Contents

Introduction. Proctor test. Dry density in field. Field compaction. Relative compaction.

Introduction
Historical background. Definition. Effect of compaction on soil. Types of compaction. The factors affecting on compaction.

Historical Background
Soil compaction is known since ancient times, when man began to build dams where the compaction was done by passing the large numbers of workers and animals on the soil several times. Proctor presented his research in 1933, enter the scientific method in this field.

Definition
Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil to rearrange the particles and reduce the void ratio.

Loose soil

Compacted soil

Effect of compaction on soil

Improve shear strength. Reduce compressibility. Decrease permeability. Reduce shrink/swell potential. Reduce liquefaction potential. Reduce compression due to wetting.

Types of compaction
There are four types of compaction effort on soil or asphalt: Vibration Impact Kneading Pressure

 These different types of effort are found in the two principle types of compaction force, static and vibratory.

 Static force is simply the deadweight of the machine, applying downward force on the soil surface, compressing the soil particles. Kneading and pressure are two examples of static compaction.

 Vibratory force uses a mechanism, usually engine-driven, to create a downward force in addition to the machines static weight. The vibrating mechanism is usually a rotating eccentric weight or piston/spring combination (in rammers). The compactors deliver a rapid sequence of blows (impacts) to the surface, thereby affecting the top layers as well as deeper layers.

Factors affecting Compaction

Water content of the soil. The type of soil being compacted. The amount of compactive energy used. The type of compaction. The admixtures.

Proctor test
Purpose. Test Types. Compaction Effort. Apparatus. Test procedure. Results. Zero air voids lines.

Purpose
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. The compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass.

Test Types
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: i. The Standard Proctor Test. ii. The Modified Proctor Test.

What is the difference between the two types?

S. Proctor Test M. Proctor Test Hammer weight 2.5 Kg Hammer weight 4.5 Kg Fall distance 30.5 cm Fall distance 45 cm Three equal layers Five equal layers 25 drops 25 drops 6.058 kg.cm/cm 26.814 kg.cm/cm

Compaction Effort
Compaction Effort is calculated with the following parameters: For Standard Proctor test: For Modified Proctor test: Where E is Compaction Energy.

Apparatus

Mold

Manual hammer

Extruder

Digital Scale

Sieve #4

Straight edge

Graduated cylinder

Drying oven

Mixing pan

Trowel

Moisture cans

Test Procedure
1) Drying sample of the soil after it is crushed (about 3 kg of passers-by sieve #4). 2) Adding amount of water according to the kind of soil. 3) The sample is placed in the mold in three layers consisting of a cylinder circle. 4) Each layer of the three layers is compacted by dropping 25 bowls with a hammer weighs 2.5 kg and fall from the height of 30.5 cm.

5) Carefully remove the collar and trim off the compacted soil so that it is completely even with the top of the mold using the trowel. 6) Weigh the mold cylinder including contents of the soil to calculate the density of the wet sample and the water content her. 7) Remove the soil from the mold using a mechanical extruder and take soil moisture content samples from the top and bottom of the sample. Fill the moisture cans with soil and determine the water content.

8) Repeat the test 6 times with increasing the water content by (about 2%). 9) Draw the relationship between the dry density and the water content.

Soil sifting

Adding amount of water

The sample is placed in the mold

Compaction of the sample

Weigh the mold including the sample

Taking samples

Results

Zero Air Voids Curve

The zero air voids (ZAV) line is the combination of moisture and density that produce complete saturation of the soil or the obtained when there is no air in the void spaces. The compaction curve theoretically does not cross this line but becomes parallel to it. Remember that the values of water content, wet unit weight, and specific gravity are not constant throughout the soil.

 There could also be variability in the test results. Variability can result in points on the compaction curve above the ZAV line (S>100%). These data points should not be thrown out. Basic weight volume relationships are used to develop and equation for the ZAV line. Recall that: ( .W = .e , where = 1)

 Note that and are constants for a given soil. Therefore the ZAV line is a linear function of water content. To draw the ZAV line, simply enter values of w and compute the corresponding value of .

Dry density in field

Core cutter method. Sand replacement method.

CORE CUTTER METHOD

Core cutters are used for testing the compaction of cohesive/clay soils placed as fill. The cylindrical cores of standard volume, 13cms long and 10cms diameter. They have a sharpened edge at one end to improve penetration of the soil surface. These cores are driven fully into the surface to be tested, they are removed from the ground without disturbing the core contents.

