UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LINE TRACKING ROBOT WITH OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE

Thesis submitted in accordance with the partial requirements of the Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka for the Bachelor of Manufacturing Engineering (Robotic and utomation!

By

MOHAMAD AIDIL B. ABDUL JALAL

"aculty of Manufacturing Engineering Mei #$$%

ABSTRACT

Line tracking and obstacle avoidance behaviors are the critical challenge in the creation of autonomous mobile robots. Mobile robots must be able to operate within normal environments to carry out different tasks, such as banks surveillance and transportation of goods without any human intervention. This report describes the design and development of an autonomous mobile robot which exhibits line tracking and obstacles avoidance behaviors. The PI !"#$%%& microcontroller has been chosen as the brain to control the system. There are ' types of software that are used in programming development which are MPL&( Integrated )esign *nvironment +I)*, and -I.T* - PI language and the -I.T* - PI Lite Lite ompiler software. MPL&( I)* software is used to program the PI !"#$%%& microcontroller in ompiler is used to convert source code into machine instructions. Tracking system is developed for the mobile robot to have navigation ability. /ensor arrays that are used will be able sense a line and maneuver the robot to stay on course, while constantly correcting its position using feedback mechanism forming a simple yet effective closed loop system. ontact detection approach is used in this pro0ect in order to avoid the mobile robot from colliding with obstacles. The testing phase results had shown that successful programming algorithm had been implemented. /everal suggestions of improvements to the robot have been recommended from the observation at the end of the report.

ABSTRAK

Pembangunan robot bergerak yang memiliki kemampuan untuk menuruti satu laluan dan mengelak sebarang halagan merupakan satu cabaran yang agak kritikal. 1obot bergerak ini perlu ada sifat.sifat tersebut bagi menghadapi manusia di sekelilingnya semasa beroperasi, sekiranya ia ditugaskan untuk men0alankan ker0a seperti mengawasi keselamatan bank dan mengangkat barang.barangan. Laporan ini membentangkan sebuah rekabentuk dan pembangunan sebuah robot bergerak yang boleh mempamerkan kebolehan untuk menuruti satu garis laluan dan mengelak sebarang halangan yang telah dikesan. Microcontroller PI !"#$%%& telah dipilih untuk mengawal sistem yang telah digunakan. )ua 0enis perisian telah digunakan dalam pembangunan pengaturcaraan iaitu MPL&( Integrated )esign *nvironment +I)*, dan -I.T* - PI Lite ompiler. /istem pen0e0akan dibangunkan untuk membolehkan pelayaran robot. )engan susunan penderia yang digunakan, ia akan mengesan dan memandu robot tersebut sentiasa di dalam kedudukannya sementara ianya berterusan dengan bantuan sistem maklum balas atau gelung tertutup yang mudah dan berkesan. Pengesan sentuhan digunakan di dalam pro0ek ini adalah untuk tu0uan mengelak pelanggaran. -asil daripada fasa u0ian yang telah ditun0ukkan adalah algoritma pengaturcaraan telah dilaksanakan. (eberapa cadangan untuk penambahbaikan robot akan diusulkan setelah membuat pemerhatian akan dinyatakan di akhir laporan ini.

ii

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

Robot is the one of technology that is growing rapidly in our modern world. We can see that, the utilization of robot today had being widely used in various fields. The robot can be used either to aid in human duty or replace the use of human to do a certain works. For example, robot has already widespread used in the industry especially in manufacturing sector where it used to replace the use of manpower in lifting heavy material or assembling part in production line. t may be caused by several factors such as may increase productivity, enhance !uality and also can perform a dangerous task. Robot can defined as a mechanism which moves automatically and be able to deal with the changing information received from its environment. "enerally, robots have three main parts known as actuators, sensors and controllers. #ensors are devices that used to detect information from it$s environment. These detected information or input information are transformed into electrical signals and its will send to the controller. The controller processes the inputs by executing the functions of operation that have been programmed such as start, stop, reverse and speed change. The output signals that have produced by controller are conveyed to the actuators to perform a desired operation. Within all these part we can conclude that the robot have similar characteristics to human. Figure %.% shows the similarity of feature between human and robot.

Figure 1.1: &lock 'iagram of #imilarity between (uman and Robot.

