Introduction

to

Plasma

Theory

Dwight

R.

Nicholson

University

of Iowa

John
New

Wiley

& Sons
\342\200\242 Chichester \342\200\242 Brisbane \342\200\242 Toronto \342\200\242

York

Singapore

Preface

of plasma The purposeof this book is to teach the basic theoretical principles of results and techniques. Nor is it physics. It is not intended to be an encyclopedia It is intended to develop the to be used primarily as a reference intended book. basic techniques of plasma Maxwell's from the beginning, namely, from physics and Newton's law no previous knowledge of of motion. Absolutely equations is assumed. Although is primarily intended for a one year the book plasma physics or course at the first second year graduate level, it can also be used for a one or level. two semester course at the junior or seniorundergraduate Such an which a course would half of the book assumes make use of that undergraduate of The of and other the half book, magnetism. knowledgeonly undergraduate electricity suitable for the graduate level, requires familiarity with variables, Fourier complex

transformation, and the Dirac delta function. The book is organized in a logical fashion. Although this is not the standard in plasma physics, I have found that course organization of an introductory students at the graduate level respond well After the to this organization. material of the 1 and 2 (singleparticle motion), exact theories of introductory Chapters 5 3 which are to and Liouville Chapters to (Klimontovich equations), equivalent Maxwell's equations plus Newton's law of motion, are replaced via approximations lead to the by the Vlasov equation of Chapter 6. Further approximations fluid theory (Chapter 7) and magnetohydrodynamic The book theory 8). (Chapter concludes with two chapters on discrete particle effects (Chapter9) and weak turbulence and meant to be and 7 are 8, theory (Chapter 10). Chapter 6, Chapters so instructors who wish that be used the the book can self-contained, easily by standard organization.Thus, the introductory material of Chapters 1 and 2 can be material 7 and 8. This would be enough for a immediately followed by Chapters
vii

viil

Preface

the first half of a two semester graduate in the second on Vlasov theory, followed semester by Chapters 9 and 10. and then theory by Chapters this It is a pleasureto acknowledge of in the individuals writing many help the dozens of book. My views on plasma physics have been over by years shaped N. Kaufman and Martin V. Goldman. The plasma physicists, especially Allan studentsin graduate physics courses at the University of Colorado and the plasma of Iowa have contributed many useful University (Sun Guo-Zheng suggestions deserves specialmention). The manuscript was professionally typed and edited by Alice Conwell and Janet R. Kephart. The Shank, Gail Maxwell, Susan D. Imhoff, drafted figures were skillfully by John R. Birkbeck, Jr. and Jeana K. Wonderlich. The of this book was supported by the University of Colorado, the preparation of Energy, the United States States University of Iowa, the United Department National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the United StatesNational

one

semester

undergraduate
continue

course,

while

course

could

with Chapter 6 3 to 5 on kinetic

Science

Foundation.

Dwight

R. Nicholson

Contents

CHAPTER

1.

Introduction

1.1

Introduction

12

Debye

Shielding

1.3

Plasma

Parameter

3 5 7

1.4

Plasma Frequency

1.5

Other Parameters
Collisions

1.6

References

15

Problems

15

2.

Single Particle Motion

2.1
Introduction

17
17

2.2

Drifts

17

2.3

Grad-B
Polarization

Drift
Drift

20

2.4

Curvature Drifts
Magnetic

22

2.5
2.7

24

2.6
2.8

Moment

25

Adiabatic
Diffusion

Invariants

Ponderomotive Force
References

29 31
33

2.9

35

Problems

35

ix

Contents

3.

Plasma

Kinetic Theory I: Kllmontovich Equation

Introduction

37
37

3.1
3.2

Klimontovich
Plasma

Equation
Equation

39
4J

3.3

Kinetic

References

44

Problem

44

Plasma Kinetic Theory II:Liouville

and

Equation

BBGKY
Introduction

Hierarchy

45
45

4.1
4.2

Liouville
References

Equation

46
49

4.3

BBGKYHierarchy
Problems

58

58

5.

Plasma Kinetic Theory III:Lenard-Balescu Equation

5.1

60

Bogoliubov's
References

Hypothesis

60
64

5.2

Lenard-Balescu Equation
Problems

68

68

6.

Vlasov Equation

70
70

6.1
6.2

Introduction

Equilibrium Landau
Landau

Solutions

71
73

6.3
6.4

Electrostatic Waves
Contour
Damping
Energy

76
80
83
87

6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

Wave
Physics
Nonlinear

6.9

6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 BGK Modes

6.14

of Landau Damping Stage of Landau Damping Penrose Criterion Method, Stability: Nyquist GeneralTheory of Linear Vlasov Waves in Unmagnetized Plasma Linear Vlasov Waves Plasma Waves in Magnetized Linear Vlasov
Case-Van
References

92
97 105 108 110
115

Kampen

Modes

120
124

Problems

125

Contents
Fluid

xl

Equations

127

7.1

Introduction
Derivation Langmuir

7.2 7.3
7.4

of

the

Fluid

Equations

from the Vlasov Equation

127 129
132

Waves

Dielectric

Function
Waves

136
138

7.5
7.6

Ion Plasma
Upper

7.7
7.8
7.9

Electromagnetic
Hybrid

Waves
Waves
Waves

141
144
146
in

Electrostatic Ion
Electromagnetic

Waves
Waves

Magnetized

Plasmas

7.10 7.11
7.12
7.13

Electromagnetic
Alfven

Along

B0

150 156
161
164

Waves

Fast Magnetosonic Wave Two-Stream Instability

Drift

166
169
Equation

7.14
7.15 7.16 7.17

Waves

Nonlinear Ion-Acoustic Waves\342\200\224Korteweg-DeVries Nonlinear Langmuir Waves\342\200\224Zakharov Equations Parametric Instabilities

References

171 177

181
184

Problems

185

Magnetohydrodynamics

189
189

8.1
8.2

Introduction

MHD

8.3
8.4

MHD Stability
Microscopic
References

Equilibrium Picture of

194
200

MHD

Equilibrium

206

208

Problems

210

Discrete Particle Effects

211
211

9.1
9.2

Introduction

Debye
Fluctuations

Shielding
in

211
Equilibrium

9.3

219

References

224

Weak Turbulence Theory

226
226

10.1
10.2

Introduction

Quasilinear

10.3

InducedScattering

Theory

226
234

xif

Contents

10.4

Wave-Wave Interactions
References

241
253

Problem

254

APPENDIX

A.

Derivation of the Lenard-Balescu

References

Equation

257
266

B.

Markov Processes, and Fokker-Planck Equation

Langevin

Equation,

Fluctuation-Dissipation

Theorem,
Theorem

267
267 272

B. 1
B.2

Langevin Markov

Equation Processes

and and

Fluctuation-Dissipation Fokker-Planck Equation

References

278
Variables

C.

Pedestrian's Guide to Complex

References

279

284

D.

Vector

and Tensor Identities

Reference

285
285

INDEX

286

CHAPTER

Introduction

1.1
particle

INTRODUCTION

of chargedparticles, in which the potential energy of a typical nearest neighbor is much than smaller its kinetic energy. The a liquid, plasma state is the fourth state of matter: heating a solidmakes heating a a gas makes a plasma. (Compare the ancient Greeks' liquid makes a gas, heating word comes from the Greek plasma, earth, water, air, and fire.) The plasma formed or molded.\" It was introduced to describeionized meaning \"something of the known universe is in the 99% by Tonks and Langmuir [1]. Morethan gases state. (Note that our definition excludes certain configurations such as the plasma electron which are found, gas in a metal and so-called \"strongly coupled\" plasmas for example,nearthe surface of the sun. These need to be treated by techniques other than those found in this book.) In this book, we shall always consider having roughly equal numbers of plasma
A plasma

due

is a gas to its

singly

charged

ions

(+e) and
many

electrons
many

each (\342\200\224e), plasmas

than

with have
one

per

cubic

centimeter).
the

In nature
ions

average density n0 more than two

electron

(particles

chargedparticles,and
generalize

have more

missing.

species of It is easy to

results

of this

book to such plasmas.

proposed of ion.

EXERCISE
with more

Name than

a well-known one

source of

energythat

involves

plasma

species

1.2

DEBYE SHIELDING
we

Ina plasma
a specialtest

have

particle

many charged of charge qT

particles flying > 0 and infinite

around mass,

at high located

speeds. Consider at the origin of a

Introduction

The uniform plasma. system containing an infinite, test attracts all around our and electrons. Thus, ions, repels ion the and ion test the decreases. The electron increases charge density ne density a to its own cloud that tends cancel 1.1). (Fig. charge shielding gathers Consider Poisson's relating the electric potential ip to the charge equation ions, and test charge, density p due to electrons,
three-dimensional

coordinate
other

test charge

all

VV

= ~4np
the

\342\200\224 = 4ire{ne \342\200\224 \302\253,) 4nqT

<5(r)
After the

(1.1)
the

where 6(r)

= d(x)8(y)8(z) is

product
wait
thermal

of the test charge, we introduction with temperature Te have come to

ions

for

of three Dirac delta functions. a long enough time that

equilibrium

electrons

with

themselves,
with

and

the

with

temperature
that

T, have
electrons

not so long
mechanics

the

come'to thermal equilibrium and ions have come to thermal

(see

but themselves, with each equilibrium

other at the same temperature

predicts

Section

1.6). Then

equilibrium statistical

that wu exp
=

ni

\302\2530 exp

(1.2)

the test charge where the becomes na at large distances from density is absorbed into the temperatures Teand potential vanishes.Boltzmann's constant have units of energy and are measured in units of electron-volts Th which (eV). Assuming that e<p/Te \302\253 1 and e<p/Tj \302\253 1, we expand the exponents in (1.2) and write (1.1) away from r = 0 as
where

each

\"\342\200\242

=
\342\226\240?\342\226\240

i(\"f)

W(^

^-),

0.3)

Fig. like

1.1 sign,

A test thus

and repels particles of charge in a plasma attracts particles of opposite sign forming a shielding cloud that tends to cancel its charge.

Plasma

Parameter

If we

define the electron and

ion

Debye

lengths

(1.4)
and the

total Debye length ^D

\342\200\224

^e

^i

(1.5)
2

Eq.

(1.3)

then

becomes
1

d
=

ltd<p\\_
<p/r, =

(1.6)

Trying

a solution

of the form

</>

we find K

rf2\302\243

<fr2
The

$
ip

(1.7)
the <x exp (\342\200\224r/\\D).From solution to (1.1) at

solution

that

falls off

is properly at large distances

elementary
locations

very

electricity close tor

and magnetism = 0 is <p.= qT/i\",

we know that
thus,

the

desired

solution

to (1.1) at all

distances is
qT
<P

-exp
\302\243)

(1.8)

due to a test charge in a plasma falls off much faster than in vacuum. of plasma This phenomenon is known as Debyeshielding,and is our first example collective behavior. For distances r \302\273 the Debye length kD, the shielding cloud of species s effectivelycancelsthe test charge qT. Numerically, the Debye length \302\273 in of with temperature units cm. Ts is roughly \\s 740[rjr(eV)/rt(cm\"3)]1''2
The

potential

EXERCISE Prove test charge qT.

It is

that

the

net charge

in

the

shielding

cloud

exactly cancels the

that a special particle. In fact, each particle in a plasma qTbz since are moving, the particles gather its own shielding cloud. However, are not completely successful. In an equal temperature plasma (Te = T,), a they of its shielding cloud component typical slowly moving ion has the full electron electron and a part of the ion component, has a while a typical rapidly moving none of the ion part of the electron component of its shielding cloudand almost component.

not necessary

tries to

1.3
In

PLASMA PARAMETER

a plasma where each species has density n0, the distance between a particle and its nearest neighbor is roughly The average potential eneTgy <I> of a particle n0_1''3. due to its nearest neighbor is, in absolute value,

|*| ~

e2
n0[/ie2

(1.9)

Introduction

Our definition
typical

of a plasma requires that

kinetic energy

this

potential

energy

be much

less than

the

particle's

ymsM-|-r^|-mA2
where at

(1.10)
an

ms is

a given

the mass of species s, ( point in space, and we have

n

) means
defined

over all average the thermal speed

particle velocities vs of speciess by

it

\\,/2

For

electrons,

ve

*=*

1Q7,:

Te]/2

(eV)

in units

of cm/s.

Our definition

of

plasma or

requires
\302\25301/3e2

\302\253T,

(1.12)

*\"&)
Raising
the

\302\273

(1.13)

each side
length,

of (1.13)to the
we have

3/2

power,

and recalling
4ir,

the definition

(1.4) of

Debye

(dropping factors of
A,

etc.)

ii0A,3

\302\273

(1.14)

s. {Note: Some authors call Asis called the plasmaparameter of species A/1 is The the plasma parameter.) just the number of particles of plasmaparameter s in a box each side of which has length the Debye length (a Debye cube). species a plasma is an ionized gas that has by definition, Equation (1.14) tells us that, a in cube. A \342\200\236 10* r^/2(eV)/\302\25301/2(cm'3). \302\2534X Numerically, many particles Debye We will often substitute the total Debye length and define the result KDin (1.14), = to X be the A \302\2530 o plasma parameter.
where

EXERCISE
electron

Evaluate

the

electron

plasma
tokamak

parameter
or mirror
near

thermal speed, electron Debye length, for the following plasmas.

with

and

(a)
(b) (c) (d)
(e)

machine
the

Te

*\302\253 1 \302\253

keV, eV,

n0

*=*

1013 10
with

cm\"3.
\302\253 0.1

The solar wind The ionosphere

n0
T,
\302\253 10*

earth

with Te
the

10

**> \302\2730

cm\"3.
Te

at 300 km

above

earth's
or

surface

eV,

cm3.

A laser

\302\253\342\200\242 1

keV,

fusion, electron beam n0 - 1020 cm\"3.

center
with

fusion,

ion

beam fusion plasma

cm\"3.

with

The sun's
fairly

Tt

\302\253* 1 keV,

n0

\302\253 1023

gases found in nature are indeed plasmas. than its particle due to its nearest neighbor were greater kinetic energy, then there would be a strong tendency for electrons and ions to bind together into atoms, thus destroying the plasma. The needto keep ions and electrons from forming bound states means have temperatures that most plasmas
It is
easy

to see why energy

many ionized

If the

potential

of a

in

excess

of one

electron-volt.

Plasma Frequency
EXERCISE

it could well such

of intergalacticplasma is currently be much lower than 1 eV. How could the plasma a low temperature? (Hint: n0 *** 10s cm\"3).
The temperature

unknown,
maintain

but
itself

at

Of course, it is possible to find situations where a plasma with exists jointly another state. For example, in the lower there are regions where 99% ionosphere of the atoms are neutral and only In this partially ionized plasma, 1% are ionized. the ionized component can be a legitimate to (1.14), where As plasma according should be calculated using only the parameters of the ionized component. there will be a continuous exchange of particles between the unionized gas and Typically, the ionized and the processes of atomic recombination plasma, through
ionization.

We e<p/Ts

can

now
we

evaluate

the

validity

of

the

assumption

made before
nearest

(1.3), that

\302\253

1. This

charge (which
the

assumption now take to require

severe for the have charge qT = +e).

is most

neighbor

Using the

to the test unshielded form of

potential,

we

t(f)~t(^)\302\253'

\"l5>

or
n0,/ie2\302\253Ts

(1.16)

which
derivation

is just the
of

condition (1.12) requiredby the definition is correct for any ionized Debye shielding

of a
gas

plasma. Thus, our that is indeed a

plasma.

1.4

PLASMA

FREQUENCY

a hypothetical Consider slab of plasma of thickness L, where for the present we to consider the ions to have infinite mass, but equal density \302\2530and opposite charge the electrons while the electronsare held rigidly in place with respect to each other, but can move slab is displaced a freely through the ions. Suppose the electron to move freely (Fig. 1.2). distance 8 to the right of the ion slab and then allowed
What

happens?

back be set up, causing the electron slab to be pulled electric field will is the force the ions. When the electrons exactly the net zero, ions, overlap electron slab has substantial speed to the left. Thus, the electron slab but the of the overshoots, and the net result is harmonic oscillation. The frequency electron oscillationis called the electron plasma frequency. It depends on the only

An

toward

the density,

electron

Poisson's

charge, and the electron mass. Let's calculate in one dimension is (dx = d/dx) equation

it.

dxE =
where

Awp

(1.17)

= 0) E(x \342\200\224

to Fig. the electric field.Referring 1.3, we take the boundary condition that 8 \302\253 L. From 0, and assume throughout (1.17) the electric field most of the slab is 4irnQe8,and the force over per unit area on the electron slab is second law is (electricfield) X (charge per unit area) or \342\200\2244v7ia2e28L. Newton's

E is

6
x =0

Introduction

x=l

x=
Fig.

x= 1 + 5
the model used to calculate

1.2

Plasma slab
unit

plasma

frequency.

(force

per

area)

(mass

per

unit

area)

X (acceleration),
(\302\2730wfL)(6)

or
(1.18)

(-4im02e28L) =

is in where an overdot is a time derivative. Equation (1.18) harmonic oscillator equation,

8 +
(*2s\302\243)

the

standard

form of

(1.19)

with characteristic

frequency

- =
which is called
(cm-3)
the

\\l/2

(^-)
Numerically,
we

(1.20)
=

electron
s\"1.

plasma

frequency.

2n

X 9000

\302\253/2

in units

of

EXERCISE

Calculate
the

and kHz) for

By

the electron plasma frequencywe and oie/2ir in the exercise below (1.14). five plasmas

(e.g., in MHz

analogy
wi

with
for

the electron

plasma frequency (1.20)we

with

define

the

frequency

a general

ion species

density

nt and

ion charge

Ze as

ion plasma

=
The

/4ir\302\253iZV\\1/2

(1.21)
plasma is defined

total

plasma

frequency

<dp u>p

for

a two-component
\342\200\224

as
(1-22)

we2

a>i

Other

Parameters

(X)
1I

\302\2730\302\253

L 0
t

L+fi

+6

(b)

Fig. 1.3 field.

Calculation of the

electron

plasma

frequency,

(a) Charge density,

(b)

Electric

*\302\253 in nature we \302\273 <oh so We will (See Problem 1.3.) For most a>/. plasmas cop2 in of a later an see that the general response chapter unmagnetized plasma to a in is the electron set a of oscillations with very perturbation density frequencies close to the electron plasma frequency (ue. The relation cus, and the among the Debye length ks, the plasma frequency thermal speed vs, for the species s, is

\\s

v/ms

(1.23)

EXERCISE

Demonstrate (1.23).

1.5 OTHERPARAMETERS
and in the laboratory occur in the presence plasmas in nature fields. Thus, it is important to consider the motion of an individual charged particle in a magnetic field. The Lorentz force equation for a particle in a constant magnetic field B = B02 is charge q, and massms moving
Many

of the

of of

magnetic

mjr

\342\200\224

(i-

X B02) r(f

(1.24)
=

For
solution

initial

conditions

r(r

= 0)

(x\342\200\236,y0,za)and

0) =

(0, u\302\261,i/-) the

of

(1.24)

is

x(t) = x0
y{t)

-j^(l

- cosIV)

yQ +
z0

-^-sindj
+

z(t) =

v2t

(1.25)

8
where

Introduction

we have

defined the gyrofrequency

a =
EXERCISE
conditions.

\342\200\224

(i.26)

Verify that =

with (1.25) is the solutionof (1.24)

the

desired

initial

Numerically,
JO4

ft,
of

\342\200\224

B0

(gauss)

The nature circular gyration

guiding

in units of s\"' the motion (1-25) is

in

107 B0 (gauss, abbreviated G) in if the ions are protons.

units

of s\"1, and

fl; =

a constant
angular

velocity

in

the

f-direction,

the

x-y plane tgc given

*gc
by

with

frequency

[flj

and a and center at the

(1.27)

center

position

(*o +
the

vj/ns> y0, z0 +
plane is by setting
the

vzt)

The

radius

of the circle

in

gyroradius rs of

s is species

x-y

gyroradius

Wj_/|fl,|.

The mean

defined

equal v\302\261

to

the thermal

speed, so

rs=vs/\\Cls\\
EXERCISE w\342\200\236 jfle|,

(1.28)
frequencies

In

the

exercise

fit', also
=

calculate

below (1.14), calculate and order the the gyroradii rr and r,; take T, = '

Te and

use

wt, the

following

parameters.

.
10 kG.

(b) Protons, B0 = 10\"5 G. 0+ ions, B0 = 0.5 G. = 0 and B0 = Deuterons, (d) B0 Protons, (e) B0 = 100 G.
(c)
At

(a) Protons,B0

106

G.

this

we simplicity,

let us briefly mention relativisticand point, shall always treat nonrelativistic plasmas. In any of the

quantum

effects.

