). Therefore a sub3ect1s aerobic capacity determined on a cycle ergometer may be > 4 !-. less than on a treadmill or rowing ergometer. It is also more common for sub3ects to experience local muscle fatigue (quadriceps) during cycle ergometry exercise than during treadmill exercise because the workload is distributed amongst a limited muscle mass. Thus, a sub3ect may be less likely to reach their LtrueM maximal exercise intensity on a cycle ergometer than on a treadmill. If the desired power is known and you need to work these formulas backwards in order to determine the correct combination of (#< and kg. It is important to remember what (#<s your sub3ect(s) feel comfortable pedaling (see optimal pedaling frequency below). =hoose an appropriate (#< and determine the velocity in metersAsecond at this (#<. Then work the formulas backwards to determine the necessary kg of resistance for the desired power. 2) Treadmill The motor - driven treadmill is one of the most commonly used exercise tools due to the universal skill of walking and running. The treadmill allows the calculation of work and power by knowing the speed and grade of the treadmill, the subject's weight and the duration of the exercise bout. The calculation of work requires that the force act against gravity. Thus, walking or running on a level treadmill does not result in the production of any work. The production of work by the subject requires that the grade of the treadmill be set at some level other than zero. The grade (or percent grade) of the treadmill is a ratio of the number of units of vertical distance traveled per 100 units of horizontal distance covered. For example, an 8.0% grade means that the subject would travel 8 meters vertically for every 100 meters traveled horizontally. Remember, when performing calculations percent values must be converted to decimals (e.g. use 0.08 if an 8% grade is used) Force = Body wt (Kg, pounds/2.2) x 9.8 m/sec2 = Newtons
;ab III 4 !-

Velocity = Treadmill speed MPH x 1600 m/mi = meters/hour Meters/hour / 3600second/hour = meters/sec (forward) meters/sec (forward) x Decimal of % grade = meters/sec (up) Power = Newtons x meters/sec (up) = Nm/sec = J/sec = Watts Work = Watts x seconds ( total exercise time) = Joules Joules x 0.00024 Kcal/joules = Kcal If the desired power output is known, you will need to work these formulas backwards in order to determine the correct combination of speed (in mph) and grade. It is very important to know what are reasonable speeds and grades for most sub3ects. To perform the calculations backwards it is best to start by calculating the sub3ect1s body mass in kg and their force in Oewtons. Then determine an appropriate combination of speed and grade. In this class we will usually be using speeds between 3 and 10 mph and grades of 1-15%. However, one commonly used exercise protocol, the Bruce Protocol starts at a rather slow speed of 1.7mph and a rather steep 10% grade, and by the end of the test may be over a 20% grade (which is very steep). It is also a good idea to ask your subject if they walk or run on a regular basis, and if so, how fast. This will give you an idea what kind of speed they are capable of maintaining.
/'0(e 1. 2peed in mp) 'nd %'(&ing-r#nning p'ce Speed (mph) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 pace (min/mile) 30 20 15 12 10 8:35 7:30 Speed (mph) 9 10 11 12 16 22.5 70 pace (min/mile) 6:40 6 5:27 5 3:45 (pace of an elite miler) 2:40 (pace for a 10 second 100m) 0:51 (Cheetah running at full speed)

The above table shows you the speed in miles per hour for a range of walking/running mile paces. Please note that most young, healthy people participating in an exercise regimen will not usually chose a speed slower than 3 mph during a workout (a moderate to brisk walking speed) and most normal healthy individuals would not go faster than a 6 min/mile pace (10 mph) for longer than a few minutes. /lthough most people are familiar with walking and running exercise the treadmill does pose some limitations in measuring physical and physiological variables. Energy is expended by the subject regardless of how steep the grade is. However, significant amounts of work are only accomplished when using at least a 5% grade (although it also depends on the speed). Thus we are somewhat limited in our ability to calculate the mechanical efficiency of exercise bouts performed using a low percent grade. Furthermore, neither work accomplished or mechanical efficiency can be calculated for an exercise bout on a flat treadmill (0% grade) because the subject has no vertical velocity (thus zero work would be accomplished). /n additional concern is that a sub3ect exercising on a treadmill must support his or her own body weight, as a result, work accomplished and energy expended are proportional to body siIe. This is unlike a cycle ergometer where a given rpm and resistance will be the same power output for all sub3ects regardless of their weight. 9ecause of the large muscle mass used during running, most sub3ects will have a >4!-. greater aerobic capacity (D@"max, maximal ability to take up and utiliIe oxygen) on the
;ab III 4 !!