1.2 Prob e! "#a#e!en# #ensor is one of the important components in line tracking robots. t is because the skills of line tracking robots are highly dependant on the effectiveness of the sensor. #urrounding light could make the sensor produce a signal whereas it shouldn$t. This will cause the controller to make a wrong decision. )s a result the robots will make unnecessary movement and can$t achieve it$s ob*ective. The contrast between the background and the line can also cause a problem to the sensor. The sensor may detect the background as its line thus making a wrong decision. This pro*ect will also consider of noise which is produced by electric dc motor. The motor that will be used may be able to contribute imbalance to the + , microcontroller. -oise or interference consists of unwanted electrical signals which imposes on and masks the desired signal. -oise is always present in a system that involves high power and small signal circuitry. The source of the noise could be from the switching of the driver circuits or the motor itself. nternally, the relatively high current motor drivers are the source. .lectrical unbalance occurs when the magnetic attraction between stator and rotor is uneven around the periphery of the motor. This causes the shaft to deflect as it rotates creating a mechanical unbalance. .lectrical unbalance usually indicates an electrical failure such as an open stator or rotor winding, an open bar or ring in s!uirrel

cage motors or shorted field coils in synchronous motors. )n uneven air gap, usually from badly worn sleeve bearings, also produces electrical unbalance.

%.0 Pro$ec# Ob$ec#i%e& The main aim of this pro*ect is to design an autonomous line tracking robot with the ability to avoid obstacle. This aim is achieved through these ob*ectives1 %. To design and build the structure of an autonomous robot. /. To construct suitable electronic circuits and integrate them with the robot structure. 0. To program the + , to achieve line tracking and obstacle avoidance behavior.

1.' "co(e n order to design a successful autonomous robot, scopes are re!uired to assist and guide the development of the pro*ect. The scope should be identified and planned to achieve the ob*ective of the pro*ect successfully on the time. The first scope for this pro*ect is literature study on *ournals or books that related with the pro*ect. The purpose of literature study is to find all information which can help in completing this pro*ect. The next scope in this pro*ect is design and fabricates of body structure for the mobile robot. This pro*ect will be more focused on the construction of electronic circuit which uses a + , microcontroller to control the motion of the robot. n order to make the robot performs the desired task2 a programming development will be executed.

1.) Pro$ec# O%er%ie* The goal of this pro*ect is to design an autonomous robot that can follow the defined path and detect obstacles. The concept of this robot is a wheeled robot that can move in two directions1 forward and backward. The movement of the robot will be driven by two motors. )s a path guideline, white line is created on the dark floor in order to make the contrast between of them should be large enough. n this pro*ect, the photoelectric sensors will be used to detect the white line and then convert into the electrical signal. There are four sensors will be used where three of them are placed close together at the front side of the robot and one sensor at the backside of the robot. f the middle sensor at the front side and the sensor at the backside sense a presence of reflection, the robot will be properly positioned on the line. f the left or the right sensor sense a presence of reflection, the robot is not proper position on the line. n order to control these statements, the + , controller is used to make a decision whether the motors should be move forward or backward depending on the instruction that have been programmed. 3ther feature of this robot is detecting the obstacle on the path. This feature is developed in order to avoid the robot from collusion with an obstacle and protect the motor from stalling. This chapter describes the problem statement, ob*ectives, pro*ect scope and overview of the pro*ect. ,hapter / will describes more detail the fundamentals of mobile robots and its involved component. This chapter also explained about types of mobile robot navigation and previous studies on the performance of the mobile robots published in books and *ournals. While in the chapter 0 will presents the planning process from the beginning till the pro*ect completed. This report also includes the discussion and conclusion in the chapter 4 and 5.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction to Robot

Nowadays, majority of public have known what is robot. This is because, we can see that the robot already much used around our environment especially in industry, house, office and also military. However, the word of robot was introduced to several decades ago. The word robot is originated from the word Chez robota which means menial labor. e also found that there were many difference definitions if we refer to difference dictionaries. Therefore, the following definition from the !obot "nstitute of #merican can reflect main features of modern robot systems $%&. 'A Robot is a re- programmable multifunction manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tool, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for performance of a variety of tasks.($%& #ccording to the above definition, we can say that the robot is the machine that used to carry out a variety of task such as transfer the material from one location to another. The robot that performs their tasks is depending on the motions that have been programmed. The re) programmable multifunction is the most important feature in order to make the robot more adaptable to the task change.