For

in generalizing

results of this
in the

thereisno difficulty principle,

and

course
by

to include
Clemmow

these are discussed at

EXERCISE
nonrelativistic

length

book

special relativistic effects; [2]. Dougherty

To what
assumption?

regime

of electron

Hpw

about
plasmas

temperature are we limited by the ion temperature if the ions are protons?
in which with

There are,of course, many

become

special relativistic

effects do
of

important.

For

example,

cosmic rays may

plasma

be thought

the interstellar and intergalactic We shall also neglect quantum

and

mechanical

relativistic effects. For

component temperature.
of

as a

most of the

laboratory

astrophysical
example

assumption. There An

plasmas in which we might be interested, this is a good of effects are very important. are, course, plasmas in which quantum would be solid state plasmas. As a rough criterion for the neglect of
one
the

quantum

effects,

might

require
distance

that

the

typical

de Broglie

length

k/msvs

be

much

less

than

average

between particles

n0'vi.

Collisions

EXERCISE

What with temperature

is the maximum density

allowedby this

criterion

for electrons

(a)
(b)

10 eV?
1 keV?

(c)

100 keV?
such applications, length

In other
colliding

as

collisions

(see next
than

de Broglie

to

be much

smaller

the

distance also

the require section), one might of closest approach of the

particles.

In addition
many

to these
sections of

assumptions,we
this

shall

neglect

the magnetic field

in order

in

of the

book.

This

neglect

is made

for simplicity,

that

of a without the basic physical phenomena can be elucidated the complications field can usually be ignored when the magnetic field.In practice,the magnetic than the (inverse time scale) of a phenomenon is much typical frequency larger gyrofrequencies of both plasma species.

1.6 COLLISIONS
A

typical

charged

particle

in a

plasma is at
other

(see Problem 1.5) with many Debye shielding, we might

Coulomb

think

instant any interacting electrostatically about charged particles. If we did not know that a typical particle is simultaneously having

other particles in the plasma. However, the field reduced from its vacuum field at distances greater a Debye is really not colliding with at than the particles length, so that particle of each particle as undergoing A think large distances. Thus, we may roughly simultaneous Coulomb collisions. of a plasma, From our definition we know that the potential energy of interaction of each particle is with its nearest neighbor is small.Since the energy potential a measure of the effect of a collision, this means that the strongest one of its A simultaneous collisions its nearest is relatively weak. Thus, (the one with neighbor) a typical in a plasma is simultaneouslyundergoing A weak charged particle even A is a large number for a plasma, the collisions. We shall soon see that though total effect of all the simultaneous collisions is still weak. Of course, a weak effect can still be a very important effect. In the like tokamaks and bottles magnetic
collisions

with all of the

is greatly

of our typical

particle

mirror machines currently

plasmas,

being

used

to study
most

controlled thermonuclear fusion

important is contained

ion-ion

collisions

are one

of the
collisions

Mathematically, the importance of

the suffer

loss mechanisms. in an expression

called

collision

which is frequency, a collision. what Exactly

upon physical
factors

depends different

the definition, Our content.

of two

the inverse of the time it takes for a particle to is meant by a collisionof a charged particle two different definitions with and we will consider

mathematical derivation of
but

the

collision

is an approximate
within

one, intended to be simple

frequency

yet

to yield the

or so. A more rigorous development [3]. (See Problem 1.6.) in Fig. 1.4. A particle of charge Consider the situation shown q, mass m is incident mass with incident speed v0. on another particle of charge q0 and infinite
book

correct results can be found in the

by Spitzer

10

Introduction

Fig.

1.4

Parameters'

used

in

the

discussion

of the

collision

frequency

in Section

1.6.

have position x = v0t along the If the incident particle wereundeflected, it would \342\200\224 the line x above in Fig. 0 directly 1.4, being at scattering charge q0 upper dashed = 0. The att separation p of the two dashed lines is the impact parameter. If the is small, the final scattering angle parallel speed (parallel to the dashed lines) will can be quite close to u0. The perpendicular by calculating the speed v\302\261 be obtained total perpendicular impulse
=
mv\302\261

dtFJt)

(1.29)

where F\302\261 is the

the

perpendicular
angle

force
is

that

scattering

orbit x unperturbed is a very useful one

Coulomb

=
in

v\302\261/v0 v0t

small,

to

evaluate physics.

plasma

the particle in its orbit. Since experiences we can to a good approximation use the the right side of (1.29). This approximation In Fig. 1.4, Newton's secondlaw with the

force

law

is

mi =
where

99a

(1.30)
99 o P
is assumed

r is

a unit

vector
Fx

in

the

r-direction.

Then
qq0

= qq0 sin 0
=

sin

(p/sin 0)2
particle
then

\342\226\240 , a \342\200\224tsin-* 6

(1.31)
traveling

wherewe have
the

usedp

r sin

6 since the
=

to be

along

upper

dashed line.

Equation (1.29)
v\302\261

reads

~r\302\243

Asin>6W

(1.32)

The relation between

6 and

t is

obtained from
0 =
cos \342\200\224p

x =
so that

\342\200\224

r cos

sin 8

(1.33)

dt

p v0

dd
sin2

(1.34)

EXER CISE
Using

Verify in

(1.34).

(1.34)

(1.32),

we find

99o mv0p
Defining

Jo

dd

sin

6 =

299o
mvap

(1.35)

the

quantity

Collisions
=

11
(I36)

p\302\260

iw

we have
v\\ Pa \342\200\224L = \342\200\224

(1.37)

which
parameter p0

is strictly valid only

is called

when

\302\253 v\302\261

v0,p

\302\273 />\342\200\236. In some

books,

the

the Landau length.

if qqo

EXERCISE Showthat
approach

> 0,
speed

then

p0

is the

distance of

closest possible
use
it

for

a particle

of

initial

v0.
collisions,

Although

(1.37) is not valid

impact

for large angle

p which

let us

to
we

get a
do

rough
this

setting v\302\261 equal p < p0 will yield

(1.37) to obtain p = p0. Thus, any impact parameter a large angle collision. Suppose the incident is an particle an ion. shows a the (almost) scatterer is 1.4 electron, and stationary Fig. (Although is attractive The valid for our collision, collisions.) repulsive equally development cross a large one is Consider an section for scattering through ion angle by 7rp02. It will have a large angle collision electron that enters a gas of ions. after a time in a tube of unit ions given roughly by setting (the total cross section of the cross-sectional to (the unit and length equal to the distance traveled) area, equal
to va in

idea of the

parameter

yields a large

angle collision;

by

area), or (time) X
The

(velocity)

X (number

per

unit

volume)

X (cross
vL for

inverse thus

of this

time gives us the

2

collision frequency
4ti7i og2g02
rrt 2 l/Q 3

section) = /arge angle

1.

collisions;

vL

7rnnvap0

_ -

47m0e\"
,
rrle
3 V(j

U-38)

of the particle speed. is simultaneously undergoing particle A collisions. Only a very lew of these are of the large angle type that lead to (1.38), since a large of interaction comparable angle collision involves a potential energy to the kinetic energy of the incident of a plasma, the particle and, by the definition of a particle to its due to its nearest neighbor is small potential energy compared
Note

that

vL is

proportional

to the inverse third

in

power

Recall that

a typical

charged

a plasma

kinetic energy.
large

Thus, a particleundergoes many

It turns out
larger
that

more

small

angle

collisions.
substantially

the

cumulative

angle collisions effect of these small

angle

than

collisions is Unlikethe
large
produce

angle
as we
a

than

the effect of the

large

collisions,

shall now show.

large

angle

collisions,
of

effect only after

velocity

many

them

the many small angle collisions can produce collisions occur. But these small angle
some
small

changes
to

in random
know

right. We need random events.

how that =

to measure is the

some directions, somt up, somedown, left, the cumulative effect of many

Consider a
i =

variable

Ax

sum of
Ax2

many

small

random

variables

I, 2, . . . , N,
Ax

Ax,-, (1.39)

Ax,

. . +

Ax*

12
Suppose

Introduction

indicates

that

for each /' and ((Ax^)\") is the same for each i, where < ) average [4]. Furthermore, suppose(Ax, Ax;) = 0 if i \302\245\"_ j, so Ax, is uncorrected with Axy, / ^ j. Then by (1.39) we have (Ax) = 0, and
(Ax,)

= 0

ensemble

((Ax)2)

X
=

\302\253^2>

N ((Ax,)2)

(1.40)

Consider a typical centers. As it moves,

decomposed
of properties

a gas of scattering in the ^-direction through can be many small angle collisions given by i/j_ which into random variables Avx and An,,. These latter have just the particle

moving

it suffers

our

random'variable

Ax, above.
from

For one collision,with =

a given

impact

parameter/?

(Fig. 1.5), we have

=
(v\302\261>)

(1.37)

P^1)

+ ((A,,)2)

^
we

(1.41)

Since

Avx

must

have the

same statistical propertiesas Avy,

tfAiO2)

must

have
(1.42)

=
({Avyf)

1
2

Va2Po

p2

Then by (1.40)

we have,

for

the

total
=

x velocity
=
through

Avxtot,

((Avx\302\253*y)

A<(A^>

\302\243 d.

^p

(1.43)

Since more

we are considering a particle moving useful for our purposes to have the

time

a gas of scattering centers, it is of (1.43), where on the derivative

The incident and is located at the origin is traveling into the paper. It Fig. l.S particle makes simultaneous small angle with all of the scattering centers collisions randomly distributed with impact parameters between p and p + dp.

Collisions
we

13

right

impact

have dN/dt between parameter

shall
time.

per unit

The

time

= 2wp dp n0v0 as the number of scattering centers, with p and p + dp, which our incident particle encounters derivative of (1.43) is then
-^-

{{Av^)2)

= rm0v0W

y
parameters
sum

(1-44)
between
(integrate)

We

have

calculated

(1.44)

for only one

led

set of

impact

p and
the right

p +

dp.Thesamelogicthat

to (1.40)

side of (1.44) over all impact parameters Likewise, we can add the total velocity in the i-direction. to obtain a total mean velocities J/-dtrection mean square this final factor of two we have velocity {(Av\302\261tot)2). With
d
\342\200\224 = ((Av\302\261<\302\260<f)

also allows us to to obtain a total

change

in mean

square

x-direction
square

and the
perpendicular

total

rP\342\204\242* dp

Iwnov.W]

-f-

0-45)

What should we use for/7^^

angle
in (1.37) v\302\261/v0
that

1.2

the
at

true
distances

that our derivation of the scattering Recall and/7^? from Section we know uses the Coulomb forcelaw. However, force law is modified by Debye shielding and is essentially
than

negligible
it

Thus, replace pma]l with (1.3.7) is not valid for is then (1.45)
is consistent

much greater (impact parameters) with the approximate nature of the we use the fact that \\D. In the case of pmin,

present our

Debye length. calculation to

impact parametersp < =

scattering

formula
Equation

\\p0\\

to

replacepmm

by

\\p0\\.

-^-({Av^f)

2\342\204\242oU\342\200\236Vln

(1-46)

(yj-)

Since the logarithm is such a slowly of its argument, it will suffice function varying we take to make a very of kD/pn. In the definition ofp0 in (136) evaluation rough =\342\226\240 calculation m = me, and for this rough +e, v0 by the q = \342\200\224e, q0 replace electron thermal speed v, to obtain
\342\200\224

-^r-

~
difference

-^r~
between

2\302\253.X0'

2.A
the

(1.47)
small

where we have
factor

ignored the
find

\\D and
A,

ke. Dropping
and

2tt compared

(1.36) of p0, we

to the large plasma parameter

that

using

the definition

(1.46)

becomes

^-<(AV0')2>=^r^lnA
A

(1.48)
due

reasonable
it

definition
((Ai;\302\261,ol)J)

for the
to

scattering
small-angle

time

to small

angle collisions is the

time
the

takes

equal

v02 according

to (1.48); the
collisions:

inverseof this time

is

collision frequency

vc due

to

Vc

_ ~~

8irn0e\302\260

In

mt

\342\200\242\302\273 2,, .1

v0

(1.49)

Note again the

of

ve

is

that

it is

inverse cubedependence on the velocity v0. One important aspect a factor 2 In A larger than the collision frequency vL for large

14

Introduction

= 14 This is a substantial factor in a plasma (In A by (1.38). of a a is the deflection in 106). Thus, plasma chargedparticle it suffers, due that to the many random small angle collisions rather than the predominantly

angle collisionsgiven
if

rare large angle

phenomenon as

collisions.

to identify each it is useful study of plasma physics, effect or as a singleparticle effect. oscillation of the plasma The is a the collective slab in Section effect 1.4, characterized by plasma frequency a}e, a to electric field. many particles acting simultaneously produce large involving collisional of a particle, represented by the collision The deflection frequency vc'm individual (1.49), is a singleparticle effect caused by many collisions with particles that do not act cooperatively.
Throughout a collective

one's

EXERCISE Is the
a single
=

Debye

shielding

described

in Section

1.2 a collective

effect

or

particle effect?
to

It is instructive
v0

calculate

the ratio

of

vc

to

a)c, which

is, taking a typical

In A
2irAe

speed

v, in (1.49),

ve ws
By crudely

___

8nn0e4
me2ve2aje

In A

_
and

In

2irn0\\e}

remembered but

dropping the factor In

very

A/27T

replacing

Ae by

A, we

have the

easily

approximate

expression

me

(1.51)

Thus, the collision frequency

In
this

is very much smaller than the plasma less than collective effects are respect, single particle important frequency. effects. A wave with near times before will oscillate being many frequency eoe because of collisions. damped substantially
in

a plasma

EXERCISE electron, to
trie

What the

is electron

the

ratio
Debye

of the collisional
length?
we

mean free

path,

for

a typical

The collision
collisions

frequency i^that

calculated

in (1.49)

is the one

appropriate to
vee of

of electrons

with ions, vei.

The collision frequency

electrons

could be calculated in the same way, by moving to the center-ofrather mass. This mass frame than infinite taking the scattering center to have such or so that within factors would factors of introduce two so, only procedure we have vee ^ vei. Next, consider ion-ion collisions between ions the same having that have collision frequency vee. Equation temperature as the electrons (1.49) of v\342\200\236, yields, with mereplaced by m, and u, - (w/w!)1/2 uf instead vii='{m/m^w2 consider ions scattered by electrons trucks scattered by (or Mack vee. Finally, This in calculation the frame would introduce another center-of-mass pedestrians).
with electrons
factor

of (w/w,)1/2,

so
arbitrary

that

vie

\302\273

{m/m^vfe. such a way that the electrons and comparable but not equal <ue~\\ the

Suppose

an electron-proton

and protons have

temperatures.

plasma is prepared in
velocity

distributions,
***

On the time

scale ve^

vei~l

\302\253\302\253 A

electrons

will

therma-

Problems

15

lize via electron-electron and electron-ion collisions and a Maxwellian obtain On a time scale 43 times longer,the will thermalize distribution. ions and obtain a on a time scale Maxwellian at the ion temperature via ion-ion collisions. Finally, to the same temperature via 43 times longer still, the electrons come and ions will
ion-electron

collisions.

In the physics.
particles in

This completes
next

our brief introduction

chapter,

we shall

basic concepts of plasma to the important consider the motion of singlecharged

electric

and

magnetic fields.

REFERENCES

[1] L. Tonks

and

I. Langmuir,
and

[2] P. C.
Plasmas,

Clemmow

J. P.

33, 195(1929). Dougherty, Electrodynamics of Particles and

Phys. Rev.,
Mass., Ionized

Addison-Wesley,

Reading,
of

1969. Gases, 2nd ed.,

[3]
[4]

L. Spitzer,Jr., Physics
New

Fully

Wiley-Interscience,

York,

1962.
of Statistical

F. Reif,
York,

Fundamentals

and Thermal

Physics, McGraw-Hill,New

1965.

PROBLEMS

1.1

Debye Shielding
the

In

discussion massive

of and

infinitely

that the 1.2, suppose Debye shielding in Section thus cannot respond to the introduction of the test

ions are
charge.

How

does the answer

Potential

change?
(Birdsall's

1.2
massive

Energy

Problem)

uniform densities n0 of electrons and infinitely are moved to the surface of the sphere, which they cover What is the potential energy in the system? Sketch the electric uniformly. of radius. If the electrons had as a function field and electricpotential initially is the is initial it found that to the total temperature Te, and potential energy equal of the sphere in terms of the electron is the radius electron kinetic energy, what Debye length?

A sphere

of plasma has equal

The electrons

ions.

1.3

Total

Plasma

Frequency are
the

In the

discussion of the

infinitely oscillate

in Section 1.4, suppose the ions plasma frequency massive but have mass m,. Modify the discussion to show that with the total plasma frequency in (1.22). defined
in

not
slabs

1.4

Plasma

a Gravitational

Field

Consider
magnetic

an electron-proton
field, and

a gravitational accelerationg in

plasma with

equal

temperatures
the

T =

Te =
We

Tif

no

\342\200\224f-direction.

desire

the

16
densities
the

Introduction

of as the surface of a planet. thought their densities would be given by the neutral, law ntti \302\253 Boltzmann Then be the scale exp (-mei gz/T). height T/mci g would for rise to different electrons and ions. this would However, quite give huge electric fields that would tend to move ions up and electronsdown. Taking into <=* law and the initial guess that account the electric field, usethe Boltzmann ne(z) checked at the end of electron to be the to find self-consistent calculation, fii(z),
ne(z)
be

If

electrons

and n,{z), where 2 and ions were

= 0 can

and
1.5

ion

density

distributions.

Electrostatic
more

Interaction
plasma,
than

Show that
particles

in nonrelativistic

the Coulomb
the

is much

important

magnetic

field part

force betweentwo typical of the Lorentz force.

1.6
Read
collisions

Collisions

Sections
to

our

5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 of Section 1.6. Watch

of

Spitzer

[3] and

compare

his treatment
and

of
all

out for differences in

two.

notation,

explain

apparent

differences of factors

CHAPTER

2
Particle

Single

Motion

2.1

INTRODUCTION

in self-consistent electric and consists of many charged particles moving orbits and the affect the orbits, magnetic fields. The fields affect particle particle can fields. The general solution of any problem in plasma be the quite physics In this chapter, we consider the motion of a singlecharged particle complicated. in prescribed fields. After studying this moving part of the problem in isolation, we can proceed in following to include these particle orbits in the selfchapters consistent determination of the fields. A plasma

2.2

B DRIFTS
vz

Consider a particle with with an electric field E() in

0 gyrating
\342\200\224y-direction

in

a magnetic perpendicular

field

in the B\342\200\236

1-direction,

the

to the

magnetic field as

in The 2.1. (The symbol & always a unit vector in the a-direction.) means Fig, electric field. E0 cannot accelerate the the because magnetic particle indefinitely, field will turn the particle. (The component of electric field E2, which we ignore In a plasma, the resulting current here, can accelerate particles usually indefinitely. acts to cancel the charge that caused the electric field in the first place. There are, is hindered: for example,the cases this cancellation where however, important earth's tokamak What does happen? When the and aurora, runaway electrons.) is is This gives it a larger the accelerated on the down. ion charge qs positive, way at the bottom local gyroradius of its orbit than at the top; recall that the gyroradius is rs = Vj/n,5. Thus, the motion will be a spiral in the x-y plane as shown in Fig. where have the of the situation to draw the upward we used 2.2, part of symmetry each orbit. We see that the orbit does not connect to itself, but has jumped a

18

Single

Particle

Motion

Fig. certain drift

2.1

Configuration
distance

that leads

to

an

E *

drift.

left one orbit. The net result is that the particle has a during the left. Let us guesshow big the drift speed is. If we average over many gyroperiods, we see that the average is zero. Thus, the net accleration force must be zero. The force downward is qsE0> while the force upward is (qs/c)yd X Bu. We must have

to the

velocity

\\d to

\302\253>

0 =

9jEo +

-^-

vrf

B0

(2.1)

where (
of

(2.1)

with

) indicates an average B0) and assuming

over
vrf

\342\200\242 =

B0

one gyroperiod. 0, we find E0

X

Taking the cross product

vrf

B0

Bo1
depend

(2.2)

Note
EXERCISE

that

the

drift
What

velocity
is the

does

not

on

the particle's

charge or

mass.

if |B0| = 0.1G and the particle were a

Let

drift speed of an electron in the earth's magnetospherc = 10^ Kcirf1? (Remember 1 sV = 300 V.) What if uranium atom with charge qs = +57 ef
|E0|
that

us now
in

make sure
namely

our

have
drift,

mind,

a gyration
the

is an exact

solution to
m,\\

of motion we the kind guess is correct, and that about the magnetic field lines,accompanied by a of motion. This equation is equation
qsE0

9s
-f-

B\342\200\236

(2.3)

Fig.