treadmill than on the cycle ergometer. If the muscle mass used is large enough, aerobic capacity is usually centrally limited rather than peripherally limited (e.g. local muscle fatigue). 3) Bench Stepping /lthough bench stepping can be a rather boring form of exercise it does provide a simple means of measuring the rate of work accomplishment in a relatively stationary position. This test allows the measurement of work by knowing the sub3ects weight, the step distance and the step rate. The step rate can be maintained relatively constant by asking the sub3ect to keep pace with the sounds made by a metronome. Force = Body wt Kg (pounds/2.2) x 9.8 m/sec2 = Newtons Velocity = Step height (meters/step) x Step frequency (steps/min) = meters/min Recommended step heights : for male = 0.40 m, for female = 0.33 m meters/min / 60sec/min = meters/sec Power = Newtons x meters/sec = Nm/sec = J/sec = Watts Work = Watts x seconds ( total exercise time) = Joules Joules x 0.00024 Kcal/joules = Kcal 9ecause there are now several accurate, commercially available ergometers this mode of exercise is no longer frequently used. ,owever, it does provide a very repeatable means of exercise stress at a minimal expense and can be performed almost anywhere without the need for much equipment. It tends to underestimate mechanical efficiency due to the energy expended to lower the body (lowering the body does not accomplish any work). Intermediate step rates, between "- and 5- ascents (steps) per minute, are the most comfortable, efficient, and yield the most consistent data. ;ow rates of ascent, !> or fewer stepsAminute, are more difficult than intermediate rates because the movement is discontinuous. ,igh rates, C- or more stepsAminute can be dangerous and require concentration and exceptional power. +hen a high bench is used (.C> 4 .> m) a stepping rate of "-4"> stepsAper minute is optimal. @ne common fitness test, the /strand4(hyming fitness test, recommends a step rate of "".> stepsAmin. The rate of stepping has more influence on efficiency than the bench height. There are four movements per step (first leg up, second leg up, first leg down, second leg down). Thus, you will need to multiply the desired step rate times four to set the metronome frequency. $or example, a metronome setting of !-should result in a step rate of "> steps per minute. C) <onark arm crank ergometer The arm crank ergometer in this laboratory is a modified cycle ergometer for the use of the upper extremities. The calculation of work accomplished by the use of this device is identical to the procedure used with the leg pedaling ergometer. 9ecause this device uses a relatively small muscle mass maximal power values (and maximal oxygen consumption values) on this device are much smaller than on the cycle ergometer. $urthermore, the exercise intensity at a given power outputs on an arm crank ergometer are much different from those listed in table ". $or example, >-46> watts would most likely be a moderate intensity (or even a high intensity) on an arm crank ergometer* even though these power outputs would usually be a low intensity on a treadmill, cycle, or rowing ergometer. It is very important to keep in mind the fact that exercise utiliIing different siIe muscle masses significantly alters the physiological response to exercise. The fact that arm cranking uses such a small muscle mass is of great utility for students and researchers trying to understand the role of muscle mass in determining the physiological
;ab III 4 !"