2.2

Robot Categories

hen looking different kind and design robot which have been produced by various companies today, we could classify these robots into * main categories which are industrial robots and mobile robots.

2.2.1 Industrial Robot

The first category of robot is the fi+ed robot or more popularly known as industrial robot. ,ost of the industrial robots today are developed similar to the human arm. These robots are usually e-uipped with end)effector to perform a variety of task such as gripper used in material loading or part assembling and welded head used in welding process. .esides that, most of the industrial robots are also furnished with humanlike characteristics in order to make them more intelligent. "ndustrial robots are become most important in industry because it can be more competitive and can do some things more efficiently than people. The main advantages the use of industrial robot may be to increase the speed of production rate and additionally to reduce the mass production cost. !obots never get sick or need to rest, so they can work for a long period. /urthermore, they can also be carrying out the task which would be dangerous for a person. "n the earliest, the most applications of the robot are used for material transferring, part sorting, part inspection and part cleaning. However the performances of the industrial robot are often enhanced in order to perform tasks that need accuracy such as part assembly and continuous arc welding $*&.

Figure 2.1 #ssembly 1ine !obot $2&.

2.2.1.1Classi!ication o! Industrial Robots

"ndustrial robots are only able to carry out their tasks in their work)space. ork)space

means the ma+imum point of reach for the end)effector of an industrial robot. 3sually, the work)space of industrial robots e+ists in 4 dimensional spaces. They also have a different work)space according to the * type of motion which are linear and rotate. The first 4 joint at the robot or called 4 major a+es combination contribute the various shape of work)space and its can determine the position of wrist. Therefore, statements below will describe the 5 basic types of movement of industrial robot $4&. Cartesian Co-ordinate Robot The first 4 major a+es combination of this robot are linear. This robot is mounted in * ways either gantry mounted usually for a large Cartesian robot or mounted on track on the floor. "t(s sometimes called an +)y)z robot, indicating the a+es of motion. The +)a+is is lateral motion, the y)a+is is longitudinal motion, and the z)a+is is vertical motion. Thus, the arm can move up and down on the z)

a+is7 the arm can slide along its base on the +)a+is7 and then it can telescope to move to and from the work area on the y)a+is. The Cartesian co)ordinate robot was developed mainly for arc welding, but it is also suited for many other assembly operations $%&.

Figure 2.2 Cartesian !obot and it(s

ork)8pace $%9&

Cylindrical Co-Ordinate Robot The cylindrical co)ordinate robot is a variation of the Cartesian robot. This robot consists of a base and a column, but the column is able to rotate. "t also carries an e+tending arm that can move up and down on the column to provide more freedom of movement. The cylindrical co)ordinate robot is designed for handling machine tools and assembly $%&.

Figure 2." Cylindrical !obot and it(s

ork)8pace $%9&.

Polar Co-Ordinate Robot The polar co)ordinate robot or spherical co)ordinate robot consists of a rotary base, an elevation pivot, and a telescoping e+tend)and)retract boom a+is. These robots operate according to spherical co)ordinates and offer greater fle+ibility. They are used particularly in spot welding $%&.

Figure 2.# ;olar !obot and it(s

ork)8pace $%9&.

Articulated Co-ordinate Robot The articulated co)ordinate robot is resembles to a human arm. "t usually stands on a base on which it can rotate, while it can articulate at the <shoulder< joint, which is just above the base. The robot can also rotate about its <elbow< and <wrist< joints. The articulated co)ordinate robot is the most popular form for a robot and is capable in welding and painting work $%&.

Figure 2.$ #rticulated !obot and it(s

ork)8pace $%9&.