2.2

Motion of a particle of positive

charge

leading

to the E x

B drift.

E x

B Drifts will

19 out

We define a new oscillatory) and a

variable

v by
as

piecevd

given

splitting v into a piece v by (2.2). Taking

v

(which

turn

vd

(2.4)

(2.3) becomes
w,v <7,E()

+-^-

v X

B0 +

-^

v\342\200\236x B\342\200\236

<7,E()

+-~

* x Bo
B0
that

+ ^T

(Eo

B0)

X B0

&
But the
final

(2.5)
we

form

of (2.5)

is an equation

have
the

already

solved
field.

in

(1.25)

with

a solution

that represents
find

gyromotion about
v

magnetic

Adapting

that
(2.6)

solution we

u\302\261(sin

fl^,cos

fljfi)

where

i>j_

is any

constant.

Thus, the total solution is

v =

v, x (sin
is

fV,cos n,r,0)

E\342\200\236 B0 tin

5-;

(2.7)

Note

that

any constant

v\302\261

acceptable,

including
implied

=
v\302\261

0. =

EXERCISE

What is the initial = Sketch orbits with v\302\261 0,

velocity

< v\302\261

urf,

u\302\261

by the solution (2.7) with > vrf. ur/, and v\302\261

vL

0?

Note that this entire discussion would apply if an arbitrary (temporally \342\200\242 = 0 were to replace <j^E() in the spatially constant) force Fx such that \302\245\302\261 B0 equation (2.1). Thus, instead of the drift velocity (2.2), we obtain

and
force

c Fx

B0

F_l

*o2

m\"

*)

(2.8)

EXERCISE

with hard
We

What is the gravitational drift of an electron in a tokamak, speed it about a proton? make Does either of these drifts |B(,| = 10 kG? How to confine a plasma in a volume of order (1 m)J for a time of order 1 s? proceed

to discuss

other kinds

of drifts. We

have

already

seen that

any

real

according to (2.8). We shall now see that any so-called \"fictitious\" force also gives a drift. For example, it is sometimes said that magnetic a real pressure, fields exert a \"pressure.\" This is , of course, not yet we shall find to is a related to that drift Vi?0. Likewise, corresponding magnetic \"pressure\" as an existing drift speed changes, the resulting acceleration is experienced when drift. an \"inertial\" which rise to its own then force, gives
force

gives a drift

20

Single Particle
GRAD-B

Motion

2.3

DRIFT

First, let us calculate the

for

so-calledgrad-B drift.
Suppose we have an

To

do this

we need to have
for

a feeling
one
(2.9)

expansion

techniques.

small term of size t,

Here, e is a

as expressed
and

equation
0

a variable

x, with

f(x) when

eg(x)

small constant, /
the

g can

operator,and
look

solution

of (2.9)

a general integro-differential represent = 0. We can e \342\200\224 0 is x0, so that/(x0)

(2x2

for a

solution x to
in

(2.9)
yields

of

the

form

x = x0 + Inserting

ex, +
=

. . .

(2.10)

(2.10)
/(x0

(2.9)

+ ex,

e2x2

...)

+ \302\253*. + \302\253\302\243(*o

+ \302\2532*2

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 (2-11) \342\200\242)

After

Taylor

expanding/and

g, one obtains
*2*2

+ /(*\342\200\236)

^
...

(\302\253i+

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 + \342\200\242)

\\

-\302\2434

<\302\253.+

*2*2 +

\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\2

\302\253

where

df/dx0

df/dx\\x
x0, and

...] ^ , etc. Equating the coefficientsof each power of

[g(x0)
. /<*\342\200\236)

(ex, +
=

62x2

...)

(2.12)
e

yields

(2.13)

which

determines

*\342\226\240

jt

= g(x0)

(2.14)

which

determines

*'

g(Xo)
of (2.9)
must

The approximate solution

\302\253.\" (Caution:

x0
in

df/dx0 + ex, is called the

solution
these

\"solution

to order
be
e\"

some
what

careful
if it
Consider

with

authors we mean

call this by small

\"the

to order

e2.\")We

always

discussions. of order

Something
that

is \"of order
in the
will

goes to

zero as t
a

\342\200\224\342\226\240 is 1013,\302\253 0; thus,

e while 10~m is
happens.

of order one.
fbe

particle
than

direction, as shown
smaller

in Fig. at

in a magnetic gyrating 2.3. Let us guess what

small

field B02
will

increases

at large y

y, so the

particle

drift

gyroradius as shown in Fig.

The

2.4 for

y, \302\256 \302\256 \302\256 \302\256 <>

A>

\302\256

\302\256

\302\256

\302\256

\302\256

/
*, Bo
in

Fig.

2.3

A magnetic

field that increases

intensity

in the

^-direction.

Grad-B Drift

21

Fig.

2.4 and

Ion
in

VB

drift.

ions

Fig,
in

2.5

for

directions and,
The

a plasma,

force

on

a charged

electrons. Thus, electrons a net current results. particle is m,y =

and

ions

drift

in opposite

-y+ center,
inserting

(v

B)

(2.15)

Taylor expanding B
where
guiding

about

the

guiding

center
Bu

of the

particle,
(2.16)

B =

(r

\342\200\242 V)B\342\200\236

B;, is measured at the guiding center (see Section 1.5), and

and
in

where r is measured from the one obtains (2.15),

X

m,v =
EXERCISE Expanding

~y-

(v

B())

+ -2f- [v

(r

\342\200\242 V)B\342\200\236]

(2.17)

What

assumption

is being
v =

made in

(2,16)?

v0 + v,

(2.18)

we have
\342\204\242,v<>

-y-

(To

B.\302\273)

(2-19)

which

yields

gyromotion,
\302\253.*.

and
\"T\"

=
as

(v,

B0)

-^

[v(1

(r

\342\200\242

V)B0]

(2.20)
must

where
calculated

we are

treating
only

rv\"

a small

quantity,

and to be

consistentr

be

using

v\342\200\236.

.MSL
Fig.

2.5

Electron

VB drift.

22
Now

Single Particle
we are
vanishes,
only

Motion

interested

in that both

part of

v,

that

represents
gyroperiod,

steady

therefore, after
left

averaging

sides of

(2.20) over a
?.<

drift motion; which the upon

side

we have
0 =
tfS

-^-

v,

B0

^f-

[v0

(r

\342\200\242

VJBo]

(2.21)

Taking

v,

_L

Bu,

we obtain
V!

ttt

[vo

(r

\342\200\242

V)B0]

B\342\200\236

(2.22)

Since

the

magnetic

field B

varies only

in

the jJ-direction,

<r-V>B0=,^*
Then

(2.23)

'
v0

J
%-

k
0

X (r

\342\200\242

V)B0

Vox

dBn

8B0

'voyy^-Jv^~

(2.24)

dy

From(1.25)
while

and

(1.27),

(2.25)
(2.6) can

be

written v\342\200\236 uu(sin

n,r,cos

n,/,0)
a gyroperiod,

(2.26)
the first
1/2,

When and

we the

the average second term

over right side of (2.24) yields for (2.22), using

term vanishes,

sin2

Clj

\342\200\224

Vl

-1
2B0

v0l dB0
n,

dy

(2.27)

or 1
2B02
Vo -\302\243-(B0

X VBU)

(2.28)
the charge, we

This is the
that

grad-B

the

drift

drift. that Recalling is in opposite directions

Given
the

ils contains the sign of for electrons and ions.

with

see

EXERCISE

an electron
grad-B

magnitude of
2.4

and a proton

equal

energies,

compare

the

drifts.

CURVATURE

DRIFTS

Suppose a

is moving along a field line while about it. If the field particle gyrating line curves, without the tries then to follow the field changing magnitude, particle line because all motions acrossfield lines are resisted. It therefore feelsa centrifugal

Curvature

Drifts

23

force Fc outward (Fig. 2.6),equal

to

Fc Our

-jJKb
predicts

R,

(2.29)

general

drift equation
Vw

(2.8) then
F\302\261

_c_
<?,

Bu

cmu||

Ra

Bo

(2.30)

Bo2

or

(Rs
OK\302\253

X B0)

(2.31)

This is the
Jn a
(see

curvature

drift.
vacuum

p.

cylindrically symmetric we 26 of Ref. [1]); thus

field,

it turns

out
drift

that

VBa

\342\200\224 (\342\200\224B0/Rb)Rb

may

add the

grad-B

to

the

curvature

drift to

obtain
tol _ \342\200\236

(RB *

Bp) .

2,1
A

2-,

(2.32)

where

we recall

that

u() is

and (2.32) can

be

found

the perpendicular speed. in Refs. [2] and [3].

rigorous

derivation

of (2.31)

Fig.

2.6

Centrifugal

force

felt

by

a particle

moving along a

curved

field

line.

24
2.5

Single

Particle

Motion

POLARIZATION

DRIFT
varies
leads

We discuss next a drift that is the result of an electric field which Since the drift is opposite for oppositely charged particles, it called the polarization current. Considera constant field Bnz, and an electric field magnetic E is a constant (Fig. 2.7). is where force The equation
mj We expect an E
time.
X

to

with time. a current

=
\342\200\224

E(t)

Ely,

= qsE

+ -^

B()
which

(2.33)
will

B0

drift

Thus,

the particle

in the (\342\200\224)x-direction, is being accelerated in the

be increasing
and, the

with

(\342\200\224^-direction

therefore, direction

force is in effective force in the \302\243-direction. effective (The to the acceleration; when one steps on the gas pedal of a car, backwardinto the seat.) This effective force should give rise to an F X a solution of (2.33)of we consider ^-direction. Using this intuition, feels an opposite v =
+ v\342\200\236 vEic the v\302\243is

one is
B drift the

forced
in the

form

+ vpp
E

(2.34) and
(2.34)
vp

where v0
polarization drift,

will

contain

which

all gyromotion, is assumed to be

X B drift,

is the

constant.
X

Substituting

into

(2.33),

we

obtain

wA
The
pieces,

+
with

V,)

-q>Ety

-^

vu

Bu

-^- vEBJ
separation

+ -y-

vpB0t

(2.35)

assumed

nature of the

solution indicates the

msvB

of this

equation

into

v0

B0

(2.36)

representing

gyromotion,
w,v\302\243

~^-vpB0x

(2.37)

giving

the

polarization

drift,

and

0 =

~
qfiiy \342\200\224TVeBJ

(2.38)

t Eft)
Fig.

2
2.7

/
polarization

Configuration

that leads to a

drift:

Magnetic
the

Moment

25

giving

X B

drift,

namely,

vEX

, cEt_ X
Ba

'

X B0>

B0

(2.39)

Then (2.37)yields

the

polarization

drift
(

cms

qf0
which

cE _
B0

c
n 4 -5(1

(2.40)

in vector

form is
v

(2.41)

We

see

that

(2.34)

is an exact
\342\200\224 cos

solution to
atl, can
you

(2.33).

EXERCISE (2.41)

If E(t) at each instant

drift

E0

invent

a criterion

for the

validity

of

of

time? to a

The polarization
protons,

leads

polarization

current J
\342\200\224

of

electrons

and

given

by

Jp = or

n0e(vp,

v)

(me -j^-j~bT ~dT

n0c2

dE

m,)

(2.42)

'
where pm is

dt

(2.43)

the mass

density.
MOMENT

2.6
The
magnetic

MAGNETIC

due to the to \"forces\" perpendicular sections have discussed drifts to the magnetic field that are very There are also forces parallel and adiabatic invariants. moment important, leading to the concepts of magnetic moment of a current loop with current Recall that the magnetic /, area A, in

preceding

field.

c.g.s.

units,

is JA

r=JfA

(2-44)
current

charged

particle

gyrating

qsfls/2TT, area

np/

\342\200\224 irv\302\261/ns2

in a magnetic field is such a (ps is the gyroradius),

loop,

with

current

and magnetic moment

B

\342\200\224

2ttC

n.

left,,

(2.45)

or

v-

(2.46)

26

Single

Particle

Motion

Fig. 2.8

Magnetic

field

with

nonzero
in the

perpendicular to the paper. with a velocity component

For the
uy

grad-B. The discussion following

^-direction.

orbit

shown

is a circle

in

a plane a spiral

(2.51),

the orbit

is actually

where
perpendicular

W\302\261

=
Vimsv\302\261

is

that

portion

of a

particle's kinetic energy

which

is

to

the

magnetic

field.

in an inhomogeneous moments We know that magnetic feel a force \342\200\224pVB does this work for a How out a particle field. magnetic charged particle? Consider about a the of whose axis field, symmetric magnetic cylindrically gyrating magnitude is changing in Fig. 2.8. along the axis, as shown

EXERCISE the top

Does the field

in

Fig.

2.8

satisfy

Maxwell's equations?
gyrating

In the figure, the vertical line

is a

side view

of the

particle.

Notice

that at

of the orbit (Fig. 2.9), for a positively chargedparticle, the v X B force has the field, and another component one component giving gyromotion about This is constant around the gyro-orbit, in the latter pointing (\342\200\224)\302\243-direction. component and the particle is steadily accelerated away from of strong field. regions EXERCISE Showthat
The force
in

this

works

the same

for either sign

on the

of

the

charge.

the

evaluated (\342\200\224)\302\243-direction, X

anywhere

orbit, is
(2.47)
of the

/\342\226\240=-*T(v

B)x=^f-v\302\261Br

where r is the distance from the x-axis, and Br is the component field in the y-z plane in Fig. 2.8. In cylindrical coordinates,
dx

magnetic

r
0,

dr
Br
\302\253

Solving this

equation

with

Br =

0 at r

\342\200\224 and

Bx

everywhere,

one ob-

\302\256\302\253

vXB

Fig.

2.9

The vectors v,

B,

and

v x B

for a particle

with

qs > 0

at the top of

the

orbit

in

Fig. 2l8.

Magnetic Moment

27

tains

*' = ~ Inserting (2.48)in

(2.47), F

f IT
equal

\"

|Vi?'

(148) p.,, we obtain

V5

with

/-

to

the gyroradius

\\9,\\ - -^-

-^F

P*

\302\253^ \342\200\236\342\200\236 _ WjTO 2\302\243

(2.49)

or

-/iVB

(2.50)

of its orbit. First one particle allows the calculation the The moment orbit. along changes magnetic ^ is that the magnetic moment remarkable fact is constant along the orbit, provided the field Let us prove this. does not change much in one gyroperiod. = (q/c) v X B. A The Lorentz force on a charged particle (with E \342\200\224 0) is F in the direction small component \302\245\302\261 of this force acts to accelerate the particle field and parallel to the component of the perpendicular to the local magnetic shown particle velocity vj_ used in the definition of p. (In Fig. 2.8,let the particle have a positive velocity v X B v., along J?. Then at the top of the orbit, component has a component of magnitude is into into the paper.) This force | v,, Br\\ pointing the paper at the top of the orbit of the particle in Fig. 2.8, and is given by
Knowing

as expected.

the

force

on the

needsto know

how

the

=
F\302\261

\"7\"
in

w\342\200\236a,

(2.51) and time

where

v.. is

the component
of

of velocity
particle

the

\302\243-direction with

Br is according

negative. The
to
(2'52)

perpendicular energy

the

then changes

~af
When

(y

m'vl)

=
(with
Ps

=
v\302\261F\302\261

-f\"

v\302\261v\"Br

we use

(2.48),
d
W7

this

becomes
\302\260s

r = ps at the
dBx I

location of the
2

particle)

dB

where

Bx

>=*

B,

or

4rw\302\261= \">\"
EXERCISE

i
show

\302\247

(2-54)

Combine
rate

(2.50) and

(2.53) to
_ ~ dB 1
~B

that

total

energy is conserved.

The time

of change
d^_ __ ~

of the magnetic moment is

d
~dx

IWL\\
\\B~)

dW\302\261

dB
W\302\261

It

~dt
I

IF
dB

~dx

(2.55)

26
where

Single Particle
the rate

Motion

of change of

along

the particle

orbit dB/dt

\342\200\224 v., dB/dx

has

been used.

Thus,
H \342\200\224 constant

(2.56) This is an of this calculation. that is constant under slow changes

treated

along
in

example of an
an

the particle

orbit,

to

within

the

accuracy

adiabatic

invariant,

a quantity

external
fields,

magnetic

the

in the position to understand the principle of mirror confinement, is basis for one of the two major approaches to magnetic fusion, and also the reason for the existence of the earth's magnetosphere. Consider a at x \342\200\224 starts 0 magnetic field created in Fig. 2.10. A particle that by two coils, as shown with energy Wn and moment n conserves both of these quantities. magnetic to the right and feels a force to the Suppose the particle initially has d, > 0; it moves Does the particle left, F \342\200\224 \342\200\224/iVB. get reflected by the force, or does it go past We x = x0 to be lost from the machine? on its initial Uy\" and v\302\261\302\260. This will depend

We are now
is the

parameter. Although our derivation same result holds for magnetic fields

spatially

varying

with

slow

time variation.

which

have Vimvj_

'/iwuf

\342\200\224 const

B\342\200\236

(2.57)

and

W
As

Vim(vl

~
v\\\\)

wa and

- const
\342\200\224 Vimv^ IV\302\261 will

(2.58)
must

the

particle
v\302\253 will

moves
WL

to the
ever

right,

B increases

increase
the

to

satisfy (2.57). If motion,

machine.

reaches

W^, then all the energy

be

in perpendicular
mirror

vanish,

and the

particle
3l
-Ornaa

will

be

reflected

back

toward

This

happens if
M

Vimvj

>

Vimjvf
Bmix

v[)

(2.59)

\342\226\240Omin

or

>

5,
we have

(2.60)
from (2.60)

Defining

the

pitch

angle

\342\200\224 tan

](v\"/vu),

Fig,

2.10

Simple

mirror machine

configuration.

Adiabatlc

Invariants

29

J/2

sin0 > where we have

R J/2

(2.61)

mirror ratio R = Bm3*/Bmm.Particles whose pitch the center of Those that do not the are confined. machine satisfy (2.61) at angles the to from ends. While our are lost out derivation appliesonly circling particles the central magnetic field line, a similar statement is true for off-axis particles.

introduced the

2.7
The

ADIABATIC
magnetic

INVARIANTS

in the constant under slow spatial or temporal changes out that is one It often turns in a of an invariant. adiabatic magnetic field, example with a coordinate the defined and its action, system momentum/), by q, conjugate moment,
,/

$pdq
an

(2.62)

is a
assumed

constant under a slow change in

that

when

there

periodic, and^ represents a charged particle in

from the
guiding

Here, we have parameter. the motion is no change in the external parameter, In the case of the motion. an integral over one period
external

is of
x

a magnetic

field,
mvx,

we could
\342\200\224 and

take,

for

example,

measuring

center:

\342\200\224

x,

-<j> msvx
nm,v

dx~i>

msvl
2m\342\200\236irc lW,\\

sin2 (ft,f)

dt

2m,irc

h
is the magnetic moment to within One famous example of the constancy where Lorentz asked: \"What conference,
which

\\B }

?,

(2.63)

a constant.

of action
happens

was derived at the 1911Solvay if we slowly shorten the string

of

a swinging

pendulum?\"

The next morning, Einstein

action

answered:\"Action

f\342\200\224

energy/frequency]

is conserved.\" in the a potential

Let us now demonstrate the invariance of the in mind the picture of a particle bouncing in of the well changing slowly with as shown time,
have
we mechanics,

general case. We well, with the shape

(mx

in Fig.

2.11. In Hamiltonian
momentum

have

a Hamiltonian

H(p,q,\\)

where/) is the

in the

*1

*2
in a

Fig. 2.11

Periodicmotion

slowly changing

potential

well.

30

Single Partlcl*
q is

Motion

figure),

the

shape

the coordinate of the well. When

(x in
k

the

figure), is constant,

and k is the

parameter

that

determines k

the Hamiltonian is

constant; when

changes,

The

Hamiltonian

equations

_ dH dk ~ dt dk dt of motion are
dH

(2.64)

9 = 1FThe
time

p
= 2

~^

(165)

derivative

of the

action

J =6pdq
,s

f9i i\\

dq

(2.66)

r J

92

=2}
since

pdq +
the

2p(q2)qi~

2p(qi)ql the

(2.67) turning

The

last two

terms

vanish

momentum =

is zero at

points;

then

J = -2
since

r n dH
J^-

-qj*1

-2[H(q2)

- H(q,)] = 0
H{qt) k.