response to exercise. It also can be an alternative mode of exercise for patients with orthopedic or mobility problems that preclude leg exercises. (#<s of >- or ?- (#<s are usually recommended for arm crank exercise. >) =oncept II (owing ergometer This device has been electronically calibrated to determine power output based on the speed of the flywheel and the affect of air friction on the rate of deceleration between strokes. /n estimate of the power output can be obtained from the electronic display in +atts. $ollowing the exercise an average power in +atts will be displayed. 'se the average power to calculate work accomplished. +ork 2 +atts x seconds ( total exercise time) 2 Joules Joules x -.---"C calA3oules 2 cal The rowing stroke is a smooth motion, requiring coordination between the muscles of the legs, torso, shoulders and arms. /lthough there are basically two parts to the stroke, the drive and the recovery, all of the movements are blended together smoothly and continuously. There should be no stopping at any point during the stroke. To 9egin the drive, the rower reaches forward with knees bent, arms extended and body leaning toward the flywheel. The drive is begun with the legs and back doing all the work. The arms are straight and the shoulders are somewhat relaxed and performing a slight isometric action. ,alfway through the drive, the legs and back are still doing all the work and the arms are still straight. @nce the legs are fully, or nearly fully extended, the handle is pulled by the arms and shoulders into the abdomen. The legs are straight and the body is leaning back slightly. The first motion of the recovery is to bring the arms forward until they are fully extended and then the knees and hips are simultaneously flexed* brining the body forward. /llowing the arms to recover first puts the handle in front of the knees, thus avoiding interference between the knees and hands as the seat moves forward (additionally, if the person were actually rowing on water, lifting the hands over the knees would push the boat backwards. @nce the body is drawn all the way forward with the legs bent and arms straight, the sub3ect is now ready to begin the next stroke. (owing obviously requires the use of a very large muscle mass. This allows skilled rowers to exercise at power outputs that would not be possible to maintain on ergometers using smaller muscle masses. 'nfortunately not every person is familiar with the rowing motion, and as a result, inexperienced rowers tend to have low mechanical efficiencies. =. =alculating /erobic %nergy =ost of %xercise !. $irst calculate resting D@" and D@" for each exercise bout as you have done in previous labs. Then calculate the Oet D@" for each of the exercise bouts. =alculate the net energy cost of exercise once steady state has been reached ($or the calculation of mechanical efficiency both input and output must be converted to common units for work or energy and this is best represented as kilocalories.): D@" 2 D%stpd (O$ x -."-H5 4 $%@") R8ross D@" (;Amin) 4 (est D@" (;Amin)S 2 Oet D@" (;Amin) ". =alculate the (%( during the exercise bouts, and determine the caloric equivalent from table in the /ppendix. =alculate energy expended per minute as follows: (%( 2 D=@" (;Amin) A 8ross D@" (;Amin) Tlook at table for calA;
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Oet D@" (;Amin) x caloric equivalent ( calA;) 2 %nergy expended ( calAmin) %nergy expended (kcalAmin) x U minutes of exercise 2 %nergy expended (kcal) 5. /fter calculating aerobic energy expended, and using the work accomplished, calculate the (net) mechanical efficiency. <%. 2 (+ork /ccomplished A %nergy %xpended) x !--

0. 0etermine 9ody =omposition of your sub3ect andAor another student 1. Body Densitometry Underwater weighing is a technique based on Archimedes principle (do you know it?). The densities of bone and muscle tissues are higher than that of water, whereas fat is less dense than water. Thus a person with less fat will weigh proportionally more in water than a person of equal weight (in air) with more fat. To determine body density from underwater weighing, the following equation has been derived: Wa Db = (Wa-Ww) Dw Where: Db = body density, Wa = body weight out of water (in air), Ww = body weight in water, Dw = density of water (which varies with temperature of the water), RV = residual volume (in L), and 0.1L = the estimated air volume in the gastrointestinal tract The RV is the amount of air lift in the lungs after a maximal expiration. It can be estimated using the following equations: M'(es3 "V = ,.,+4 5 ! ,.,++6 A ! 2.27 8em'(es3 "V = ,.,12 5 ! ,.,,4 A ! 1.4 +here , 2 height in centimeters, / 2 /ge in years. If forced vital capacity (FVC) is known (from previous courses), RV can be more accurately predicted using one of the following formulas: Males RV = FVC x 0.24 Females RV = FVC x 0.28 Percentage of body fat is then determined using one of the following equations: % body fat = 4.570 Db - 4.142 or
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(RV + 0.100 L)

X 100

(Brozek Formula)

% body fat =

4.950 Db

- 4.500

X 100

(Siri Formula)