2.2.2 %obile Robot

.esides fi+ed robot, there is another type of robots that is called the mobile robot. The previous section more emphasized in studying to the types, motion, and also the capacity of the arm robot to do certain process such as welding and material loading. This is relatively different from mobile robots. 8tudying mobile robot will more focus on the manner how to make the robot to move from one location to the target point. 8o, we can say that the main feature of the mobile robot is its huge size of work)space. To make a mobile autonomous robot, we must also consider how to make the robot can moves

smoothly and can avoid from obstacle without collision. The selections of navigation for the mobile robot should be corresponding with the environment that the robots travel. There are * main types of environment which are indoor and outdoor. =evelopment of outdoor robot is usually more difficult than indoor robot $>& $0&. 8ometimes, this robot is also used to perform other purposes such as pick up the goods and put down the goods at other places. The place that robot takes the goods can be called starting point and place that robot places the goods can be called target point. 8o, we can say that the purpose of the use of mobile robot may be same as the fi+ed robot but the size of work)space and their capability are differences. This kind of robot is also very important to industries. The mobile robot can eliminate the use of man power in lifting the heavy material from store to production line. The /igure *.0 illustrates an e+ample of mobile robot that is used to transport motor blocks from on assembly station to other. "t is guided by an electrical wire installed in the floor but it is also able to leave the wire to avoid obstacles. .esides that, the mobile robot can do a job in unsafe area such as e+posed to e+cessive temperatures or in nuclear plant. The mobile robot can also appear as consumer products, for entertainment or to perform certain tasks like vacuum cleaning $0&.

Figure 2.& ,obile !obot $%%&.

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2.2.2.1Classi!ications o! %obile Robot

,obile robots can be classified by the environment which they travel. /rom its environment, we can choose what type of locomotion is suitable for the mobile robot. #ctually, there are 4 main types of environment which are moving on land, moving in or on water and moving on air $5&. ?a@ Moving on landA The mobiles robot that are travel on land can divided into 4 methods which are wheeled, legged, and tracked. heeled mobile robot is simplest robot compared with other robots. This robot is suitable for moving on the flat surface only such as in laboratory or production plant. The number of wheel that e-uipped to the robot may be consist 4 or 5 wheel. The 4 wheel mobile robots usually are driven by * powered wheels with an additional free rotating wheel meanwhile the 5 wheel mobile robot can driven either by 5 powered wheels or by * powered wheels with * additional free rotating wheels. ,ost of the wheeled mobile robot is usually used for automatic transport and feeding of material in a production line $:&. The second method is legged where the mobile robot can move or walking on a rough surface. These types of robots have ability to adapt to a changing environment either indoor or outdoor environment. The legged robot can classify according to the number of legs which are * legs robot resemble legs human and 5 or 0 legs resemble legs animal. These robots were built to improve the wheeled mobile robot performance for outdoor task such as agriculture operation $6&.

Figure 2.' 1egged !obot $%*&.

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?b@ Moving on or in

ater There are two types of mobile that are move on surface of

the water and move underwater. The mobile robot that travels on water can call as robotic boat. The robotic boat can comes in various size of canoe and it is propelled by an electrical backboard motor. The motor has power enough to run it with a speed of few knots. #lthough propeller is commonly used propulsion device in boats, it should be noted that energy efficiency is usually poor. This is due to the force component of the rotating propeller, which is perpendicular to the propulsion a+is and is fully lost in the propulsive power $5&. #nother type is underwater robot where the mobile robot can move in water. B+ample for this type is !obo Tuna where the shaped of body is like a real tuna fish and the propulsion is generated by actuating the body with wire driven by motors. The motion imitates the corresponding fish swimming motions $5&.

Figure 2.( #utonomous 3nderwater Cehicle $%*&. ?c@ Moving on airA 3sually, mobile robots that can move on air are called as pilotless aircraft. These types of robots are increasingly used in military applications especially for reconnaissance purposes. ,any of these systems are deployed in a remotely)operated mode, that is, a human controller works interactively to move the mobile robot and position based on visual feedback from video or other types of sensors $%4&.