(2.68)
periodic

dH/dq

is to
H

fixed k, and
motion

is a

and be taken at fixed \\, implyingH(q2) constant except for its variation with

are

We

to be taken at have thus shown

the approximate
and

constancy
changes
can

of

any

action

variable

in the
that

presence of
the present
that
time

slow

of external
been

parameters. Note

derivation
and

is heuristic, points q2(t) differentiated

the

since it has and q\\(t)

as in
(2.67)

assumed
be treated

that the variation is so slow as continuous functions of

the turning can be

in

can be found problem [4]. A rigorous treatment of this of Kruskal [5]; see also Goldstein [6], The knowledge of an adiabatic invariant can be very useful in predicting particle Let us return to the mirror behavior. machine, where the constancy of the magnetic adiabatic invariant has already enabledus to determine which moment particles will be confined and which The will be lost. Consider a confined particle. confined fundamental

paper

particle

executes

periodic motion J2

between jfj

and

x2. Thus,
(2.69)

must

be a constant
changes, a third

=6 pdq =Smvxdx the of the motion, even when entire

or when

slow temporal There is yet

to Xi, it

adiabatic
the

mirror field undergoes the mirror field is not axisymmetric. invariant. As the charged particle bounces from Xi
field

drifts perpendicular
way

to the

lines,

with speed
this

vd.

Eventually,

it comes

all the

around axis

mirror

machine.

Because

is

like

a huge

about

gyro-orbit

the

of the

magnetic field,
Ti

we define
=(f)vdd[

a new

adiabatic

invariant
(2.70)

/ is the distance around the mirror machine at some fixed x, for measured that It turns is the total out to x{. example J3 proportional magnetic flux enclosed the This invariant is motion. useful when mirror fieldis not the by drifting it slow or when axisymmetric, undergoes temporal changes. where

Ponderomotive

Force

31

EXERCISE to /j, J2,

Sketch the earth's

magnetosphere, and discussthe

motion

leading

and J3.

2.6 PONDEROMOTIVE FORCE

All

of

the

examples
in

of single

particle

motion

considered

in

previous

sections

involve motion
very

a magnetic

field, with

charged particle oscillating in a high \342\200\224 field E(l) a sinusoidal electric variation frequency if,, cos (to/). The motion is then of distance with time, as shown in Fig. 2.12. Now supposethe electric field has an in space, E{x,t) \342\200\224 cos (wt), being stronger amplitude that varies smoothly EQ(x) to the right and weaker to the left. Then the first oscillation brings the particle into of strong field, where it can be given a strong push to the left (see Fig. regions the field turns around, the particle is in a region of weaker field, and 2.13). When the push to the right is not as strong. The net result is a displacement to the left, of which continues in succeeding as an acceleration away from the region cycles strong field [7].

single particle in spatially varying high frequency field. Consider a accompanying magnetic
important occurs

an electric field. There is one or without effect, the ponderomotive force or Miller force, that

electric

fields,

with or

without

an

Mathematically, the

force

equation

is
wt

msx

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 cos q\342\200\236E0(x) q\302\243

(2.71)

called It is convenient to decompose x into a slowly varying component x\342\200\236, the oscillation center (compare this concept to the guiding center in a magnetic field) ~ T where and a rapidly varying ( ) component x,, x x0 + x,. Here, x0 \342\200\224 indicates a time average over of the short time 27r/<o. Making a Taylor expansion

Fig. 2.12

Sinusoidal

motion

of a charged

particle

in

a high-frequency

electric field.

32

Single
Weak

Particle

Motion

Strong

Fig. 2.13
the

Motion

of a

charged particle
the

in

a high-frequency

electric

field

that

is weaker

to

left

and

stronger

to

right.

E0(x)

about

the oscillation
mAXo

center x0, (2.71)becomes

x,)

q,
x0.

\\Ea

xx

-^-J (2.72)

cos

wt

(2.72)

where

dE0/dx

is to

be evaluated at
msx0

Averaging

over time, we get

(2.73) since jc, is
\302\273

= we

dEA qs dx
note

x, cos wl
\302\273 x0 we

To obtain

an equation
in

for

xu

that x,

high frequency;

moreover,
therefore

the

spirit

of the

Taylor expansion
msX! =
q3E0

havefo

x^dE^/dx);

(2.72)

is approximately
cos

wt

(2.74)

with solution x, \342\200\224 \342\200\224(^jEo/wijft^Xcos the time average one obtains

X\302\260

cot)'-, inserting

this

in

(2.73)

and

performing

q[Eu
2m*a2
\342\200\224

dE0

dx is

(2.75)

so that the

ponderomotive force Fp
= F *\302\273

msx0

- Si
4msw2

d\342\200\224

dx

(E (

2) a)

(2.76)
the

This
(iiW

formula

will

be

easier

to remember if
m,

we introduce

jitter

= qsE0/msw; then
d

speed

(2.77)

This force is very important in such applications beam as laser fusion', electron of radio frequency mirrors, fusion, radio frequency heating of tokamaks, plugging radio frequency modification of the ionosphere, and solar radio bursts. The study

Diffusion

33

physicsresearch.

the areas of current basic plasma in (2.76), so mass dependence is as given on ions. that the ponderomotive force acts much on electrons more than strongly A more complete derivation of the ponderomotive the magnetic force, including can found in field in an electromagnetic be Schmidt wave, [4].

of the

effects of ponderomotive force is one of

Notice

that

the

overall

2.9

DIFFUSION
with center the
the

We conclude this chapter location of the guiding

Chapter 1 shows
particles;

that

a brief discussion of the effects on the of collisions of a particle in a magnetic field. The discussion of effects of many small angle collisions are in a plasma
effects

more important than simplest to consider

the

of rare
angle

here a single large

be
qualitatively

large angle
collision

collisions.However,

it

is

results

small

angle

can then collisions.

the

applied

between to determine

two charged the effects of many

in

Consider first Fig. 2.14. The

are

collision

between two electrons at x = 0, as shown last gyro-orbit, and the guiding center, of each particle before the indicated in the upper half of the figure. After the collision, electron
head-on

collision

Before

x, B

After

x,B
Fig. indicate

2.14

Head-on
the location

collision between of the guiding

two

electrons

in a magnetized
electrons.

plasma. Numbers

centers

of the

two

34

Single Particle
2 has
versa.

Motion

number
vice

and there
Next,

number the same orbit that electron the locations of the two guiding is no net motion of the electrons. We Thus,

1 had
centers

have

before the collision, and been interchanged,

collisions

conclude that

between

like particles
consider

do not lead to diffusion

the (almost)
x

of those

particles
Fig.

across magnetic
electron

field lines.
a slightly

more energetic positronat

the

head-on collision 0, as shown in

between an
2.15.

and

The last

guiding

half of the figure. positron, and both

direction.
in

the

cause
discussionof

are of each particle before the collision than the more the collision, the electron has slightly energy in the (\342\200\224)z~ have moved by two gyro-radii centers guiding the center-of-mass a substantial distance of the system has moved Thus, can We conclude that collisions between unlike particles (\342\200\224)f-dire'ction. of particles across magnetic field lines. Further significant diffusion center After diffusion

gyro-orbit and in the upper indicated

can be found

in

Ref.

[I].
motion single-particle

This
plasma

completes
physics

our discussion of
the

in

prescribed

electric
of

and magnetic determined

fields. In

next

chapter,

we begin

a systematic treatment
the

in which the

electromagnetic fields and

particle

orbits

are

self-consistently*

BEFORE

x, B

AFTER

x, B

Fig. 2.15
a magnetized

Head-on collision between

plasma.

an

electron

and a

slightly

more

energetic

positron

in

Problems

35

REFERENCES

[1] F. F. Chen, Introduction [2] A. Baflos,Jr., J. Plasma The [3] T. G. Northrop,

York,

to Plasma
Phys.,

Physics, Plenum, New York, (1967). of Charged

Plasmas,

1974.
New

1, 305

Adiabatic

Motion

Particles,
Academic,

Wiley,

1963.
Temperature

[4]

G. Schmidt, Physics of High 1966.

J.

New

York,

[5] M. Kruskal, [6] H. Goldstein,

[7]

Math.
Classical

Phys.,

3, 806

(1962).
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.,
Addison-Wesley,

Sect.11-7. 1980,
D.

Mechanics,

2nd ed.,

L.

Landau

and E.

M.

Lifshitz,

Mechanics,

Reading,

Mass., 1960, Sect. 30.

PROBLEMS

2.1
(a)

Example

of

a Drift

(b)

(c)

at rest at (x,y,z) \342\200\224 Consider a particle of charge q and mass m, initially = field B in the presence of a static magnetic B02 and E = EQp. (0,0,0), orbit of the particle when En, Bn > 0, sketch the q > 0. Taking in for the orbit Derive an exact expression [x(t), y(t), z(t)] of the particle with the sketch of part (a)? agree part (a). Does this result term and a the orbit in (b) can be separatedinto an oscillatory Show that is constant drift term. After averaging in time over the oscillatory motion, If not, how are the forces in the problem there any net acceleration?
balanced?

(d)

In

what

particles

direction is the drift of various charges

electric
drift

for q > 0? For q < 0? If there and massespresent, would there

were

many

be

any

net

current?

(e)

Supposethe
What

field

were

replaced
[Hint:

by

force

F0

in

the

^'direction.

would be the

velocity?

Guess

the answer using the last

part

of(c).]

2.2
Let

Grad-B

Drift

us derive the
X

grad-B

drift

in

a different

way.
the

With

the

force

{q/c)y Average F over one gyroperiodto force into the general drift equation grad-B drift (2.28).
B, insert

the zero

order orbit and

obtain

Taylor

expanded

equation magnetic
this drift

F =

field.
to

an

average

force.

(2.8),

and compare

Insert the resulting

average

the

2.3
Let

Polarization

Drift
drift

us get the polarization the given electric field E =

(2.41)

in a

faster
an

but

less

rigorous

manner.

With

calculate \342\200\224Etp,

E x

B drift. Relate the

resulting

36

Single Particle
drift

Motion

accelerated (2.8),

to a force

(being careful with

signs),

plug

in the

F * B formula

and

compare

the result to (2.41).

2.4 Mirror Machines

(a)
(b)

mirror

machine

has mirror
the

ratio 2.

Maxwellian

group

of electrons

is

released at the center of

fraction

machine.

In the

absence of collisions, what

n \"=> I keV

of

these

electrons
mirror

is confined?
machine

Supposethe
electrons and
The

has initially
with

equal densities
a temperature both directions.

1013

cm\"3 of
107oC.

protons, each Maxwellian

is
roughly

\302\253

machine

one

meter

for discussion of collisions from the time very roughly Chapter electrons; (1) loss of the unconiined ions; (2) loss of the unconffhed to which of the initially confined electrons (due primarily (3) loss of many do not of of all the kind electrons leave?; collision?); why to which kind of (4) loss of the initially confined ions (due primarily
collision?).

in size in 1, estimate

Recalling

our

For

fusion

purposes

(supposing

the protons
is the

tritium)

which of

these numbers

were replaced by
relevant?

deuterium

or

most

2.5 Drift
A particle

Energy

motion
final

in

value

(a)

and charge q in a uniform magnetic field B = B0z is set into the ^-direction by an electric field E(t)j>that varies slowly from zero to a at the final time the particle has an E X B drift v0. \302\2430. Thus, Use energy arguments to show that the particle's guiding center must have been displaced a distance vu/D. of the electric in the direction
of mass m

field.

(b)

Integrate

the

to

obtain

polarization a displacement.

drift velocity

from

time

zero

to time
(a)?

infinity

Does the answer

agree with

CHAPTER

3 Kinetic

Plasma

Theory

I:

Klimontbvich

Equation

3.1

INTRODUCTION

The equations of plasma physics. so that plasma kinetic theory is the of plasma theory taking into account the motions of all of the particles. This can be donein an exact way, using the Klimontovich equation of the present chapter or we are usually not interested the Liouville equation of the next chapter. However, in the exact motion of all of the particles in certain average in a plasma, but rather or approximate characteristics. of the exact the greatest usefulness Thus, of is as starting points for the derivation Klimontovich and Liouville equations the average properties of a plasma. approximateequations that describe In classical plasma physics, we think each with of the particles as point particles, a gas consisting of only one a given charge and mass. Supposewe have particle. This particie has an orbit Xj(r) in three-dimensional configuration space x. The orbit Xj(/) is the set of positions x occupied by the particle at successive times /.
In this

chapter,

we begin

a study

of

the

basic

word

\"kinetic\"

means

\"pertaining

to motion,\"

the Likewise,

particle

has

an orbit

V\\{t)

in three-dimensional

velocity
of

space v. We
in this

combine space

three-dimensional v into

configuration

space x and

three-dimensionalvelocity
one

six-dimensional
Ar(x,v,0

phase space (x,v). The

= <5[x

density

particle

phase space is
-

X,(0]S[v
ZJ,

- V,(0]

(3.D

where

\342\200\224

<5[x

X,]

8{x

\342\200\224

\342\200\224 in

Xy)5{y

Y])8(z

\342\200\224

Dirac

delta

function

are reviewed

Ref.

[1],

p. 29,

Note that X,, V, are the Lagrangian are the Eulerian coordinates of the

coordinates
phase

etc. (The properties of the and in Ref. [2], pp. 53-54.) of the particle itself, whereas x, v

space.

38
EXERCISE

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

At

any

space must yield the density (3.1).

[X,(/);
density

time /, the density of particles integrated of particles in the system. total number

over

all

phase

Verify this for the

Next, supposewe have a system with two point particles, with respective in phase V,(0] and [X2(0> V2(0] space (x,v). By analogy to (3.1),the
is

orbits
particle

N(x,r,t)
EXERCISE

2\302\253[x

XXOMv

- V,(/)]

(3.2)

Repeat

the

previous

exercise for

Now supposethat
and

a system
N0

contains
Then

each species

has

particles.

(3.2). electrons and two species of particles, the density Ns of speciess is

~

ions,

NA*,v,t)

%B[*

X;(f)]S[v- V,(/)]

(3.3)
(3.4)

and

the

total

density

N is N(x,\\,t)

2X(X>V)
for (3.4).

EXERCISE
If we
know

Repeat

the

previous

exercise

the

exact

positions

UO = TO where an overdot the means a time derivative. Likewise, satisfies the Lorentz force equation
mjtt)

we know them at all later times. / satisfies the equation particle

This

at one time, then and velocitiesof the particles can be seen as follows.The positionX,(/)of

(3.5)

velocity

V,(0

of particle i

= q,E\"[XM,t]
m

-^-

VXO

B^X/*),']

(3-6)
the

where the superscript

microscopic

indicates

that

the electric
by right

and magnetic fields are

point
of (3.6),

fields
with

self-consistently
applied

together
equations

externally

produced fields. [On the

the

themselves, particles the portion of Em and

satisfy

Bm produced

by

fields particle i itself is deleted.]The microscopic

Maxwell's

\342\200\242

Em(x,t)

4npm(x,t)
=

(3.7) (3.8)
j^-

\342\200\242

BM<x,0

E\"(x,0

\342\200\224

dBm(x,t)

(3.9)

and
V
X

Bm(x,f) v

\342\200\224-

4tt
c

Jm(x,0

, H

dEm(x,f)

dt

(3.10)

Klimontovich Equation

39

The microscopic chargedensity

Pm(*J)
while

is

q,JdvNjLx,v,t)

(3.11)

the

microscopic

current

is

J\"(x,/)
EXERCISE
density

- X
that

?,/rfvvJVJ(x,v,0

(3.12)

Convince
and

yourself

(3.11)

and

(3.12)

yield the correct

charge

current.

Equations

3.7 to 3.12
(3.5)

determine the

exact

fields

in terms

of the exact particle

terms

orbits,while

(3.6) determine the exact particle orbits in is closed, so that if the positions fields. The entire set of equations all and the fields, are known at one time, then exactly particles,
and

of the exact and velocities of

they

are

known

exactly at all later

times.

3.2 KLIMONTOVICH EQUATION

An

exact

equation

derivative

for the evolution of a plasma of the density Ns. From (3.3),this is =

^X;V-

is obtained by taking - vxo]

the

time

t
1=1

x,-vx5[x

x,<0Mv -

VVvS[x

X,(/)]\302\2533[v

V,(0]

(3.13)

where we have
and

used

the

relations

^T/[*(0]=|^ and
write
where

V,

(dx,dy,dz)

and
V, and

Vv

X,and

V, in

terms of

the fields

(dvdVi,du.). Em and

Using (3.5)
Bm,

and (3.6),we
(3.13)

can

whereupon

becomes

\342\204\242&L\302\261 = dt A', 0

-l

v,.vxs[x-XMv-v,]
\\

_
\302\243 p-

E\"TX,(/),rJ
\342\200\242

\342\200\224

V,

X B\"TX,(/),/]

Vv

6[x

- X,]S[*~ b) = bd(a
this

V,]

(3.14) is

An

important

property

of the Dirac delta function

a8(a

b)

EXERCISE

How

would

one prove

relation?

40

Plasma Kinetic Theory

relation
not

This

(3.14) (but

allows us to replace V,{/) in the arguments of the

with

v, and

X;(0
so

with

x,

on

the right

of

delta functions)

that

(3.14) becomes

^^
_\342\226\240 \\l\302\261-

= -v.Vxis[x-Xi]5[v-V,.]
+
\342\200\224

E\"(x,t)

X Bm(x,/)

\342\226\240 V\302\245 2

fi[x

X,]5[v

VJ

(3.15)

But

the two

summations on the

right

of (3.15)

are just the density (3.3);

therefore

dNjjx,\\,t) + dt
This is the exact
Klimontovich

T'VXN,

^\"(E\"

7><r

\"ViJV,

(3.16)

equation

(Klimontovich

[3]; Dupree
positions

The Klimontovich
exact

equation,

together

with Maxwell's
initial
\342\200\224 and

description
initial

of a

plasma. Given the

Nf{x,\\,t
0)
then

[4]). equations, constitute an and velocities of the

given exactly by 0) consistent with Maxwell's equations the problem is completely conditions these initial (3.7) to (3.12). With for all time. and the densities determined and fields are exactly deterministic, In practice, we never carry out The Klimontovich equation this procedure. contains every one of the exact single particle orbits.This is far more information we want about certain average than or need. What we really want is information properties of the plasma. We do not really care about all of the individual What fields contributed we do care about is electromagnetic charges. by the individual the electric field, which exist over many thousands or average long-range might of of the Klimontovich millions The usefulness interparticle equation spacings. in comes from its role as a starting derivation of the equations that describe point JV,{x,v,/
(3.3).

particles, the
The

densities

\342\200\224 are

initial

fields are

chosen

to be

the

the can be thought of as expressing incompressibili\"substance\" Ns(x,\\,l) as it moves about in the (x,v) phase space. (Is it any This can wonder be seen as follows. that a point particle is incompressible?) a with which mass at time / finds itself Imagine hypothetical ms, particle charge qs, at the position (x,v). This hypothetical has an in orbit phase space particle determined by the fields in the system. Imagine a time of any quantity derivative taking this orbit (such a time is called a convective derivative).This derivative along derivative in must include the time variation produced by the changing position as as the must well time variation the it be of Thus, (x,v) space explicit quantity. given by

TheKlimontovich

average

properties

of a
equation

plasma.

ty of the

Dt
where
with

_ ~

dx

d\\

dt

dt
in

(3.17)

by
time;

dx/dt\\ar\\,u

likewise

the change we mean for dv/dt{0Mi- But for

x of the hypothetical particle position our hypotheticalparticle at position (x,v)

Plasma Kinetic Equation

in

41

phase

space

we know

that

=
dt and
orbit

(3.18)

d\\

=
orbit

dt
Thus,

-\302\243-IE-CM)

x B\"(x'^

<319>

157
and
the

~t +

v'v*

+
~t~[\302\243m(x,/)

x
\"7

Bm(x,r)]'v*

(320)

Klimontovich

equation

(3-16) simply

says
=

-^-iV\342\200\236(x,v,/)~

(3.21)

as measured The density of particles of species s is a constant in time, along the we are s. This of is true whether orbit of a hypothetical species moving particle in which case the density is infinite, or along the orbit of an actual particle, we are moving along a hypothetical orbit whether that is not occupied by an actual in which case the density is zero. Note that is only constant as the density particle,

measured along orbits

not constant
but

of

hypothetical

particles;
of

in (x,v)

space at a given
equation.

time

it is in

is

zero

or infinite. way to
think

There is
which
equation

yet

a third density/(r,f)

the

Klimontovich

Any

fluid

the

fluid

is neither

created nor V,- (/V)

destroyed satisfiesa continuity =0

d,/(r,0
where

(3.22)

Vr is

a vector space.
and

the divergence vector in the phase space under consideration, and V is that gives the time rate of change of a fluid at a point in phase element for I n the (See, case, Vr = (VX,VV) example, Symon [5], p. 317.) present = (rfx/\302\253//|orbit, is neither created nor Since the dv/dt\\0Mi)particle density
must

it destroyed,

satisfy

a continuity

equation of the
+
[-Me\342\204\242

form

B,NAx,v,t)

Vx'(vNs)

Vv-

B\"]n,)

= 0

(3.23)

It is left
equivalent

as

a problem

to demonstrate equation

that

the

continuity

equation

(3.23) is

to

the

Klimontovich

(3.16).