2. Anthropometric Measurements Anthropometry is the science that deals with the measurement of size, weight, and proportions of the human body. Measurements of skin-folds, circumferences or body diameters may be used to predict body density and percentage of body fat. In some cases these estimates may be inaccurate (e.g., in school children) and the measurements alone should be compared. Body density can vary with age, gender, race, and activity. Some population-specific equations have been developed. These may be important when estimates in strictly defined populations are required (e.g., elite athletes) but generalized equations also exist which can be used for the general population. These equations take age into account for potential changes in the ratio of internal to external fat and bone density. Separate equations exist for males and females. Skin-fold measurement Skin-fold measurements are taken using specially designed calipers and are taken at specific sites. The following are the most common sites: a. Pectoral - diagonal fold taken halfway between the anterior axillary line and nipple (men); or one third this distance (women). b. Axilla - vertical fold on the midaxillary line at the level of the xiphoid process of the sternum. c. Triceps - vertical fold on posterior midline of upper arm (over triceps) halfway between acromion and olecranon; elbow should be extended and relaxed d. Subscapular - vertical fold on the vertebral border of the scapula, 1-2 cm below the inferior angle e. Abdominal - vertical fold 2 cm lateral to umbilicus f. Suprailium - diagonal fold above anterior iliac crest g. Thigh - vertical fold on anterior aspect of thigh, midway between hip and knee All measurements should be taken on the same side of the body. Muscles should be relaxed. Skin-fold should be firmly grasped between thumb and index finger, and calipers placed perpendicular to the fold one centimeter from the fingers. Three measurements should be taken at each site. Comparisons are best if same tester, same
;ab III 4 !>

calipers and same equations are used. Up to a 3% variation in fat determination can be noted even with experienced testers using the same equipment on the same day! 3. Body Mass Index (BMI) This measurement compares an individuals weight to their height as follows: BMI = Weight (Kg) / Height2 (m2). Normal values for BMI fall in the range of 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2. Health problems associated with obesity increase if a subject has a BMI over 25 kg/m2. The American Heart Association uses a value of 30 kg/m2 to group patients as obese or not obese when assessing major CAD risks. It has been suggested that subject's who have a BMI between 25 and 29.9 kg/m2 are overweight and subject's with a BMI over 30 kg/m2 are obese. However, keep in mind that a body mass index is not a true measure of body composition (it does not really give us any indication of percent fat or lean tissue). For example, it is not uncommon for very lean, muscular subjects to have a BMI over 25, or even over 30, even though they are clearly not obese individuals. Remember to convert inches to meters (there are 0.0254 m/inch) 4. Waist to Hip Ratio (WHR) This measurement evaluates an individual's pattern of fat distribution, which has been found to be related to cardiovascular risk. The so called apple or male pattern of fat distribution is associated with a higher risk of type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and CAD, but the pear or female pattern is associated with a lower risk. Health risk is considered very high in young men if the WHR is over 0.94 and in young women if the WHR is over 0.82. This ratio is calculated from the measurement of the waist and hip girth measurements. The measurements are made as follows: Waist - measured at the narrowest point between the xiphoid process and the illiac crest (usually within an inch or two of the umbilicus). Hip - measured at the largest point at the level of the greater trochanter over the maximum protrusion of the buttocks. WHR = Waist (cm) / Hip (cm)

%. #erform hypothetical weight loss calculations 1. Calculate a new desired (ideal) body weight for your subject. fat mass = decimal of % body fat x body mass LBM = body mass - fat mass *Desired (ideal) Body weight = Current LBM / (1.0 - decimal of desired %BF) *This calculation is limited because it assumes that LBM does not change ". =alculating how many minutes per day to lose this weight (emember that !pound fat 2 5,>-- kcal >-- kcalAday to lose ! poundAweek
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>--kcalAday V %nergy expended in kcalAmin 2 minutesAday

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Data Sheets /. (esting & %xercise %xpired 8as )ample 0ata )ub3ect +t. +ater Dapor #ressure g /mbient Temp. mm,g (est a. b. c. d. $%@" $%=@" )ample Dolume (;) <eter Dolume (;) W= /mbient #ressure mm,g )T#0 =orrection $actor XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX %xercise ! %xercise "

9. =alculate %xercise #ower & +ork /ccomplished %xercise 9out !. %rgometer: XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX )ettings: XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX #ower (+atts):

+ork /ccomplished (kcal):