%*

2.2.2.2T)*es o! %obile Robot +a,igation

The navigation can defined as a capability of the mobile robot in order to reach at the particular location. Navigation remains one of the most challenging functions to perform because it involves practically everything about artificial intelligent of robotics such as sensing, planning, architectures, hardware, computational, and problem solving. #ctually, mobile robot navigation can be divided into * main categories, which are topological navigation, and metric navigation $4&. ?a@ !opological "avigationA Topological navigation is often viewed as being more simple and natural for a behavior)based robot. 3sually this robot is given a natural directive such as Dgo down the hall, turn to the left at the dead end, and enter the second room on the right.E Bven without a map of where everything is, there is enough information for navigation as long as the robot knows what a DhallE, Ddead endE, DroomE is. Topological navigation depends on the presence of landmarks. 1andmark means a distinctive feature of interest on the object or environment. 1andmark can be divided into * methods which are natural landmark and artificial landmark. /or natural landmark navigation, the mobile robot is no need addition path guidance in order to reach the target point such as following a color line, electromagnetic line or light source. The robot should be sense a natural environment or neighborhood as a guide such as door or wall. .ut for artificial landmark, we must create a path for mobile robot guidance. This navigation also uses shaft counters or timers to determine the location that robot has moved. "t is easy for the mobile robot to reach at the target point $4&. ?b@ Metric "avigationA ,etric navigation is the opposite of topological navigation. #s with topological navigation methods, the objective is to determine a path to a specified goal. The major difference is the metric methods generally favor techni-ues which produced an optimal path because they consider all possible paths between points. #nother difference is that metric paths are usually decomposing the path into sub goals consisting of way points. These way points are most often a fi+ed location or coordinate

%4

?+,y@. ,etric path planners have two components which are the data structure and the algorithm. =ata structure is means make a partition the world into a structure amenable for path planning. hile algorithm is generally work on almost any configuration space representation, although as with any algorithm, some methods work better on certain data structure. "n the metric navigation, the mobile robot uses a specialize sensors such as sonar sensor to create a new map on its local environment. Then, the new map will compared with the global map that previously stored in memory for updating its actual position. This navigation also uses shaft encoders to determine the location that robot has moved. The mobile robot is also being able to learn an une+plored environment and improve its $4&.

*.4

%a-or Co.*onents o! a %obile Robot

"n order to develop an autonomous mobile robot, there are three major components that are involved which are electric motor, sensor and microcontroller. The functions of these components are related with each other.

2.".1 Electric %otor

The function of electric motors is to produce mechanical energy from electrical energy. #n electric motor is a transducer that can turn electrical energy into mechanical energy. Blectric motor can be classified either by function or by electrical configuration. They are two main types of motor which is #C motor and =C motor $%5&. However, this section describes the motor that include in =C motor family and it(s operation such as dc motor, brushless dc motor, stepper motor, and servo dc motor.

%5

2.".1.1/C %otor

Figure 2.0 =C ,otor $%>&. =c motor is common device that used in industrial application. This type of motor is known as dc motor because it supplied with direct current source. /igure *.%9 illustrates the construction and components of a dc motor. The stationary outer housing, called the stator, supports radial magnetized poles. These poles consist of either permanent magnets or wire coils, called field coils, wrapped around laminated iron cores. The purpose of the stator poles is to provide radial magnetic fields. The iron core intensifies the magnetic field inside the coil by increasing the permeability. The purpose for laminating the core is to reduce the effects of eddy currents, which are induced in a conducting material $%5&. The rotor consists of a rotating shaft supported by bearings, an iron core into which winding are anchored, and, in dc motors, a commutator to deliver current and control its direction in the rotor windings. The rotor and its windings are sometimes referred to as the armature. /or motors with a commutator, the brushes provide stationary electrical contact to the moving commutator conducting segments. .rushes in early motors consisted of bristles of copper wire fle+ed against the commutator but now they are usually made of conducting solid graphite that provides a larger contact area and is self) lubricating. The brushes are usually spring)loaded to ensure continual contact between them and the commutator. There are small air gap between the rotor and the stator where the magnetic fields interact $%5&.

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Figure 2.11 ,otor Construction and Terminology $%5&. Tor-ue is produced by an electric motor either through the interaction of stator field and armature currents or through the interaction of stator fields and armature fields. /igure *.%% illustrates a dc motor with si+ armature windings. The direction of current flow in the windings is illustrated in the figure. The interaction of the fi+ed stator field and the currents in the armature winding produce a tor-ue in the clockwise direction. These tor-ue directions can verify by applying the right hand rule to the stator field and armature currents directions. To maintain the tor-ue as the rotor rotates, the spatial arrangement of the armature currents relative to the stator field must remain fi+ed. # commutator performs this task by switching the currents in the armature windings in the correct se-uence $%5&.

Figure 2.11 Blectric ,otor /ield)Current "nteraction $%5&.