3.3
Although

PLASMA KINETICEQUATION

the Klimontovich not interested in exact equation is exact, weare really solutions of it. Thesewould contain all of the particle orbits, and would thus be far too detailed for any practical What we really would like to know are the purpose. TheKlimontovich tells us whether or not average properties of a plasma. equation a particle with infinite density is to be found at a given point (x,v) in phase space.

42
What

PIbsma

Kinetic

Theory

we

really
the

small volume Ax

interested in

in a to be found want to know is how many particles are likely we really are not Av of phase space whose center is at (x,v). Thus, function N,(x,\\,t), but rather in the smooth function spikey

(3.24) /s(x,v,/) = <#,(x,v,/)> an is as an over The most rigorous to ensemble [6] way interpret ( ) average of the plasma, prepared accordingto some infinite number of realizations For we could prepare an ensemble of equal temperature prescription. example, in each thermal plasmas, equilibrium, and each with a test charge <?7at the origin of then be consistent with the and /\342\200\236 configuration space. The resulting /) would of Debye shielding in Section discussion 1.2. There is another useful interpretation of the distribution function fs(x,\\,t), the of particles number of species s per unit configuration space per unit velocity that we are in electric fields interested and space. Suppose magnetic long range a extend over distances much than a Then we can imagine Debye length. larger a size much of around the point x in configuration box, centered greater space, is than a mean interparticle spacing, but much smaller than a Debye length (this in a We can number of of to do now count the easy plasma; why?) particles species s in the box at time f with velocities hi the range v to v + Av, divide by (the size of This number will of the box multiplied by Avx Avv AuJ, and call the result/s(x,v,0in the box, the fluctuate course with time but, if there are very many particles fluctuations will be tiny and the f(x,\\,t) obtained in this manner will agree very that obtained well with in the more rigorous ensemble averaging procedure. for the time evolution of the distribution function f(x,\\,t) can be An equation
obtained from
define

the

Klimontovich
by

equation
=/,(x,v,r)

(3.16)

by

ensemble

averaging.

We

8NS,

6E,

and SB

N,(x,y,t)

+ 8Nt(xs,t)
(3.25)

Em(x,v,r) = E(x,v,0 + 6E(x,v,0

and

Bm(x,v,r)
where definitions

=
into

(Bm), E
(3.16)

<Em),

and

= B(x,v,0 + = (8E) (8NS)

6B(x,v,0
= (8B)

= 0.Inserting

these

and ensemble

averaging, we obtain
+

at

+ v'

v*f*

~^7
+

(E + x

x B)'Vv/*
(3.26)

=
--^-<(\302\253E

.-*-

8B)-VV8NS)

We shall meet kinetic equation. Equation (3.26)is the exact form of the plasma of this equation in the next chapter. other forms The left side of (3.26) consists only of terms that vary smoothly in (x,v) space. of the products The right side is the ensembleaverage of very spikey quantities like are Em \342\200\224 of (3.26) contains terms that 8E \342\200\224 and 8NS. Thus, the left side (Em) of while the right side insensitive to the discrete-particle nature of the plasma, of the But the (3.26) is very sensitive to the discrete-particle nature plasma. is what gives rise to collisional effects, so that discrete-particle nature of a plasma

Pies ma Kinetic Equation

43

the

left

side
while

of (3.26)
the the

contains

smoothly

varying

functions

representing

collective
have

effects, Section 1.6 that

side represents the colhsional right ratio of the importance of collisionaL

is sometimes

effects. We
effects

seen

in
We

to the

importance

of collectiveeffects
that

given by 1/A,

which

is a

very small

number.

has a for many phenomena in a plasma, the right side of (3.26) guess might size 1/A comparedjp each of the terms on the left side; thus the right side can be neglectedfor the study of such phenomena. This indeedis the case, as shown in the next two chapters. This important exercise. Imagine that can be illustrated by a hypothetical point \342\200\224 \342\200\224\342\226\2 we break of pieces, so that.w0 each electron .into an infinite number 0, \302\253,m( = constant, and; v., = constant. and e \342\200\224 e/m. 0, while hae \342\200\224 constant,

EXERCISE
constant,

Show

that
\342\200\224 0

in and

this Ae

hypothetical

exercise,

we

\342\200\224

constant,

\\e

\342\200\224

but

T,

\342\200\224 \302\273.

Then an infinite number of point no matter how small, would contain any volume, with Statistical a function infinitesimal delta charge. particles, each represented by tells us that mechanics the relative fluctuations in such a plasma would vanish, since the fluctuations in the number of particles N0 in a certain volume is of (3.26) we have proportional to the on the right side number: Thus, square root of that ~ ~ are 6NX by SNS behaving like A7,)1-'2' produced A,,1,2, and 6E and 5B, which (from Poisson's equation) ~ eSNs -~ NU~'N0]/2 ~ Nu~h'2 ~ A/1'2, so that the right \342\200\224 side becomes constant. On the left, however, \302\260\302\260. each term becomes infinite as/j ~ -~ the relative and vanishes we side Thus, Ae~\\ AV1 importance of the right

have

d/*(x,v,0
dt
which
mann

+ v-V/,

,.

, +

<htv

-^(e+^xb)-V^
to

=0
as the

(3.27)

is the
equation).

Vlasov [7]
This
most
in

referred equation (sometimes

collisionless
collisional

Boltzis
be

approximate
important
Chapter

equation,
equation

which

neglects

effects,

often called the

explored
must

in plasma
ensemble

will physics. Its properties

in detail
the

6. avejaged

The fields
satisfy

E and

B of (3.27) are the

V

fields

ensemble

averaged versions
\342\200\242

of Maxwell's equations
Airp
=

of (3.25).
(3.7)

They

to (3.12),

which are
E(x,/)

V
V

\342\200\242

B(x,0

0 1
c

E(x,/)

dB \342\200\224
dt

p(x,0
and

(Pm)

e.i qsjd\\fs(x,y,t)

J(x,r)

(Jm)

4,f<tovMxs,t)

(3-28)

44
In

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

the

next two

from another
sional

chapters we shall approachthe

shall

plasma

kinetic of the

equation

(3.26)
cotli-

direction,and

use

approximate

methods to
study

evaluate the

right

side. In Chapter 6 we

shall take up the

Vlasov equation

(3.27).

REFERENCES

[1] J. D.
[3]
[4] Yu.

Jackson,

Classical Quantum

Electrodynamics, Mechanics,

2nd ed.,

[2] K. Gottfried,
L.

Benjamin,

Wiley, New York, 1975. New York, 1966.

Plasma, M.I.T.
T.

H.
R.

[5] K. [6] F.
[7]

Reif,

Processes in a The Statistical Theory of Non-equilibrium Mass.,1967. Press, Cambridge, (1963). Dupree, Phys. Fluids, 6, 1714 3rd Mechanics, ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1971. Symon, New Fundamentals and Thermal Physics, McGraw-Hill, of Statistical

Klimontovich,

York,

1965.

A. A.

Vlasov, /.

Phys.

(U.S.S.R.),

9, 25

(1945).

PROBLEM

3.1
Prove
equation

Klimontovich

as

Continuity
equation

that the
(3.16).

continuity

(3.23)

is equivalent

to the Klimontovich

CHAPTER

4
Kinetic

Plasma

Theory

II:

Liouville

Equation

4.1

INTRODUCTION

In addition

to the Klimontovich
provides

equation, there
description

is another

equation,
the provides

the Liouville
Klimontovich

equation, which
equation,

an exact

the Liouville equation is of no direct use, but for the construction of approximate statistical theories. is to provide us with an practical resultsof this approach
right

of a plasma.Like
One

side

of the changes

function
The

Klimontovich

which plasma kinetic equation (3.26), in time due to collisions. describes the behavior equation

a starting point of the most useful form for the approximate us how the distribution tells

of individual

particles.

By

the Liouville equation describes a behavior of systems. Consider first the this particle's of one charged particje.Supposewe rrjeasure \"system\" consisting position in a coordinate systemiX^; then the orbit of the particle Xt(/) is the set of in velocity positionsxf occupied by the particle at consecutive times t. Likewise, this is the set of velocities taken space we denote the orbit of the particle by V^/); the particle at consecutive times t\\ these velocities are measured in a coordinate
contrast, system
density

v,. We
of

thus

have

a phase

space (x^y^

dimensional

phase
systems

space there is one \"system\" in this phase space is =

tfOc\342\200\236v,.r)

= (x1,yl,z1,vxi,vyi,v:i). In this
consisting

six-

of one

particle.

The
(4.1)

3[x,

X,(fMvi

\"

V,(0]

a set of coordinate axesfor 2 has (x2,v2) before. Particle coordinate axes that lay right on top of the (x^v,) coordinate axes.The orbit X,(0i the with respect to the (x^Vi) coordinate axes,while V^O of particle 1 is measured orbit to the (x2,v2) coordinate X2(/), V2(t) of particle 2 is measured with respect
Next, consider
each

a system of
1

two

particles.

We introduce

particle.

Particle

has

(x^v,)

coordinate

axes as

46
axes.

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

II

We

now introduce

an entirely new phase

=

space, having

twelve

dimensions.

The phase

space is
(\\1,\\l,\\2,\\2)

(xuyuZy,v]li,vyi,v2t,x1,y1,z.1,vXi,vv_,vZ2)
there

(4.2)

point [x, =

In this twelve-dimensional
X((0,

phase space, x2 = X2(f). v2 = is in this systems phase space N(x^XJx2^2,t)= fi[x, - X.COMvi - V,(f)]\302\253[x2
V!

is one

V,(/),

system that is occupying the of V2(r)] at time /. The density

\"

X2(016[v2
the

V2(r)] (4.3)

EXERCISE
the integrating

Show

density
the

there is indeed one system in over all phase space. (4.3)

that

phase

space by

Note that
the

Ns
in

(4.3) is completely different from the densityNs usedin discussion of the Klimontovich equation. The density in Ch. 3 is the density of particles in six-dimensional phase space. The density N in twelve-dimensional two is the density of systems(each having (4.3) particles)
density

i^in

previous

chapter

in

the

phase space.
i =
these Finally,

1,2, ..

suppose

that
we

JV0,

associate

we have a system of a six-dimensional

N0

particles.

With

each

particle

/,

coordinate system (x;,v;).Using

axes, we construct a 6JV0-dimensional analogous phase 6Af0 coordinate space, to the twelve-dimensional phase spacein (4.2). There is one system in 6JV0-dimensional with the density of by analogy phase space; therefore the density of systems,

systems (4.3),is
\342\226\240v\302\273

iV(x1,v1,x2,v2 where

. . .

=
x^.v^.O

JJ
1=1

<5[x,

- X,(OMv,-

V,(/)]

(4.4)

n^,/y

=/,/,.../,.

EXERCISE 4.2
As

Use (4.4)to

prove

that

there

is one system

in

all

of phase

space.

LIOUVILLE EQUATION
with by
the

the

obtained

taking
time

Klimontovich the time

equation

in

Chapter
the

3, the

derivative of

appropriate

Liouville equation is In this case, we density.

of

of the density of systems (4.4).Becausethe density derivative is the derivative involves the sum its time systems (4.4) product of 6^ terms, terms. the relation 6Na Using

take

of

^- S[x: X,(0] and similar relations encountered in

(4.4)

~
the

\"
v*f<5\302\243x;

^
previous

*,-(/)]

(4-5)

chapter,

the time

derivative of

is

-jf

+ x
n0 +

v/o

\342\200\242

vXj

n*j

x;m
-

v,)

,vn V<-V\302\273,

II

\302\253(*/

Xj)8{vj

\\j) = 0

(4.6)

Liouville

Equation

47

Using aS(a the remainder

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

b)

bd(a

\342\200\224

b)

to replace

V, by

and v\342\200\236

similarly

for V, so

that

for

of

this

chapter

V,<0

-^-[
a

E\"(M) + y
\302\260

(4.7)
Bm(x,,f)]

and noting

that

the

products

are just the density

of systemsN, (4.6)becomes
=

SN \342\200\224 +

V V,,tf

+ X V,-(0-VVN

(4-8)

and the Maxwell's equations of a an exact Liouville is plasma. description equation Fora two-component with Nn/2 electrons and N0/2 ions, the expression plasma for V;(f) will depend is an electron or a proton.The whether the ith particle upon has of the Liouville all all of the disadvantages of the and advantages equation all of orbits Klimontovich contains the exact six-dimensional Because.it equation. of the individual it in a in orbit space, single system particles 6iV0-dimensional or need. Its usefulness is as a starting contains far more information than we want a reduced statistical description, which in deriving with point appropriate approximations can information. yield practical Equation (4.8) has the form of a convective time derivative in the 67V0-dimenwhich

is the

Liouville

equation. When

combined with

Lorentz force equation, the

sional

phase space,

j^
where

Af(x1(v,,x2,v2,

. . .

= , xMi,vA,\342\200\236,/)

(4.9)

D
J^-^+SW.+
Here,

^
r-I

%
t=\\

\342\226\240

V,(0 \342\200\242 V,,

(4.10)

V//)
of

system
positions

of the of the position (x,,V|,x2,v2, . . . , xN\342\200\236,vNJ is expressed in terms in 6/V0-dimensional phase space, sincethat the determines position in six-dimensional the particles space and thus the fields at all points in

Maxwell's equations. Thus, the convective space through taken along the system orbit in 6Af0-dimensional space, phase The density of systems is incompressible. The Liouville equation can also be put in the form of a continuity (4.8)
six-dimensional

time

derivative,

is zero.

equation.

Recall

the

vector

identity

\342\200\242 \342\200\224 \342\200\242

(ab)

Va

aV

\342\200\242 b. Then

v.\"

=
VXjJV

V(v,JV)

(4.11)

since v, and x, are

independent variables. Similarly,

V,-

VvAf

V(V,-JV)

<4'I2> - 0

since

VV( = V
EXERCISE

+
[-^-[E\"(x\342\200\2360

B\"(x\342\200\236/)

])

(4.13)

Prove

(4.13).

48 Then

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

II

the Liouville

equation (4.8)becomes
dN \"\302\273 ,v\"

+
-fr In

2
i-1

'
Vx,

(v,JV) the

Y,
<=i

\342\200\242 (V,JV) V\302\245;

-0

(4.14)

the

form
of we

of a

continuity

equation,

Liouville

equation

expresses the
exact

conservation As

in 6JV()-dimensional phase space. systems have introduced it, the Liouville equation
orbit

describes the

orbit

of a

single point in 6Arc-dimensional which is a projection of the

individual

phase onto

system move a continuous orbit in 6A'0-diniensionai itself moves along phase Suppose that we have an ensemble of such systems, prepared later time t > t0, we define
particles

of the

space. An example is shown in Fig. 4.1, three of the 6N0 dimensions. As the about in six-dimensional the system space, space.
at

time

t0. At

any

/m,

(\"i.'Vi,x2iv2
that

x^.v.v^Orfxjrfv^Xjrfvj
a particular

. . .

d\\NodyNo

in is at the point (x,,?!,. . . , x,v\342\200\236,v.v..) that Xj(/) liesbetweenx, and is, the probability 6Af0-dimensional phase space, that + d\\{ and X2(0 lies between X[ + dxu and V,(r) lies between v, and Vj x2 and is a over its all x2 + dx2, and etc. Since 6Na probability density, integral /jVn

to be

the probability

system

dimensions must
Each large

be
in

system
of

the

unity. ensemble

moves

along an orbit like

its

that

shown

in Fig.

4.1.

We can think point B at

time

this

orbit

as carrying

\"piece\"

for point A in Fig. 4,1 at time ta other words, we can think of the probability in the 6A?0-dimensiona1 phase space. Each element in the moving moves along an exact orbit as given by the solution of the Liouville equation (4,8). Sinceeachelement of probability fluid moves along a continuous orbit, and since is neither created nor destroyed, the probability fluid must a probability satisfy
probability
t. In

of probability a large implies

along with it. A probability for density as a fluid fluid probability

\"'1

\"<,2

A projection 4.1 Fig. phase space.

onto

three

dimensions

of a typical system

orbit

in 6

N(,-dimensionaI

BBGKY

Hierarchy

49

continuity
must

equation

in

67vydimensional

phase

space

of the form

(4.14).Thus,/V\342\200\236

satisfy

dt

^x,-(^A) +

V(V,/;0

= 0

(4.15)
the
this

where \\,{t)is, as usual,

fields
particular
We

from the Lorentz calculated Em and Bm are the exact fields appropriateto in 67V(1-dimensional phase space. point
shall

force equation (4.7)and

the

system

that

occupies
might

only
ink

be concerned
in a glass

with

smooth

functions/*-,,.
drop the

Thus,
contains

we

think

of

a drop
that

of

placed

of water.
the

The initial
may

have

a finite

probability
diffusion,

in of being represented

all those systems ensemble of systems at

time ta. Ignoring

break

drop

lengthen,
is always
hy

contract, distort,
total
unity.

squeeze,
of of the
from

into

pieces,
ink

deform,
is

etc., as time
total

progresses. However, the

The reversing

volume

ink is always

constant; the
expressed

probability

convection

probability
the

mathematically
continuity

the (4.14).

Liouville

equation

(4.8) to the

equation

steps that led (See Problem

4.1.)

Equation (4.15)becomes
3/m,

dt

v V*.

+ X Vvv/v, = 0

(4.16)

which

by

(4.10)

is

Wn.

Dt
Equation

\302\260

(417)

density

(4.16) is the Liouville of the probability ink

density fNn

for equation a is constant

the probability density/v\342\200\236. Thus, the provided that we move with the ink.

The probability
4.3
As

is incompressible.

BBGKY HIERARCHY
discussed

that represents the joint probability density between (x|,Vj) and (x| + dx[,vl + d\\{)andparticle 2 + dvj), has coordinates and etc. We may also between and (x2 + dx2,\\2 (x2,v2) consider reduced probability distributions

above,

the density/^

particle

1 has

coordinates

/fe(x,,v,,x2,vj, . . . ,Xa,v^0
which

Vk)Jdxk+ld\\k.,
1 through

. . .

rfxM,rfvM/w,-:

(4.18)

give the
to

joint probability
d\\i,\\, coordinates

of

particles
. . k

k having the

coordinates
+

(x^Vj)
irrespective

(\\i of

d\\j)

and.

and(xk,\\k) +

to (xk

dxk,\\k

d\\k),

the

of particles

the right
which/*,,

of (4.18) is a normalization is nonzero for all x,,x2, . .

will
giving

+ 2, . . . , N0. The factor Vk on volume in whereul^is the finite factor, spatial . , xA.0(Fig. At end of theoretical the our 4.2).
],k
N0 \342\200\224 V -* in such \302\260\302\260, \302\260\302\260,

development, we
N0/V

take
the

the limit
average
fNl,

a way
real

that
space.

n0

\342\200\224

is a

constant

number

of particles

per

unit

For

the present, we assume that

\342\200\224

Oasx,

\342\200\224\342\200\242\342\200\224 \342\200\224 for any \302\261\302\260\302\260 \302\261\302\273orZj \302\261\302\260\302\260ory,

50

Plasma

Kins

tic Theory

II

Fig;

4.2

Finite spatial

volum^f

in

which/V|.

is nonzero

for any

x,, / =

A',,.

/. Likewise,
or

because there
development, 1, etc.

are no particles with

/.
we

infinite

speed,

\342\200\224 fNil

0 as vXl

\342\200\224 +\302\260\302\260

vyi

\342\200\224 i\302\260\302\260 or v7. this

\342\200\224 \302\261\302\260\302\260 for any

In

particle number
completely

Thus,
with

symmetric
/Vc

(.

. .

of the N0 particles is called care which one that are we always choose probability densities fNa to the particle labels. For example, respect = 2 cm . . . z7 zn = 5 cm . . . 0

do not

= - \342\200\242 (\342\200\242 *7 /a'\342\200\236

other

5 cm

. . . z13 =

2 cm

...