%xercise 9out ". %rgometer: XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX )ettings: XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX #ower (+atts):

+ork /ccomplished (kcal):

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=. =alculation of %nergy =ost of /ctivity and <echanical %fficiency (est a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. /T#) Dolume (;) (sample G meter vol.) D% min. Dol. /T#) ( by > if needed to get ;Amin) D% )T#0 (;Amin) O$ 8ross D@" (;Amin) (rest or exercise D@") D=@" (;Amin) (%( =aloric equivalent ( calA;) Oet D@" (;Amin) 2 8ross D@" 4 rest D@" %nergy %xpended (kcalAmin) 2 Oet D@" x =aloric %quiv. %nergy %xpended (kcal) +ork /ccomplished (kcal, from above) <echanical %fficiency (.) %xercise ! %xercise "

3.

k. l. m.

,ow did mechanical efficiencies compare between exercise bout ! and exercise bout "N If they were different explain whyN

0id you get reasonable answers for mechanical efficiencyN If not try and explain whyN

If your sub3ect was on a treadmill, calculate running economy in mlAkg.km. If not, what would be the running economy of a !6- pound male running H mph with a D@" of C.> ;AminN
;ab III 4 !H

,ow are the concepts of running economy and mechanical efficiency relatedN

$or exercise bout !, what percent of calories came from carbohydrate metabolismN ,ow about fat metabolismN

,ow many total calories were expended in exercise bout !, and how many of these calories were from fatsN ,ow many calories from carbohydrateN

=lass data for mechanical efficiency Y will be covered at end of class %xercise 9out ! group ! group " group 5 group C group > <%. %xercise 9out " <%.

0. 9ody =omposition & related data !. Hydrostatic Weighing Data (Demonstration, use formulas from above) Subject 1 (m/f) Subject 2 (m/f) Height: ____________ ____________ Weight in air: ____________ ____________ Dw ____________ ____________ FVC (if known): ____________ ____________ Estimated RV: ____________ ____________ Weights in water (at least 3) ____________ ____________ Average weight in water: ____________ ____________ Body Density: ____________ ____________
;ab III 4 "-

% Body fat: 2. Skin-fold Data

____________

____________

Assess body composition using skin-fold measurements from at least one member of your group. You can use the nomogram on appendix page 68 instead of using the long body density formulas below. Females a. Body Mass _____________ kg b. Skin-fold thicknesses (in mm) take three measurements at each site Triceps _________mm Suprailiac ________ ________ ________ average= ________ ________ ________ average= _________mm

Anterior thigh ________ ________ ________ average= _________mm c. Determine the mean skin-fold thicknesses and use these values in the next equation. d. Body Density = 1.0994921 - 0.0009929 (Sum of the three sites) + 0.0000023 (Sum of the three sites)2 -0.0001392 (Age) Body Density = _____________ e. Plug the body density value into either the Siri or Brozek formula (one of the two equations given for hydrostatic weighing) to determine % BF. Then calculate your subject's fat mass and lean body mass. % Body Fat ____________ Fat mass ____________ LBM ____________ Males a. Body Mass _____________ kg b. Skin-fold thicknesses (in mm) take three measurements at each site Pectoral Umbilicus ________ ________ ________ average= _________mm ________ ________ ________ average= _________mm

Anterior thigh ________ ________ ________ average= _________mm c. Determine the mean skin-fold thicknesses and use these values in the next equation. d. Body Density = 1.10938 - 0.0008267 (Sum of the three sites) + 0.0000016 (Sum of the three sites)2 - 0.0002574 (Age) Body Density = _____________ e. Plug the body density value into either the Siri or Brozek formula (one of the two equations given for hydrostatic weighing) to determine % BF. Then calculate your subject's fat mass and lean body mass. % Body Fat ____________ Fat mass ____________
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LBM ____________ How do the percent body fat obtained by skin-fold measurements compare to values obtained with hydrostatic weighing? 3 & 4. BMI and Waist to Hip Ratio Subject weight waist girth BMI WHR kg height cm Is this normal? Is this normal? cm cm hip girth