Apparatus
Cylindrical core Water content cutter. containers. Steel rammer. Desiccator. Steel dolly. Balance. Spade or pickaxe or crowbar. Trimming Knife. Oven.

Test Procedure
1) Measure the height and internal diameter of the core cutter. 2) Weight the clean core cutter. 3) Clean and level the ground where the density is to be determined. 4) Press the cylindrical cutter into the soil to its full depth with the help of steel rammer. 5) Remove the soil around the cutter by spade.

6) Lift up the cutter. 7) Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample carefully. 8) Clean the outside surface of the cutter. 9) Weight the core cutter with the soil. 10) Remove the soil core from the cutter and take the representative sample in the water content containers to determine the moisture content

Sand Replacement Method

This method, often called the sand-cone method, may be used for both fine-grained and coarse-grained materials.

Apparatus
Sand cone apparatus which consists of a onegallon plastic bottle with a metal cone attached to it. One-Gallon plastic can with cap. Sensitive scale. Base plate. Tools for excavating a hole in the ground.

 Clean, uniformly graded sand ranging from #20 to #30 sieve. Proctor compaction mold without attached extension. Plastic air-tight bag. Metal tray with a hole in the center. Oven.

Test procedure:
1) Weigh of Proctor mold + Base ( ). 2) Determination of "dry density " of soil.

 Pour the sand into the compaction mold. Level the surface (Do not disturb the mold as the sand may rearrange and get compacted). Compaction mold filled with sand. Weigh of proctor mold+base+ Sand ( ).

 From , we can get ( ).

Volume of mold is known (v). Dry unit weight, (sand) = ( - ) / 3) Weigh of plastic Gallon + Cone + Sand, (before use). 4) Determination of the weight of sand the cone can contains ( ).

 Close the valve attached to the cone. Turn the cone and gallon upside down on the tray. Open the valve, sand flows from the gallon to the cone, after the flow stops close the valve and take the gallon + cone from the tray. Weigh of plastic Gallon + Cone + Sand, (after use).

 Weight of the sand to fill the cone, = - . 5) Weight of plastic Gallon + Cone + Sand, (before use). 6. Go to the field where the soil's unit weight is to be measured, place the metal tray and fasten the 4 screws.

7) Dig up a 10 to 15 cm deep hole. 8) Put the retrieved soil into the plastic. All of the soil including the soft soil at the bottom of the hole is poured into the bag as well. 9) Having the valve closed turn the gallon + cone upside down and place the cone in the center hole of tray and open the valve.

10.After flow of sand stops close the valve and pick the assembly up. 11.Weigh of plastic Gallon + Cone + Sand, (after use). Get The Volume of the hole ( ) : = ( - - )" = ( )/ (sand)

12) Measure the weigh the evaporating dish, . 13) Weigh the evaporating dish + wet soil from the field, . 14) Put the evaporating dish + wet soil in the oven and after 24hrs weigh it again, . 15) Having the information you got so far in the table, Calculations can be carried out easily.

 Dry unit weight in the field : (in-situ soil)= [ ] / [1+ ] (in-situ soil) = ( - ) / (%) = ( ) / ( )*100 where , = ( - ) = ( - )

Field compaction
Compaction by rolls. Compaction by rammers. Compaction by vibration.

Compaction by rolls
Smooth wheel rollers

Compaction by rolls
Pneumatic tyred rollers

Compaction by rolls
Sheep's foot rollers

Compaction by rammers

Compaction by vibration

How to choose the suitable method ?

Method

Type Smooth-wheel

Rollers

Pneumatic-tyred Sheeps foot

Rammers Dropping weight

Vibrating rollers Vibrators Vibrating plants

Suitable for All soil types except wet clay and uniformly graded sand. Most soil types, particularly wet cohesive soil. Cohesive soil types, when no normal compaction plant is available. Small gobs, e.g. trenches. Granular soils. Most soil types.

Relative compaction

Relative Compaction
Relative compaction is a way of comparing compaction on the construction site with the laboratory compaction results. It is defined as:

References

References
Engineering Properties of Soils Based on Laboratory Testing Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC. Dr. El-Sayed Abdel Fatah El- Asaby (2006) Soil Engineering Technology Soil Mechanics, 4th edition. Study report on compaction equipment and construction machinery, Report No. GE- R-76.