(4.19)

provided all of
interchange
that

the

all of the /
we set

=
1

independent
7

variables

with

variables are the same. Here, we must This means all of the i \342\200\224 13 variables.

a the function fl(xl,\\],t) is (to within of particles per unit real space per unit velocity space. has the same meaning (to within a normalization Thus, this function/|(x,,V|,7) as the function/J(x,v,7) introduced in the previous constant) chapter in connection with the plasma kinetic equation. To keep the theory as simple as possible, we shall ignore any external electric and magnetic, fields. We shall deal with only one species of Af0 particles; it is easy when in (4.18),
normalization constant)

k =

the

numbeT

enough to generalizethe results at the end of the development.

electron

to a

For

plasma with two some purposes,

species

ofNn/2

such as calculating

particles each
electron-

as a smeared-out effects, the second speciescan be introduced ion of the total electron charge. neutralizes background density n0, which simply we adopt the Coulomb model, which the magnetic fields produced ignores Finally, the acceleration the charged by particle motion. In this model, collisional

V,(0
where

- X

a'>

(4'20)

BBGKY Hierarchy

51

is the acceleration

a particleexerts
af,

no

0. Equation

The Liouville

Coulomb electric field of particle/.Since = j, we use we use itself, (4.21) only if / \302\245^ j; if / Maxwell's the and Lorentz force law. equations (4.21) replaces

of particlei
force

due

to the

on

equation

(4.16)
N

becomes
N v, N \302\273\302\253\342\200\242 v,,/*. \342\200\242 + vXi/\342\200\2360 \302\243 X <=i y=i

-% Equations
Liouville

2
1=1

<4-22)

for the
(4.22)
for

equation

the equation

fNr]

over all xi+|,vjH1,xt+2,vM, we integrate (4.22) over <P -~

dvNa

the reduced distributions/* are obtained by integrating . . , x^v^. For example, to obtain

all x^
\302\256

and

v^,

obtaining

jdx^

d\\Na

d\\No

v, \302\243

\342\200\242 VXj fN<l

\302\251

jdxNl)dyNo

%
t=i

X V
j=\\

V\". = 0
derivative

(4-23)

Term

is \302\251

easy,

since

we can

move the

time

outside

the integral to

obtain
\302\256

IT

F'\"w\302\260

fdx\"\302\260dVNjN\"

ITf^

(424)

\342\200\224 I is also easy. In the first where the definition (4.18) has been used.Term JV0 \302\251 \342\200\242 terms in the sum, the integration variables are independent of the operator v, Vx.; and we again obtain a this operator can then be moved outsidethe integration / = N0, is in the last term with term The sum, proportional to/#\342\200\236_,.

dxN*

dvX\342\200\236 U.v.s, 3r,.. (\302\253.\302\253\302\253. <\342\200\242\302\253\342\200\236 U;.,,,

9-s-,.)/v\342\200\236

j = 0

dvN\342\200\236dyN\342\200\236dzN\342\200\236vXMf,

2 similar

terms

(4.25)
boundaries

since fNo

vanishes

at the

of the system

that

have

been

placed

at

xN\342\200\236

etc. \302\261\302\260\302\260 Thus,

\302\251

V\342\204\242*

V?./^,

(4.26)

i=i

Term

is \302\256

not

much

harder.

Splitting

the

double

sum

X
j=] we

X Sij =
;=i

X X
f=i

8ij

X
j=\\

S.\\\\i

X
r=\\

+ #A-oiVo 8lN\342\200\236

p\\

get

52

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

II

\302\251

v-n\"

i
fr\\

vv,,/vr
aM.>\" )n vv\342\200\236

%l
d\\Nvd\\Na

2,

+
where

jdxNodvm

aWo-VVj/W(,

(4.27) =
dvXN

the /
vxs

\342\200\224

N0,j

\342\200\224 term

N0

term on the
evaluation at

right

vanishes

has been discarded becauseajVllJV(l after direct integration with to respect remaining

0. The
and

second

etc. The \302\261\302\260\302\260,

terms

in

and \302\256, \302\251,

after \302\251,

multiplication

by

VN<r\\'are \302\251 \302\251 \302\251

\302\251

^.\"'

X J
for/jv^i.

^xA,\342\200\236rfv.v\342\200\236aw\342\200\236VVf/;v\342\200\236

(4.28)
onfnr\\\\

This is the desired equation

the

Notice
We

last

term within

\302\251 depends

on

fNll.

have

that made

it

does not depend only no approximations in

deriving

(4.28);

Having equation
in

the Coulomb model, it is exact. the equation succeeded in deriving for/AV), let us do this, we integrate (4.28) over all xjVirl \302\243oifNtrl. To
term
\302\251 yields

proceed to
and

derive

the

over all vNr]. As

(4.24),

V d,fNtr2.
the
in

EXERCISE

of

encountered

Use the definition (4.18)to explain here and that encountered

difference

between

the power

(4.24).

As in (4.26), term \302\251 a sum one term that vanishes upon integration, leaving yields \342\200\224 \342\200\224 2. In term\302\251, we do as in (4.27); we split the double (Af\342\200\236 l)sum fromlto-/V0 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 into a double (N0 \342\200\224 the i \342\200\224 1, 2) sum 2) sums, N0 plus two single (Nn = N0 \342\200\224 = 1 term since aKrliNirl 0. Term \302\251 becomes j vanishing

\302\251

\302\273,rVv

Idx^dYw
vanishes

X
upon

*\"\342\200\236-!,,'Vv\342\200\236-/\"-I

(4-29)

The

last term on the

right

direct

integration

with

respect

to vA(rl.

BBGKY

Hierarchy

53

For

term

we \302\251

have =
\342\200\242 dyNo

\302\251

yf/,,-1

\302\243 dxNrl J \342\200\242Fl

dyj,^

dxNo

aWo

VV/fNo

yN<rl

\302\243

</Xm,

rfv*.

\342\200\242 a,w\342\200\236

VVJ

dxNrl

dyNirlfNa

(4.30)

\342\200\224 The 1 term in the sum vanishes upon doing the d\\Nirl integration. Na on variables of and variables (xNl!,yN(!) are simply dummy integration (x^.t^i) \342\200\224 so that of (4.30). we can labels and switch the the far right 1, Therefore, N0 N0 a,^-becomes a(JVo_,. The density fNo can stay the same, however, because it has the symmetry property (4.19). Equation (4.30)becomes

where the

\302\251

VNo-'

JdxN^dyN^ai,Na-i-'VyiJdxllllldyNJNa
Vl-\302\273'f, AV!

J* J
the

dXf/\342\200\236-i dyNll_i

a,

\342\226\240 at,,-!

V^/^.,

(4.31) term dividing

in \302\251

which is identical with all of the remaining

middle
in

term on the

right

of

(4.29).

Collecting

terms

and \302\251, \302\256, \302\251,

and \302\251

by V, we

obtain

77/wrf

+ 2

Wx/,v0-2

+22
fi

a,y-Vv/; am
;=i
\342\200\242

dxNv-i

rfvA,0_,

a.-.^.i

Vv/^i

= 0

(4.32)

This equation
that

for

fNo_2

this

equation

similar in structure is quite does not involve only fN<rl, but and
have

to (4.28) for fNrl.

also

Notice again
the

involves/^.,
emerging.

in

last term

on the left.
By

comparing

(4.28)

(4.32), we see
been

pattern

Using

the same
an

manipulations that we
equation

using

similar

to (4.28)

and (4.32) for

+
Fl

(see Problem 4.2), we can generate k. This equation is arbitrary

k
k 2\302\260.>-v

d dt +
(N0

/*

2
Fl

v,fk

j=l

k)
2
Fl

d*k+

dvM

ai.iHl

'

\"\302\273,./*\342\231\246!

(4.33)

for k = 1, 2, . . . , N0 - 2. This is the BBGKYhierarchy (5ogoliubov [1]; Bom and Green [2]; ifirkwood[3,4];and 7von [5]). Each equation for/* is coupled to the next higher equation through the/ttl term.

EXERCISE
(4.33).

Verify that

that (4.28)
in

(4.22)

and for/A,\342\200\236

(4.32)

foifNa-2
with

are

in

agreement

with

Verify

iorfN{i.{
(4.33)

replaced by VKf

is in agreement [see (4.18)].

(4.33),

provided

that/Ao

is

54
As

Plaama
it stands,

Kinetic

Theory

II

the BBGKY
hard

model) and is just as

consists of N0 coupled when we take just the approximation From (4.33)

hierarchy (4.33)is still

solve

exact

(within
will

the Coulomb
(4.22). come

to

as the

original Liouville equation

equations.

It only an

integro-differential

first few equations, for A: ~ l,k = 2, etc., and then use to close the set and cut off the dependence on higher equations. is the k \342\200\224 1 equation + *i \342\200\242 3,/i(xi.Vi.O VXJ,
+
\302\260

Progress

/rfx2</v2a12-V,,/2(x,,v,,x2,v2,0
\342\200\224 2

0
proceed

(4.34)
is to
will find

This is coupledto
some

the

equation

through

f2. One
we

way

to

approximation

written evolution

entirely of/,(X|,Vj,0

for/2 in terms of/,,

point

in terms

of f,. If
will

can

do =

this, then (4.34)

be time

and we
initial

have

a complete

description of the
0).
of

given the
at

value/j(X|,V],f

This is a

good

which

to repeat

our interpretation
is

the

functions tofs

/,(x1,v1,/)and/2(x1,v1,x2,V2)^)-

We have

plasma kinetic equation; when multiplied number of particlesper unit real space in six-dimensional phase space.

said before that/|

by nn =

equivalent

in the (x^vj

M0/V,

it

is the

ensemble
the

averaged

per unit

velocity space at

point

EXERCISE Use the

none

definition
k

to show
~

of the

. . . , x^.
We itself

functions fk,

1,2,

. .

= 1 provided that ib^tjdy^f^x^y^t) . , iV0 depend upon the positions x,,x2,

that a given particle finds probability + dyy). The and (x^vj space (x, -I- dxityt similar to The the js interpretation interpretation of/2 of/i. function/2 is the unit ensembleaveraged number of particles real x{ x2 real space space per unit per unit unit We also v2 velocity per v, velocity space per space. may say that is the itself at to that finds 1 joint probability /^(xi ,v, jX2,v2,/) proportional particle
may also say that/^x^v^O^i in the region of phase
<fy

is the

between

(xj,v,)and particle 2 finds

itself
that

of the
that

same no

species,

we know

at (x2,v2). an exact

Since

in

this

expression

all particles are would include the fact for/2

discussion
same

two

\342\200\224 have the property Thus, an exact expressionfor/2 must x2, that/2 ~ 0 as xt of the values of v, and v2. In developing an approximate expression for regardless Another f2> we could of course lose this property. property that/2 should have is with the to respect symmetry particle labels:/2(x,,v,,x2,v2,0 = /2(x2,v2,xl,v1,r). the original/^ has suchsymmetry, This occurs because symmetry by assumption. relation It turns out that/2 has an intimate which can be seen by an to/,, elementary example from probability theory. Supposewe have two loaded dice, each of which rolls a five. Then the probability distribution for the value of always the of either die is throws

particles

(electrons, for

example)can occupy the

spatial

location.

P,{x)
The second

- S(x first

5)

(4.35)

joint probability die will be y is

that

the

value

of the

die

will -

be x

and the value of

the

P2(x,y)

= 8(x

5)8{y

5)

(4.36)

BBGKY

Hierarchy

55

But by (4.35)

this

is just

P*(x,y)

= P,{x)P>(y)
two quantities does not depend
considering

(4.37)
are statistically independent; on the value of the
probability
quantities other

This separationalways
that

occurs

when

is,

quantity.

the value of one quantity Thus, it is always useful

in

joint
two

distributions
were

to

factor out the_pjiece that would Thus, for the dice we have
Pi(x,y)
where

be there

if the

uncorrelated.

= PMPdy)

+ dP(x,y)
define

(4.38)
the

dP(x,y)

by (4.37). For a plasma, we

correlation

function

g(x,,vux2,vj:0by

/2(xi,Vi,x2,Vj,0 = /^i.VnO/^j.^r)

^(xlVlXi.Vj.O

(4.39)

This

is the

first

step

in the

Mayer [6] cluster expansion.

oifNls

EXERCISE From the

same

definitions

and/t,

convince yourself
the equation

that/2 has the

which

units

asfif,.
to

We are
becomes

ready

insert

the\342\200\236form, (4^39)

into

(4.34) for /,,

3,/i(Xi.v..O +
\302\253oJ

\342\200\242 \342\226\274\342\226\240 VX|/(

dx2

dv2 aI2 +

\342\200\242 r/i(x,,v,,0/i(x2,v2,0 V\302\245[

g(x\342\200\236Vi,x2,\302\2452lr)] \342\200\224

0 we are

(4.40)

where
systems

we

have

replaced
that

(N0
the

\\)/V

by

n0 because

interested

only

in

Suppose
that

the

with N0 \302\273 1. one assumes in the particles

correlation of
the

function
they

plasma behave as if
velocities

were

vanishes. That is, weassume completely independent of

the particular
would

positionsand
valid if we

the

other particles.

This assumption
discussed in

be exactly

performed

pulverization

procedure

\342\200\224 \342\200\224\342\200\242 = constant, e \342\200\224 the previous chapter, in which n0 \342\200\224\342\226\240 \302\253>\342\226\240, 0, me 0, A \302\260\302\260, n0e = = = = constant. Then each and constant, constant, constant, ve to, e/mc kt its affect would and would other have zero not particle charge, presence any and could of course still happen, as these involve only/i particle. Collective effects not g. When we set g equal becomes to zero, (4.40)

3, A
+

v.-V,,/, =

[n0fdx2
in

dv2

\342\200\242 \342\226\240,i/,(x\342\200\236v\342\200\236/)] VTl/,(x\342\200\236v,,0

(4.41)
1

But the
particle

quantity

brackets

2, integrated

is the ensemble

by averaged acceleration experienced

is just the acceleration aI2 produced on particle over the probability distribution/1(x2,v2,0 of particle
particle 1 due

by

2. This

to all other

particles,

a(x,,0 s Convince yourself

\342\200\2360J

d\\2

d\\2 a12/,(x2,v2,0

(4.42)

EXERCISE

that

a is

normalized

correctly.

56

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

il

Then (4.41)

becomes
B, /,+*\302\273\342\200\242 VXi

/,

\342\200\242

Vy,

= 0

(4.43)

as our old friend the Vlasov equation. is probably the most useful equation in plasma physics, and a large portion of this book is devoted to its study. For our present purposes, it is not enough. It does not the collisionat effects that are include however, like to have at represented by the two-particle correlation function g. We would least an approximate that does include collisional effects and that, equation We must therefore the temporal evolution of/[ due to collisions. therefore, predicts some return to the exact k = 1 equation (4.40) method to evaluate g. find and \342\200\224 Since is defined through (4.39) as g \342\200\224 we must go back to the /( /(, f2 k = 2 equation in the BBGKY in order to obtain an equation hierarchy for/2
which

we

recognize

The

Vlasov

equation

and,

hence, for

g. Setting k = 2 in
\302\251

(4.33)

and

using

(A^

\342\200\224

2)/V

\302\273

n0,

one

has

\302\251

\302\251 \342\200\242

3,/i

(v,

\342\200\242

V,,

v2

VXj)/2

\342\200\242 + a21 \342\200\242 (\342\226\240\342\200\236 Vv, Vv,)/2

\302\256

n0j

\342\200\242 + rfx,rfv,(\302\253\342\200\236 V\302\245[

a23

\342\200\242

VYj)/3

(4.44)

\342\200\224 + seen that it is useful to factor out the part/i/j We have ftf} g, which of/2 it useful factor exists when the particles are uncorrelated. to is Likewise, from/3 the part that would exist when the particles are uncorrelated, those plus parts that result from tWo-particle correlations.This to the next step in the Mayer leads

cluster

expansion,

which

is

/,(I23)

= /,(I)/i(2)/,(3)
+

+ /10M23)
+

+
(3)

/,(2)\302\243(13)

/,(3)\302\243(12)

ft(123)

(4.45)

where we have introduceda simplified notation: = (x3,v,)- Equation (4.45) will be explored Our is to insert (4.45) into (4.44) and neglecth{123). This means that procedure we neglect three-particle correlations, or three-body collisions. It turns out that these correlations are of higher order in the plasma A; therefore their parameter is well for many purposes. The resulting set of equations neglect quite justified constitute two equations in two unknowns/! and g. Thus, we have truncated the BBGKY hierarchy while the effects of collisions to a good retaining
(1) = (xl,v1),(2) further in Problems

= (x2,v2),and 4.4 and 4.5.

approximation.

Inserting

(4.44),

we

find

(4.45) for

and f7 for/, the numbered

=/

terms:

/, + g

into

the

= 2

BBGKY equation

\302\251 \302\256 =/i(0/.(2)

\302\251

+/,{2)/,(I)

+\302\243(12)

\302\251

Ti

\302\251 \342\200\242

Vx,/1(l)/,(2)

v,

\342\200\242 Vx.\302\243(12)

{1

- 2}

BBGKY

Hierarchy

57

\302\251

\302\253i2VV[/1(1)/1(2)

'

a,2

\342\200\242

VV[^(12)

{I

- 2}

\302\251 \302\251

n0J
+

dl

\342\200\242 a\342\200\236 VV| [/,(l)/,(2)/,(3)

+ /,(l)g(23)

\302\251

/,(2k(13) {1 **

+/,(3)*(I2)]

+ (1

- 2}

(4.46)

where

d3

d\\}

d\\} with

and the

side are

repeated

symbols

by the symmetry of /2. Many k = 1 BBGKY equation (4.40).For example,

+ \302\251

2} means that all of the preceding terms on the right = 1 and 2 interchanged. Recall that #(21) #(12) of the terms in (4,46) can be eliminated the using
=

+ \302\251

+ \302\251

\302\251

{/,(!)

+ v,

\342\200\242

Vx,/,(1)

n0jd3

a,3
[left

\342\200\242

Vf, side

[/,(!)/,

(3) +

*<13)]}/,(2)
= 0
2)

=
Term

of (4.40)]/,(2)

(4.47)
to vanish,

likewise \302\251

combines

with three
(v,
VX]

of the {I *+
v2

terms

leaving

\302\243(12) +

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

VSi)g(l2)

= +
\302\243(12)]

+ (a,2 \342\200\242 VV]

a2,

\342\200\242

VV!)r_/,(l)/,(2)

{n0jd3
Together

+ /,(3)*(12)] a13 \342\200\242 VV[ [/,(1)\302\243(23)

+ {1 -

2}}

(4.48)

with

(4.40)

which

in

the

condensed

notation

reads

(4.49) we have two equations in the two unknowns/, and g. We have truncated the BBGKY hierarchy by ignoring correlations. three-particle to solve, either analytically In practice, (4.48) and (4.49) are impossibly difficult or numerically. They are two coupled nonlinear integro-differential equations in a of plasma twelve-dimensional kinetic theory phase space. The present thrust to #(12) that are then inserted in (4.49). consists in finding certain approximations a in (4.42), we rewrite (4.49) as Using the definition of the acceleration
+ /\342\226\240(I)

v,

\342\200\242

VX|/

s>:vVv/,

n0fd2 a,2

Vv.

*(I2)

(4.50)

which is in exactly the same form as the plasma kinetic equation (3.26). Most of the discussion in this chapter has been exact, in particular, the the Liouville derivationof the equation and the BBGKY hierarchy. Even that approximations lead to (4.48) and (4.49)are extremely ones, for example, 1 \302\253 iV0 good and the neglect of three-particle collisions. the approximations needed contrast, By to convert (4.48) and (4.49)into manageable form are sometimes quite drastic and

58
less

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory
be

II

justifiable,
and

as

will

Liouville
Montgomery

equation Tidman

and the [7],

in the next chapter. Further discussion of the seen in the books BBGKY hierarchy can be found of Clemmowand Krall [9], Dougherty Montgomery [8],
Klimontovich

and Trivelpiece

[10], and

[11].

REFERENCES

[1]

N. N.

[2]

State Technical Press,Moscow, A M. Born and H. S. Green,

University

Bogoliubov, Problemsof a Dynamical

1946. Genera/

Theory

in Statistical

Physics,

Kinetic

Theory

of Liquids,

Cambridge

Press, wood,

Cambridge, /.

England,

1949.

[3] J.
[4]

G. Kirk
G.

Chem.

Phys., 14,

180 (1946).
(1947).

J.

Kirkwood,

Chem. Phys., 15, 72

[5]

J. Yvon,

La TheoriedesFluides
and

et /'Equation

d'Etal,

Hermann

et Cie,
New

Paris,
York,

1935. [6] J. E. Mayer

1940.
M.

G. Mayer,
and

Statistical Mechanics, Wiley, Plasma Kinetic Theory,

[7]

D. C.
Hill,

Montgomery

D.