%. +eight ;oss calculations: 1. Calculate a new desired (ideal) body weight for one of your subjects. For example, what would their new (ideal) body weight be if they wanted to reduce their percent body fat by 5%? a. subject weight b. fat mass c. LBM d. desired body wt. __________, . body fat XXXXXXXXXXXXXX __________ __________ __________

What is a potential limitation of the formulas we used for calculating desired body weight? ,ow many pounds would the sub3ect need to lose to achieve this new ideal body weightN

,ow long would this take if they wanted to lose this weight at a rate of ! pound per weekN ,ow about -.> pounds per weekN

". 'sing the energy expended, in kcal/min, from exercise bout !, determine how many minutes per day your sub3ect would have to exercise to lose a) one pound of weight per week and b) half a pound of fat per week. /ssume they exercise seven days per week for this example. )how calculations below.

;ab III 4 ""

If your sub3ect did not have this much time every day to exercise, what is another strategy for achieving this weight lossN

2t#dy 9#estions !) @ne pound of fat is equivalent to 5,>-- kcal. =alculate your fat mass in pounds and determine how many kcal of fat you have stored in the body. If you assume that you will expend around "--- kcalAday with only basic activity, how many days could you survive on your fat storesN Impressive, isn1t itN

") +hat are the limitations of calculating mechanical efficiency based on treadmill exerciseN

5) +hat are some applied uses of mechanical efficiencyN

C) +hy is it possible to estimate the energy cost of a steady state, sub anaerobic threshold exercise bout based on the last minute of exercise N

>) +hat factors affect mechanical efficiencyN

?) +hy does it make sense that mechanical efficiency is related to endurance performanceN

6) =an you name three clinical, or disease, conditions that would be expected to reduce mechanical efficiencyN %xplain your answer.

;ab III 4 "5

8) Name the health-related physical fitness attributes. In your own words, how are each of these related to health?

9) Now that you have determined your percent body fat, what is your VO2max relative to your lean body mass?

10) On a separate piece of paper, explain the pros and cons of using the following methods for assessing obesity? Body mass index, waist to hip ratio, skin-fold measurements, hydrostatic weighing, bioelectrical impedance.

11) Why is body composition important when assessing health related physical fitness?

12) What power output ranges (in Watts) would you consider light, moderate, and heavy intensities if the subject were of average size and performing treadmill or cycle exercise? How many Kcals of work would be accomplished in 10 minutes at each of these power outputs?

13) What is a reasonable RPM and resistance for an average person to maintain on a cycle ergometer for 30 minutes if they desire a moderate workload? How about for a well trained cyclist?

!C) If your sub3ect was ">. mechanically efficient and they accomplished >- kcals of work, how much energy did they expendN

;ab III 4 "C

!>) <aximal power outputs, while using a moderate4to4large muscle mass, such as on a cycle ergometer, could be expected to be in the range of XXXXXXXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXXXXXXX +atts for college age females and XXXXXXXXXXXXXX to XXXXXXXXXXXX watts for college age males. 0uring a +ingate test some sub3ects in this class may exceed XXXXXXXXXXXXX +atts, but only for a few seconds. ,owever, cyclists on the Tour de $rance may sustain power outputs of XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX +atts for several hours at a time. %lite rowers who are tall, muscular, and very fit may sustain over XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX +atts for six minutes. !?) ,ow many weeks would it take a 5-- pound man to lose >- pounds at a rate of one pound per weekN If his resting D@" is .C>;Amin, and if he can exercise comfortably at a D@" of ".">;Amin and a D=@" of ".-;Amin, how many minutes per day would he have to exercise to lose one pound of weight per week (assuming he exercises 6 daysAweek)N

!6) )ample calculations for work and power: I. What is the power and total work for a 70Kg individual pedaling the cycle ergometer at 75RPM and 2Kg resistance for 20 minutes.

II.

What is the power and total work for a 65Kg individual walking on the treadmill at 3.5MPH and 5% grade for 30 minutes.

III.

If an elite cyclist wanted to cycle at 350 Watts, what combination of RPM and kg resistance would you recommend for them?

IV.

If a 160 pound subject were running 10 min/mile pace (remember to convert to miles per hour, see table 3) and wanted to exercise at 140 Watts, what percent grade should they use?

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