%0

/igure *.%* illustrates an e+ample of a commutator. "t consists of a ring of alternating conductive and insulting materials connected to the rotor windings. Current is directed through the windings via the brushes, which slide on the surface of the commutator. "n the position as shown in figure *.%*, current flows through windings #, ., and C in the clockwise direction and through /, B, and = in the counterclockwise direction. hen the rotor turns %F0 of a full rotation from it(s position, the currents in the windings C and / will switch directions. #s the brushes slide over the rotating commutator, this process continues in se-uence. ith appropriate windings configurations, the commutator maintains a consistent spatial arrangement of the currents relative to the fi+ed stator fields, resulting in a constant clockwise tor-ue $%5&.

Figure 2.12 Blectric ,otor 8i+) inding Commutator $%5&. #nother method by which electric motors can create tor-ue is through interaction of stator and rotor magnetic fields. The tor-ue is produced by the fact that like field poles attracts and unlike poles repel. /igure *.%4 illustrates this principle of operation with a simple two)pole dc motor. The stator poles generate fi+ed magnetic field with permanent magnet or coils carrying dc current. The winding in the rotor is commutated to cause changes in direction of its magnetic field. The interaction of the changing rotor field and fi+ed stator fields produce a tor-ue on the shaft, causing rotation. ith the rotor in posotion ?i@, the right brush contacts commutator segment # and the left brush contacts segment ., creating a current in the rotor winding, resulting in the magnetic poles as shown. The rotor magnetic poles oppose the stator magnetic poles, creating a tor-ue

%6

causing clockwise motionof the rotor. "n the position ?ii@, the stator poles both oppose and attract the rotor poles to enhance the clockwise rotation. .etween positions ?iii@ and ?v@ the commutator contacts switch, changing the direction of the rotor current and hence the direction of the magnetic field. "n the position ?iv@, both brushes temporarily lose contact with the commutator, but the rotor continues to move due to its momentum. "n position ?v@, the reversed magnetic field in the rotor again opposes the stator field, continuing the clockwise tor-ue and motion $%5&.

Figure 2.1" Blectric ,otor Theory Gperation $%5&.

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2.".1.2 2rus3less /C %otor

Figure 2.1# .rushless =C ,otor $%0&. #nother type of dc motors is the brushless dc motor. The most widely used look much like brush)type motors. .ut brushless motors have a wound stator that surrounds a permanent)magnet rotor, an inverse arrangement from that for brush motors. #nd stator windings are commutated electronically rather than through a conventional commutator and brushes. .rushless motors generally contain a three)phase winding, although some operate four phase. .rushless motors powering small fans and other constant)speed e-uipment are often two phase. .ecause they have no commutator, brushless motors are more efficient, need less maintenance, and can operate at higher speeds than conventional dc motors. High efficiency and small size are especially important for military, aircraft, and automotive applications, and for portable instruments and communications e-uipment $%:&. #mplifiers for brushless motors are more comple+ than brush types and generally call for two additional solid)state power switches. These switches account for most of the cost differential between the two types. .ut switch cost continues to drop, in part because of increased use of ,G8/BT and insulated)gate type switches. Costs also are dropping for "Cs used in commutation, feedback interpretation, and ; , circuits. The lower costs reduce but do not eliminate the price differential between amplifiers for the two types of systems $%:&.

%2

2.".1."4te**er %otor

Figure 2.1$ 8tepper ,otor $%6&. # special type of dc motor known as a stepper motor is a permanent or variable reluctance dc motor that has the following performance characteristic such as rotation in directions, precision angular incremental changes, repetition of accurate motion and capability for digital control. "t can move in accurate angular increments known as steps in response to the application of digital pulses to an electric drive circuit from digital controller. The number and rate of the pulse control the position and speed of the motors shaft $%>&. Henerally, stepper motors are manufactured with steps per revolution of %*, *5, 6*, %55, %:9, and *99, resulting in shaft increments of 49, %>, >, *.>, *, and %.: per step. 8tepping motors can be used in simple open)loop control systems7 these are generally ade-uate for systems that operate at low accelerations with static loads, but closed loop control may be essential for high accelerations, particularly if they involve variable loads. "f a stepper in an open)loop control system is over tor-ues, all knowledge of rotor position is lost and the system must be reinitialized. 8tepping motors can also be used in closed loop systems with the addition of an encoder and feedback drive circuitry. ;erformance is improved at the e+pense of additional cost $%>&.