A. Tidman, the

McGraw-

New York,
Montgomery,

1964.
Theory

[8] D. C.
[9]

of

Unmagnetized
Electrodynamics

Plasma, Gordon and

of Particles

Breach,New
P. C.
Plasmas,

York,

1971.

Clemmowand J. P.Dougherty,
Addison-Wesley, and

and

Reading, A. W.

Mass.,

1969.

[10] N. A. Krall
Hill,

Trivelpiece,
The

New

York, M.I.T.

1973.
Statistical

[11] Yu. L. Klimontovich,

a Plasma,

McGrawPrinciples of Plasma Physics, % Theory of Non-equilibrium Processes

in

Press, Cambridge,

Mass., 1967.

PROBLEMS

4.1
Liouville

Continuity

vs.

Convective derivative (4.15).

Demonstrate
equation

the equivalence between the convective and the continuity (4.16) equation

form

of

the

4.2

BBGKY Hierarchy
=

Integrate (4.32)over all xNr2 and v^,^ to obtain the k BBGKY hierarchy, and compare your result to (4.33).
4.3

N0

\342\200\224

3 equation

of the

Normalization
in

Explain

detail

the

normalization

of (4.42).

Problems

59

4.4

Three-Point

Correlations

(Coins)

we define a three-point joint probability function /3 in terms of the the two-point correlation function g, and the three-point probability/,, function h. Suppose we apply this kind of thinking to the case of three correlation What is the meaning of/, each of which can come up heads(+) ortails coins, (\342\200\224). case? Write out/3 in the form (4.45), and evaluate/),/,, in this g, and h in each of the following cases. (a) All three coins are \"honest,\" that is, each coin is equally likely to come up heads or tails, and each coin is unaffected coin. by any other coins in the are all locked together, one throw (b) Because any mysteriously from three are heads or tails, the result changing throw to throw. randomly come All three coins always (c) up tails. is honest. Note The first two coins always come up heads, while the third (d) for the are not so here functions that that, probability symmetric, example, /(I) is not the same function as/(3).
In (4.45)
one-point

4.5

Three-Point

Correlations

(Dice)

define a three-point joint probability function / in terms of the the two-point correlation function g, and the three-point functicfF/i. correlation Suppose we apply this kind of thinking to the case of three one through six. What is the from each of which can take on integer values dice, meaning off% in this case? Write out/3in the form (4.45),and evaluate/},/, #, and h in each of the following cases. (a) All three dice are \"honest,\" that is, the value of each die is equally likely six and is independent of the value of any other die. one through (b) Becausethe dice are mysteriously locked together, in one throw all three to always show the same value, the value changing randomly from throw with all six values equally likely. throw (c) All of the dice always come up \"five.\" The first two dice always come up \"two\"; other one is \"honest.\" the (d)
In (4.45) we
one-point

probability/,

4.6
In

BBGKYHierarchy
chapter,

the Liouville from equation. This the Klimontovich different with starting completely way [10], for how words and illustration, only Explain, by using equation. writing equations the k = 1 and k 2 equations of the BBGKY hierarchy can be obtained from this

we derive the
a

BBGKYhierarchy

can be done in

the

Klimontovich

equation.

CHAPTER

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

III:

Lenard-Balescu

Equation

5.1

BOGOLIUBOVS

HYPOTHESIS

is truncated by neglecting threepreceding chapter, the BBGKY hierarchy correlations (three-body collisions).For a good plasma, this is probably a no rigorous proof exists.The spirit of the very approximation, good although is the same as that of Section 1.6, where the collision frequency is approximation is interacting calculated as a series of two-body collisions,even the particle though of particle A with particle B is with A particles Since the collision simultaneously. a small A is small, thus usually angle collision, its effect on the orbit of particle a negligible effect on the simultaneous collision of particle A with making particle
particle

In the

C.

The result
equations

of our
and

truncation

of

the
two

BBGKY
unknowns

hierarchy
/](X[,V|,0

is the set

of coupled
of

(4.48)

(4.50)
quite

in the
intractable

and g(\\^,\\i,xltyltt).

These equations are

simplifying

in

general.

However,
very

there is one set

and

assumptions

that

/i(X|,V!,0 = /i(v,,/) and

averaged function
assumptions, between those

exact (almost) solution of ensemble Consider a spatially homogeneous of one spatial variable must be function
a(x,,r)

is both physically and (4.50). (4.48)

of

important

allows

the
any

plasmas. and

independent
by

This means that of that variable; (4.42).

so

a(/)

= 0

(4.21)

Any ensemble
the difference With

variables can only be a function of of two spatial \342\200\224 we write variables; therefore g = g(x, x2,v,,v2,f). and becomes (4.50) simplifiesconsiderably al2
\342\200\242 #(x, V\302\273_

these

d,/,(vi,r) = ~

w0

J dx2d\\2

x2,v,,v2,r)

(5.1)

Bogoliubov's

Hypothesis

61

Equation

4.48 simplifies
[\302\253o/rf3

since two
a13/,(3)]

terms

are

of the = a

form
Vy,

\342\200\242

VT| g(\\2)

\342\200\242

*(I2)

(5.2)

leaving

3,g(x.

xz,v\342\200\236v2,r)

v,
+

\342\200\242

VX|g(12)
\342\200\242

v2

\342\200\242

VXj g(12)

+ (a12
+

\342\200\242

VV|

a2( +

V,,)g(12)

n0jdl

aI3
=

\342\200\242

V,i/'i(0*(23)

h0J*</3
\342\200\242

a23

V\302\245;/,(2)g(13)

(an'VV|

+
the

a2l

VY2)/,(l)/,(2)

(5.3)

We now wish to argue that the fourth terms and can be discarded. Recall

term

on the left

is smaller
procedure

than

all

the

other
1.6, we

pulverization

chapter. By that
argue
e/me
that

argument,

the

two-point

A than /,; thus parameter is constant and e ~ electrons. Thus, all terms is ~ A'2. We discard which

as well as the discussion of collisions in Section correlation function g is higher order in the ~ A\"1. The acceleration ~~ ~ g/f, e2/me aJ2
\302\253\342\200\236\"' in

of the previous
plasma
A\"1

since

(5.3)

A\"1; here, we are ~ A\"1

phrase our
for

in discussion

terms

of
left,

except

the fourth

term on the

this

term,

leaving

*&
where

+ v* + v*-s
defined by

(5.4)

V, and

V2

are

operators

V,g(l2)

\\rVXig(\\2)
(5.6)

1) tf(23)] \342\200\242?,,/,( [\302\2730Jrf3\342\226\240\342\200\236

V2g(U)
+

= v,

12) \342\200\242?\342\200\236,*(

[ito/rf3*Mtf(13)]-VVj/,(2)

(5.7)

and the source function

S is
-

S(x, In this
convenience.

x2>Vl>v2)

(a12

\342\200\242 + V\302\245)

a21

\342\200\242

VT2)/,(l)/,(2)

(5.8)

the chapter we alternate between we suppose For simplicity, neutralizing

notations
that

we
thought

are

plasma. A
considered to 2Ljj,

ton

background
it does

can be

(1) and (x,,v,) depending on dealing with an electron it is to be present;

be smoothed by

which

out so that is (4.21) a/, ,J

not contribute

explicitly to the acceleration

\342\200\224 \342\200\224:

me\\Xi

x,|3

rr

(x,
this

\342\200\224

x.)

''

(5.9) applies
electron

The important Imagine a beam

physical

situation

to which

discussion

is as
plasma

follows.
in the

of electrons

incident

on a

Maxwellian

62
jt-direction.

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

III

Then

the function

F(vx)^jdvydvJ,(y)

(5.10)

of stability in Fig. 5.1. Ignoring questions 6), we (see Chapter of electrons represented by the bump at large positive vx \342\200\224 will experience a new Maxwellian collisions that wilt eventually \302\260o) (/ produce of Section 1.6 we can predictthe time at a higher temperature.By the discussion scale for this process to be \342\200\224 we a>e/A. The solution of (5.1) and (5.4)which vee~ are about a very to obtain should yield description for this good theoretical as electron This evolution is encountered in such applications important process.

has the

form

shown
the

recognize

that

beam

to ions) ohmic heating of tokamaks. us to solve the (still very complicated) set of The assumption is that the equations (5.1) and (5.4) is Bogoliubov's hypothesis. correlation function g relaxes on a time scale very short compared to the two-point time scale on which a test electron into a fx relaxes [1], Imagine introducing The other electrons will to the presence of the test electron in plasma. adjust a typical speed a collision with the time it takes for them it. With to have roughly ~ w~l. a typical length \\e, the time for a collision is ~ \\e/ve By contrast, the ve and it is indeed time for /, to change of collisions is ~ Aoj/1; thus because quite reasonable to assume that g relaxes quickly compared to f{. Mathematically,we this and incorporate assumption by ignoring the time dependence of f\\(\\\\,t) a linear in the source function S on the right of (5.4). Equation (5.4) is then /,(v2,/) We for g with a known, on the right. constant (in time) source function equation \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260 is where can solve such a linear for g(x] / x2,v,,v2,/ \302\260\302\260) equation solution understood to refer to the short time scale on which The g relaxes. fovg will then in the source function (5.8). on the factors f\\(vt,t) depend and/^Vj,/) When this of (5.1), there results a for g is substituted into the right side solution one unknown We in the single nonlinear integro-differential equation function/,.
(when

beam-pellet fusion and

generalized

The further

assumption

that

allows

Fig. 5.1

Distribution

F(vx)

defined

in (5.10) for

an

electron

beam

incident on a

plasma.

Lenard-Batoscu Equation
have

63

finally

achieved
entire

our goal of
plasma

truncating

the

BBGKY
in

hierarchy
of the

and have
unknown

expressed the
f unction/,(v1;/).

kinetic
this

equation

(5.1)

terms

one

The
the

implementation

of
it is

procedure

order to understand it,

useful to

have first

is straightforward but the material studied

Vlasov the equation. Thus, we will not perform in Appendix A. The readerwho is studying plasma wish to accept the results as given and proceed here,

thorough
The

study of

Chapter 6.

complicated. In in Chapter 6 on derivation here; it is included physics for the first time may to read Appendix A after a
of Fourier

solution

of (5.1)

and (5.4)

uses the

techniques

transformation
used

in

space,

Laplace

transformation

in time,

and their inverses.The conventions

\302\253\"'VV(x)

in

this book

are as follows:

/dxTO\"
f(x)

(5.11)

fdke**f(k)

(5.12)

f(<o) =
fit) where the integrals
over
in <d

r
C

dt

e\"\"'f(l)

(5-13)

dm
e-'\302\273'f(<o)

J ,2~

(5.14)

over x,k, and

t are

usually

along the real

axes while
later.

the

integral

is along

the Laplace

inversion contour to
x

be discussed
x1

Expressed is (5.9)

in terms

of the differencevariable
M*)

\342\200\224

x2,

the

acceleration

a,2

=
me\\x\\

(5.15)
\342\200\224/k \342\200\224\342\200\224

with

Fourier

transform
a,2(k)

ip(k)

(5.16)

where
9{k)

InW potential

(5-17)

is the Fourier

transform

of

the

Coulomb

e2
(See under

(5.18)
A, the

Problem the

5.1.) Bogoliubov

Then,

as shown

in

Appendix

solution of

(5.1) and (5.4),

hypothesis,

is
<P2(k)

a/(T,/) dt
X
\302\253tk-(y

Vv
m?

Jakay

|\342\202\254(k,kv)|2

v')][/(v)VT./(v')

-/(V)V\302\245/(v)]

(5-19)

64

Plasma Kinetic Theory

is the
the

III

which

Lenard-Balescu
subscript 1 from

dropped
dielectric

equation (Refs. [2] to [6]). In this equation, v1( and the subscript 1 from/,, and have
\342\200\224 1 +

we have
used

the

function e(k,ftj) '

-rr

k~ J

d\\ W

\\ \342\200\242 \342\200\224

-~

(5.20)

performed

must studied in detail in the next chapter. The velocity integral in the next chapter. The along the Landau contour, as discussed of the Lenard-Balescu alternate forms, interpretation equation (5.19), and several in be discussed the next section. which

will be

be will

5.2

LENARD-BALESCU

EQUATION
(5.19)

The Lenard-Balescu equation

several

is obtained

from the BBGKY

hierarchy after
ensemble

assumptions:

three-particle
than

correlations
the

are negligible, the

correlation

of

plasmas

is spatially
much

homogeneous, and

two-particle

function

relaxes
Lenard-Balescu

faster equation
in

of a

beam

a plasma, inhomogeneous
me.

of

spatially

the one-particle distribution function/!. Thus, the is applicable relaxation to situations such as the collisional to the collisional damping but is not applicable in general involve high wave motion or any phenomena that
physics two-particle

frequencies like
The
right

right side side of (5.1)

of (5.19) represents the is proportional to the

factor
that

of two-particle correlation

collisions, since the function g. This is

I,t

indicated by the
the next chapter

<p(k)/t(k,k the dielectric

\342\226\240

v),

which

appears

squared,

will

be shown

in

function

represents \342\202\254(k,<w)

the plasma

shielding

of the field of a test charge.Thus, this term in (5.19) represents the interaction of one particle(togetherwith its shielding cloud) with the potential field of another of two shielded with its shielding cloud); that is, the collision (together particle
particles.

There is a problem with the Lenard-Balescu If one (5.19) as it stands. equation converts the k integration into spherical coordinates, and takes into account the at large A: the forms (5.17) of <p{k) and (5.20) of e(k,cu), one finds that integral ~ In k. Thus, of the collision diverges [iktjdk/k just as in the derivation in at large k, or small In distances. frequency Section 1.6, we find a logarithmic divergence Section 1.6 we cut off the spatial integral at the lower limit p0, where p0 is the for large angle collisions.It is argued in Section 1.6 that the impact parameter formulation an is not valid for large angle thus producing collisions, physical is on here. The same thing The unphysical divergence at short distances. going is based on the assumption derivation of the Lenard-Balescu that in the equation

expression
we

have

\\g\\

\302\253

1^/,

|.

/2(12) =Ml)M2) + g(l2) This assumption led us to discarda term

is not

(5.21)
in (5.3)

to obtain
two

(5.4). However, this

electrons

assumption

always valid. It is not

therefore,

possible for
have
x2|

to get very

\342\200\224 = x, x2, which implies^ it is not correct to assume

close to each other;

\342\200\224/j/,. \\g\\

we

must

f2

\342\200\224 0 as

Thus, /(

for small /J.

values of

\302\253 |

In practice,

since the divergence is

|x,

\342\200\224

(large

k),

Bogollubov's

Hypothesis

65

we can logarithmic, number corresponding

would

simply

cut

off the

integral
for

in

(5.19)

at some

to some
length)

lower limit
pa

spatial

scale.

For

upper limit wave this purpose, the

impact parameter (Landau

be

large

angle collisions

(see Section1.6) [4-5]. These

a reasonable

choice.
(5.19)

The Lenard-Balescu equation

has

several

desirable features

are:

(a) If/ > 0

(b)
(c) (d) (e)

at

0,

\342\200\224 0. conserved: d/dt / d\\ f(\\j) \342\200\224 0. is conserved: d/dt J dvv f(\\,t) Momentum \342\200\224 0. Kinetic energy is conserved: d/dt f dy v2 f(\\,t) Any Maxwellian is a lime-independent solution.

/ > 0 at

all

t.

Particles are

(f)
A

As

\342\200\224 <\302\273, any/satisfying

(a)

approaches

a Maxwellian.
equation

simplified

but

fairly

accurate form
We

of the
(v,v')

Lenard-Balescu

(5.19) can

be obtained as follows.

rewrite

(5.19)
Q

in the

form
-

a/(v,r) 3t =~V>
with

\342\200\242

\342\226\240jdV

(Vv

Vv,)/(v)/(v')

(5.22)

the

tensor

Q (V'V)

= \"

~n^i
2naeA 2\302\253ne4

dk

l^k.k-v^ |e(k,k-v)|
C f, kk \342\200\236

6[k'(v
\342\200\242

\"

V)]

kk

6[k
i

(v

v')]

(5.23)
function

k2K
the

where the
is found

definition

(5.17)

has been

used, and where

dimensionless

i/j

from

(5.20) to be

*k,k.T) =
Again,

\302\273.'/rff

J^^
the

(5.24)
Landau

the

discussed

velocity integral in the next chapter.

we

must be

performed along
number the

contour,

as-

The wave
axis
in

follows. When the tensor Q is

Gy(v,y)

orient

the k]

in (5.23) is performed integral v' direction, the Q{j component v \342\200\224

as
of

-1^-)dk,dk2dk,
0 if 8(kt) implies Q,j \342\200\224
this

-^ -|7-7|either /
\342\200\224 1 orj

{l

{lj//kW)l2
integration k2

(5-25)
is

The factor

trivially performed using k-i = k sin 8, and cutting we find, using Q33 as an
g\302\273fr\")

factor.

In cylindrical

1. The kx coordinates with

\342\200\224 k cos k0

0,

off

the

integration

at an upper wave number

p0~\\

example,

<|v\302\260_v>|

J
not

*\302\273n'\302\253/fl

XJTToaTFV)?

(5'26)

Since 0 is a function

of 0 but
5.3).

of

A:

[see

(5.24)],

the wave

number integration can

be performed

(Problem

The result is

66

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

III

fi\302\253(M)-~

'\302\273

-Sm\"0
1^) a study

W;|v-V'|

Jo
after
</r

(\"7)

It
the

turns

out

(as can

be seen

dimensionless
\342\200\224

k0ke

ke/p0

function from Section

Thus,
<=*

parameter

A.

we (A2)

to In (k02Ke2)

In

of the following chapter) that In we recognizethe factor addition, unity. of order unity) the plasma 1.6 to be (within factors neglect unity compared to k^k^/^t, and In (tfi) compared = 2 In A, to obtain
is of

more clearly

order

C\302\273(v,V)

gM(v,v')

Jn\302\2606 \342\200\224 v | me2\\\\

In

(5.28)
g33

Similar
components

arguments
kjk-i

ktk, +

\342\200\224 with only the Q2i and 0. A tensor yield Q2i \342\200\224 Qn nonzero of the unit tensor can be conveniently expressedin terms + k^k^, with g = v \342\200\224 v' and recalling that Ac( = g, we have

I=

^ Q(v,v') =
Fw

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

27rw0e4In
j

g2

T5

gg
(5.29)

form for Q. to put the Lenard-Balescu equation (5.29), in form the oSz.Fokker-Plan.ck (5.22) equation. The general Fokker-Planck equation is a very important in all of statistical physics, and is derived equation aspects from first in B. and Tidman principles Appendix Following Montgomery [5], we
as

This expression is known With Q in the form

the

Landau

it

is possible

notice

that

Vv

V?*

= *

g3

(5-30)

so that

with\"

an integration

by parts
27r*\302\260'VnA

(5.22) becomes
vv
\342\200\242 \342\200\242 v,vA*fgf(V) [(V\302\245/)

a,/(v,0 =

-/(v)|dv'V\302\245(Vv.

Vv)g/(v')]

-V\"^2n - 2 Vv

(V,VV;

[fWWJMgfmi
VV(VT
\342\200\242

\342\200\242

[/(v)/</v'

VT)*/(v')]}

+
in the
(VY

VVVT: t/(v)VTVT

j*^v' g/(v')]}
and
of

(5.31)
third

where

first step
2/g.

used

\342\200\242 \342\200\224

Vv)g

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 we have used V\302\245g Vf#, This is in the standard form

in the

step

we have

a Fokker-Planck

equation

(see Appendix B),

^^

=-

V,.[A/(v)]

VVVV:

[B/(v)]

(5.32)

Lenard-Bale\302\273cu

Equation

67

where

the coefficient

of dynamic

friction

_ A(v>0 =

8;rn0e4
m,
Z~i

In

f
vv/</v J

f{V,t)

|v

\342\200\224

v |

(5.33)

and the

diffusion

coefficient

B(v,/) With
the

A
4\342\204\2420*4!U me

VyvJdy'
j

|v

- v'|/(v',0
known

(5.34)
Landau form

the coefficients
Fokker-Planck

is (5.33) and (5.34),Eq. (5.32)

as the

of

equation.

is discussed in of the terms in the Fokker-Planck equation B. coefficient A the The of friction Appendix dynamic slowing down of a represents T he coefficient small collisions. diffusion because of particle typical many angle the direction increase a the of represents velocity typical (in particle's perpendicular to its instantaneous small Thus, the angle collisions. velocity) because of many two terms on the right of the Fokker-Planck tend to balance side equation (5.32) in each other. They are in perfect balance when / is a Maxwelliah, as shown Problem 5.5. The Landau form of the Fokker-Planck equation (5.32) has been solved distribution function et al. [7] (Fig. 5.2). The initial by MacDonald numerically
The meaning

f(v,t

\342\200\224=^

0)

/(M,/ times,

\342\200\224 is

0)

spherically

shows the steady progression of the

symmetric

in

velocity

space.
indicates

Figure
that

5.2
it

distribution,

as time

increases, toward

a Max-

wellian. At

late

there

is an overshoot at low

speeds, which

Dimensionless

velocity

Fig.
obtained

5.2
from

Time

evolution

of a

spherically

symmetric
form

\"electron

distribution

function

as
(5.32)

a numerical

solution of the

Landau

of the

Fokker-Planck equation

by MacDonald

et al.