*9

2.".1.#4er,o %otor

Figure 2.1& 8ervo ,otor $*9&. # servomotor is a small device that contains a three wire =C motor, a gear train, a potentiometer, an integrated circuit, and an output shaft bearing. The 4 wires that stick out from the motor casing are for power supply, ground, and control input line. The shaft of the servo can be positioned to specific angular by sending a coded signal. #s long as the coded signal e+ists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular position of the shaft. "f the coded signal changes, then the angular position of the shaft changes. 8ervos are constructed from 4 basic component are that a motor, a potentiometer and a control board. The potentiometer is fed into the servo control circuit and when the control circuit detects that the position is correct, it will stops the motor. "f the control circuit detects that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor the correct direction until the angle is correct. Normally a servo is used to control an angular motion of between 9 and %:9 degrees. The amount of power that applied to the motor is proportional to the distance that needs to travel. 8o, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. "f it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This is called proportional control $%2&.

*%

2.".2 4ensor
#nother component that will be used is sensor. 8ensor is a device that measures some attribute of the world. 8ensors are also referred to as transducers. 8ensor receives energy and transmits a signal to a display on a computer. 8ensors use transducers to change the input signal such as sound, light, pressure, and temperature into an analog or digital form. "n addition, sensors are used to translate a physical phenomenon into acceptable signal that can be analyzed for decision making. #ctually, sensors are classified depends on the measurement purpose such as position, distance, force, strain, temperature, vibration, and acceleration. However, this section describes the sensors that are related with the development of the mobile robot such as sonar sensor, infrared and tactile. $4&.

*.4.*.% 4onar or Ultrasonic 8onar is one of the pro+imity sensor where using sound to measure range. 8onar for different application operate at different fre-uencies7 for e+ample, a sonar for underwater vehicles would use a fre-uency appropriate for traveling through water, while a ground vehicle would use a fre-uency more suited for air. Hround vehicles commonly use sonar with an ultrasonic fre-uency. This type of sensor is classified as active sensors which emit a sound and measure the time it takes for the sound to bounce back. The time of flight along with the speed of sound in that environment is sufficient to compute the range of the object.

**

Figure 2.1' 8onar Transducer $4&. # robotic sonar transducer is shown in figure *.%6. The transducer is about the size and thickness of a coin, and consists of a thin metallic membrane. # very strong electrical pulse generates a waveform, causing the membrane on the transducer to produce a sound. The sound is audible as a faint clicking noise. The reflected sound vibrates the membrane which is amplified and the threshold on return signal strength7 if too little sound was received, and then the sensor assumes the sound is noise and ignores it. "f the signal is strong enough to be valid, the timer is tripped, yielding the time of flight $4&.

Figure 2.1( Three ;roblems with 8onar !ange !eading $4&.

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#lthough the sensors are ine+pensive, fast, and have a large operating range, ultrasonic sensors have many shortcomings and limitations which should be aware of such as specular reflection foreshortening and cross)talk. 3ltrasonic sensors rely on reflection, and so are susceptible to specular reflection. /igure *.%: ?b@ shows the specular reflection occurs when the wave form hits a surface at an acute angle and the wave bounces away from the transducer. "deally all objects would have a flat surface perpendicular to the transducer. The other side, if the sonar has a 49 degree field of view, it means that sound is being broadcast in 49 degree wide cone. The foreshortening problem occurs when the surface is not perpendicular to the transducer. /igure *.%: ?a@ shows one side of the cone will reach the object first and return a range first. #nother problem is the receiving sonar is unable to tell the difference between sound generated by itself or its peers. /igure *.%: ?c@ shows the problem where it is called cross)talk, because the sound waves are getting crossed and then procures a wrong reading $4&.

2.".2.2In!rared 4ensor

Figure 2.10 "nfrared 8ensor $**&. "nfra red sensor is one of the pro+imity sensors. "n an infra red sensing system, there are two important components which are emitters and receivers. /igure *.%: shows the emitter is used to emit infrared light to an object and the receiver is used to pickup the reflection from the reflective object. "nfrared radiation e+ists in the electromagnetic

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