[7].

68
takes
that

Plasma

Kinetic

Theory

III

a long
Coulomb

time to

populate the
become

high

speed

tail of the
fast

collisions

quite weak for

Fokker-Planck a rough

Maxwellian. (Remember
equation

particles.)

There
not

exist even
accurate

too

simpler forms of the and are used only to get

=
\342\226\240|f

idea of

[4] but these are collisional effects.Oneis

* VT

\342\200\242

[(v

v0)/ + vc2Vv/]
is

(5.35)

where

v is

a collision

frequency, and

vC)

a constant of the

model,
model,

which is not related

to the

development

velocity. An even cruder present chapter, is the Krook

=
if

-\"<\342\226\240/\342\200\242

/o)

<5-36) (5.36) is also called

theory including
appreciated A itself

where/0 is the
the

appropriate

Maxwellian

distribution.
of

Equation

BGK
This

brings

equation, us to

after Shatnagar,

Gross, and Arook

study

the end

of our

[8],
the
can to

plasma

kinetic

effects of two-body collisions. The material of a after careful only study Appendices best be understood after one has mastered
which we
turn

in this

chapter can be truly

our

attention

in

B. However, Appendix the treatment of the Vlasov the next chapter.

A and

equation,

REFERENCES

[1] N. N. Bogoliubov,
State

Problems

of a

Dynamical

Theory

in

Statistical

Physics,

Technical

Press, Moscow, J946.

Phys.
Fluids, and

[2] A. Lenard, Ann. [3] R. Balescu, Phys. [4] P. C. Clemmow

Plasmas,

(New York),
3, 52

10, 390 (1960).

Electrodynamics of Particles and
1969.

(1960).
Mass.,

J. P.

Dougherty,

Addison-Wesley, and

Reading, D. A.

[5] D. C. Montgomery
New

Tidman, Plasma

Kinetic Theory,

McGraw-Hill,

York,

1964.
Theory

[6] D. C. Montgomery,
New

of the

Unmagnetized Plasma,
and

Gordon and Breach,

Phys. Rev.,

York,

1971. W.

[7]

W. M.

MacDonald, M. N. Rosenbluth,
E.
W.

Chuck,

107, 350

(1957). [8] P. L. Bhatnagar,

[9]

P. Gross,
M.

and M.

M. Rosenbluth,
(1957).

MacDonald,

Krook, Phys. Rev., 94,511 (1954). and D. L. Judd, Phys. Rev., 107,

PROBLEMS

5.1

J Fourier
with

Transforms
transforms
x

Find the
coordinates

Fourier

(5.16)

and (5.17).

{Hint: Usespherical

polar

\342\200\242 =

kr cos

6.)

Problems

69

.'5.2
After

J Lenard-Balescu

Equation

to Clemmow and referring [5], sketch the proofs of properties below (5.21). listed

Dougherty [4], and

(a)

Montgomery

and

Tidman
as

to (f)

of the Lenard-Balescu equation

5.3
With 5.4
The

An

Integral

the help Simpler

development

of a table of

integrals,

perform

the integration

in

(5.26).

Derivation of the
of the

Landau Form
from

one. However, a simpleroneexists.In (5.23), e by replace wave number integration at a lower wave number A/1 as well numberp0~'. Showthat (5.28) results. The replacement of t to ignoring the shielding, as can be seen in (5.20).
. \"A
i

Landau form forQ,

(5.23)

to (5.28), unity,
as
by

is the standard
and cut off the

at the
unity

upper wave
is equivalent

5.5

'Maxwellian

Show

that a

Maxwellianis an
equation

exact

time-independent

Lenard-Balescu

(5.19)

and the

Landau

form

of

the

of both the solution Fokker-Planck equation

(5.32).

5.6

Two-Point

Correlation

Function

the meaning of/2 = /,/, how would g change as we turn

Discuss
5.7

+ g.

Why

should

g depend

on/,?

up the temperature

of a

In particular,

Maxwellian?

Plasmas

and Brownian
analogy

Motion
collisional
the

Discuss the
Brownian
Fokker-Planck

between

motion. Explain why

equation.

collisional

Thus,
collisions

results of Section1.6 on
without

using
to

a particle in a plasma and can be described by a we could use the only words, explain how obtain the Fokker-Planck equation directly,
effects on
effects
\342\200\224

starting

from

Liouville

\342\200\224 BBGKY

Lenard-Balescu

\342\200\224

Fokker-Planck.

This

is actually

the technique

used by

Rosenbluth

et al.

[9].

5.8
derive

Units
of

Check all
the
(5.33)
coefficients

the and

model

(5.36). Using crude dimensional arguments, and the from the Fokker-Planck (5.35) equation (5.32)
units in (5.19) to (5.34).

CHAPTER

Vlasov

Equation

6.1
Possibly
equation.

INTRODUCTION

most important equation in plasma is the Vlasov physics describes the evolution of the distribution in function fs(x,v,t) six-dimensional function 3, the distribution phase space. As discussed in Chapter can be thought of as the ensemble number of point particles per fj(x,v,/) averaged unit six-dimensional of as the number of phase space. It can also be thought particles at any given time t, in a small region of the six-dimensional phase space of a single plasma, divided of six-dimensional by the volume of the small region in Chapter 3, the Vlasov equation becomesexact in the phase space. As discussed limit that the number of particlesA in a Debye cube becomes infinite. The Vlasov arises naturally from the Klimontovich equation equation (Chapter 3) or from the BBGKY hierarchy (Chapter 4) when the effects of collisions are Bollzignored. For this reason, the Vlasov equation is also called the collisionless from we can derive the start, mann equation. By ignoring the effectsof collisions
the

single

This

equation

the Vlasov equation as follows.

Considerfs{x,\\,t)
This

as

a probability

systems.

probability

density

density associated with an of as a fluid in can be thought

neither

ensemble
six-dimensional

of
must

phase satisfy

space. Since a continuity

particles are equation with

created

nor

destroyed,

this

fluid

the

form

(dx

\\

\\

,61)
\342\231\246'\342\200\242\342\226\240(stL/-)-0

Equilibrium

Solutions

71

at the position (x>v)in to the orbit of the fluid refers element But the fluid the density of particles; therefore probability represents space. of the fluid element must be the same as the orbit of a particleof species orbit v. With this identification, we have immediately position: x with velocity

where

d/dt\\BTbn

phase the

j at

'

dl

=;*

(6.2)

and
d\\

-&qfbil

dt

m,

\" ' [e(x,0

I

4\"

B(x,0

|
fields

(6.3)
E and

(6.1)becomes

where becausethe effects smooth, ensemble averaged

of collisions
fields

are being

ignored the

B are the

satisfying

Maxwell's

equations (3.28). Equation

3,/s(x,v,0 +
+
\302\243-

Vx

\342\200\242(\342\226\274/,)

VY-

[(E =

+y
bV
a

x
+

B)/,]
\342\200\242

= 0
we find

(6.4)

With

the

vector

identity

\342\200\242

(aft)

\342\200\242

VA,

a,ft(x,y,t)
which

\342\200\242

Vxfs

-^(E

B)-Vv/S

(6.5)

is the

Vlasov equation
Verify

flj.
two terms

EXERCISE
indeed

that

the

dropped

in

going

from

(6.4) to

(6.5)

vanish.

When

this equation, the Vlasov

(3.28), we have a
principle we assume

is one for each species,

combined

with

Maxwell's ofjjlasmas,
in

equations
in
in

completedescription
of the
large

of

the
to

behavior
an

of a

plasma. Although
practice a single

equation only: applies

number

ensemble

that, because

for a fluctuations are so small that the Vlasoy\342\200\236equation yields good.predictions collisions h ave been the Vlasov equation applies only ignored, single plasma. Since effects are unimportant. Often, this means that we are limited to when collisional

of particles

plasma,

the

phenomena with
6.2

a characteristic

frequency

\302\273

vei

*=*

we/A.

EQUILIBRIUM

SOLUTIONS

\302\253* time A oj,.\"1, we are interested For time scalesshort compared to a collision vei~' for in solutions to the Vlasov equation (6.5),that is, those finding steady-state are and which d,f, \342\200\224 0. (In this chapter, the words \"equilibrium\" \"steady-state\" is no guarantee that such steady-state used synonymously.) Of course,there solutions are stable to small perturbations. (A pencil on its tip is a steadystanding state but not a stable one.) solution, for solutions to the Vlasov equation, it is useful to interpret the left As we look side a particle orbit. Consider a of (6.5) as the total time derivative of fs along

72
particle and

Vlaaov

Equation

X(/) is the
time

of species 5 whose orbit in that gives the function

that

six-dimensional

phase
in

position x
the

real

space is X(/), V(/), where of the particle at time /, space

V(r) is the function

in

gives

position
any

vin velocity
quantity,

space of the

particle

at

t. Then the total time

phase

derivative of
is

measured

along

the test

particle's orbit

space,

Dt

'

dt

dt dv

\342\200\236

dt

orbit

d, +

vVK +

-^- (E + \342\200\224 X B)-VT c m,

Vlasov

(6.6)

where we

have

inserted

(6.2) and

(6.3). Thus, the

-\302\243-/s(x,v,f)

equation

(6.5) simply

says
(6.7)

Knowledge of the

form

(6.7) out

Suppose
along the

we

construct:f\\

gives us one way to solve the Vlasov of functions C\302\243x,v,f) that are constants

equation (6.5). of the motion

orbit

of.a

particle. A

Then

by

(6.7),

/4c,<x,y)})

= 2

A
|\302\243

c< =

o
distribution

(6.8)
that

so that
function

the
only

Vlasov
p&dhe the

equation
constants

(6.5) is satisfied. Thus, any of the motion of the individual

is a

particle

orbits

is a

solution of

Vlasov

equation.

In the presenfSEctiori we are interested only in equilibrium solutions that do not fields E time. that the B in can be on and Noting (6.5) depend explicitly fields consider the of externally self-consistent we combinations and fields, imposed
cases. following

CASE

A: E
absence

= B =

0
energy
the
Vimsv2

In

the

ms(vx,vy,v2)

of external fields, the a are of constants of particle

and

momentum

ms\\
(6.9)

\342\200\224

motion.

Thus,

any function can also fields,

A =
is a
writing

fJLvx,vy,vz)

solution
the

time-independent is seen

of the time-independent Vlasov equation. Vlasov equation with = 0 vVx/s to be a

This
no

be seen by

external

(6.10)

to

which

(6.9)

solution.

CASE

B:

0, B
of a

= CONSTANT

uniform background magneticfield, the total particle a constant. If we choose the magnetic field in the f-direction, longer then the constants of the motion are the momentum msvz in the f-direction and the = in the + the to energy Vim^Vj2 magnetic Vunjiv^ vv2) plane perpendicular
presence is momentum

In the

no

Electrostatic

Waves

73

field. Thus,

any

function

L=fs(v\302\261,vz)

(6.11)
in

is an equilibrium

solution

to

the

Vlasov

equation

the

presence

of a uniform

magnetic field.

EXERCISE
magnetic

Show Verify in

(Chapter by

1) that direct

v\302\261

is a

constant

field.

calculation

of the motion that (6.11) is a solution

in

a uniform

of

the Vlasov

equation
CASE
In

(6.5)

this

case.

C: B

= 0, E

E(x)

=\302\243 0 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 x d/dx

the presence
energy

indirection, the

of an arbitrary electric field E(x) the particle constants of the motion are the + associated with motion Yim^u,? qs <p(k)

<p{x)

in

the

momenta

msv}. and msvz, and

in the
vy, v2)
can

Jf-direction.

Thus,
(6.12)

L = /,(\302\253VV+

lis

<dx)/m\302\253,

is an equilibrium distribution fuaetiort'.

(Note that/s
that

also

depend

upon the sign

of

vx.)

EXERCISE

Verify

by direct substitution

(6.12)

is a

solution of the Vlasov

equation (6.5)in this case. In addition to these three simple

are

cases, 2 we

used.

For example,

in

Chapter

there are other important examplesthat that are discussed the adiabatic invariants
invariants,

approximate
construct

constants

functions. Such solutions distribution approximate equilibrium devices such as the in the confinement of applications magnetic study and mirror machine.

of motion. Usingtheseadiabatic

one

can
find

wide

tokamak

6.3
One

ELECTROSTATIC
of

WAVES

the simplest field,

~

and most
in

instructive

predictions

of

Vlasov

existence of
magnetic
dependence

electrostaticwaves,
and
the

theory
with

is the
no

waves

that

small +

amplitude

have only an electric field limit have a time and spatial

exp (j'k
Show

\342\200\242 x \342\200\224

ioot)

c.c. (complex with

conjugate), where k||E

EXERCISE
magnetic

that

for

waves

k||E, Maxwell's

equations predict no
electric or

field.

We begin
magnetic fields.

with the
Each

species

with simple situation of a plasma, has a distribution function

no applied

/.\302\253=/*+/,!
where

(6.13)
discussed
with

fM

/s0(v)

is one

of

the

equilibrium

solutions

in the

previous

section, and/jj(x,v,/) is a wave. For each species,

small

perturbation

associated

the

small-amplitude

Jdvfjv)

n0

(6.14)

74

Vlasov Equation
space.
a spatial

where \302\2530is the average number of particles per unit configuration the electric field in the ^-direction, and treating waves with the ^-direction only, the Vlasov equation is

Choosing variation in

dJs + w,a,/, +
With/j0 a zero orderquantity, for linearized solutions of
is trivially and/^ (6.15).

=
-rr\302\243dv;L

(6.15)

and\302\243small quantities The

of
(6.15)

first

ordeT,

we look

zeTo order

terms

in

yield

d,fso
which

+ Uvd*/*

= 0

satisfied

by our

equilibrium solutions/j0

= /j0(v).The first

(6.16)
order

terms

in (6.15)

are
(6.17)

Looking for

plane

wave

solutions
iotfsy

exp(ikx
=

\342\200\224

icut)

this

is
(6.18)

or

ikvxfsl

- -~ E flv/s0

\342\200\224iqJm.

(6.19)

The only Poisson's

one

of

Maxwell's
which

equations
in

(3.28) needed for

case is

electrostatic

waves

is

equation,

the

present
ne)

ikE =
=

4ne(ni
4ne

\342\200\224

dv (/,

- /,)

=
Eliminating

-,W\302\243

[^%k

+ ^-%^l
dispersion

(6.20)

E from
an

both sides we
plasma, 1 +
w'2

obtain

the

relation

for electrostatic

waves

in

unmagnetized

fs

d<&\302\256

(6.21)

where

,. ,

f1

Notice that the ion component of g is reduced by the electrons and ions are Maxwellian, we have

the

factor

m<,/\302\273i/: For

example,

if

/so

n^v3

exp [~(v*2

v>2 +

v*y2v*2]

(6.23)

whereupon

Electrostatic

Waves

75

gM

=
h\342\200\236v*

(In)
m\342\200\236 OT,

ve

expi~vx2/2v2)

-T(2tt)''21;/ <.q

e\\p(-vx2/2vf)

(6.24)

where

as usual

v2
Verify

\342\200\224CTx/ms;

EXERCISE

that

the Maxwellian T} the

\342\200\224 we

(6.23) satisfies the

\302\253

normalization (6.14).

For
6.1.
when

equal

temperatures
that\302\243(w)

T,

Notice

has

units

motions to the electron contribution. However, forjow frequency ion contribution as in^Fef ion-acoustic can be very important, wav\302\247 Let us use the dispersion relation (6.21) to find the relation between frequency w and number, &y for high frequency wave electron plasrna_waves called Langmuir The high frequency of these waves waves. that the massive ions do not have implies time to respond to them, so we ignore io g(u) in (6.22), that is, the ion contribution to ignoring the ion motion in our derivation of we let rrXj \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260. This is equivalent

vc, and g{u) is as shown in Fig. The ion contribution appearstiny (velocity)\"1.

have-jij]

compared

the

the plasma
integration

frequency in
over

Section
with

1.4.

The

dispersion
restrict

an integrand all u for

this which

a pole

with
w/k

care. For the

\302\273

at iQFtja/Jt-

present, suppose we
g{u) assumption,

relation (6.21) includesan This pole must be handled to waves such that ourselves
that

w for

is appreciable, (6.21)

so

dug(u)
by

\342\200\224 0 at

\342\200\224

w/k

(Fig.

6.2). With

can be
g(v)

integrated
.

parts

to obtain

where
denominator

the boundary up to and

\342\200\224 .. \342\200\224\342\200\236 (w/k u)2 0. Expanding terms vanish because^(w \342\200\224 \302\261\302\253;).= we find second order terms in t/k/a>, including

_ ^L.

du

(6.25) the

2i/k
-^J^g(u)
EXERCISE
Verify

3u2k

(]

(6.26)
-I\"

the

expansion.

Ion

contribution

. Electron

Contribution

Fig. 6.1
plasma.

The function

g(u)

as predicted

by

(6.22)

for an

equal temperature

Maxwellian

76

Via so v

Equation

0 v.
Fig.

a)/fe

6.2

phase speed

The Langmuir wave calculation iu/k of the wave is much larger

of Section
than

the thermal

6.3 is appropriate only speed \302\253,..

when

the

With

du g{u)u = 0,Jdug(u)u2 =
Verify

g(u)

given

by the first

term on the
vel.

right

of

(6.24),

we have/du

g{u)

\342\200\224

1,

EXERCISE

these statements,.
predicts 1

Equation 6.26 then

ft)

3*V
<u

= 0
\302\253

(6.27)

which

upon

solving

fon'oo2 and assuming

u2

^v*

co2 yields

+ \342\200\224Ito/

3k2vJ

(6.28)
can

which

is the

famous

Langmuir wave dispersion

relation; it

easily

be committed

to memory.

EXERCISE

(a)
(b)
(c)

Obtain Verify

Show

(d)

Use the

(6.27) with the given assumptions. the given is consistent with assumptions. that is equivalent to w = <ur(l + 3fc2\\//2). (6.28) of Problem the effects of ion result ] .3 to modify (6.28) to include
(6.28)

from

that

(6.28)

motion.
to properly

In the next section we

shall

return
when

treat the pole

we

show to the dispersion relation (6.21) and = 0 at u = co/k. do not have du g(u)

how

6.4

LANDAU CONTOUR
section,

In this
by and

we present
evaluation

a more
way

completetreatment
pole
in

of

electrostatic

includes a careful
Landau Poisson's

of the
to

the

dispersion
an

relation
value

waves, which (6.21). As shown problem.

[2],

the best
equation

proceed

is by solving the
initial

Vlasov equation (6.17)

(6.20)

in the

context of

Lendau
To simplify

Contour

77

the discussion,
the

we treat
for waves

only
with

high
the

ignore and denoting

When

ion

motion.

Looking first order

electron distribution

frequency Langmuir waves and ~ spatial dependence exp (ikx), by /,(A:,v,/), Eq. (6.17) becomes

we

the

Laplace

(6.29) is

= 0 d,ft + ikvxf, (6.29) {e/me)EdvJM use the Laplace transform convention (5.13) the fact that to and (5.14), \342\200\224 \342\200\224 transform of d,g(t))is ~icug(<u) transform the of g{t 0), Laplace

-io
-

A(k,v,h>)

ikvxf,
/,(*,\302\273,/

= (e/me)E(a>)dvJM
the

0) of d,g(t) is
\342\200\224

(6.30)
itu

EXERCISE Demonstratethat
g(t

Laplace

transform

g{tu)

\342\200\224

0).

Poisson's

equation (6.20) is in
ikE{ca)

this

case

- 4ne fd\\ Mk^w)

l\"'

(6.31)

Solving

(6.30) for/^fc.v.o)), we fi(k,y,to)

obtain
=

=
in

+ /,(*,\302\273,/ (e/me)E(w)dvJe0 . : . , ..
\342\200\224iw,--r ik.vx

0)
(6.32)

which

when

substituted ik
\\

(6.31)

yields

\342\226\2404ire2/me^f

k2 =

\"'
v, vx

ft
(w/k) I

\342\200\224

zfzf
tk

f,v

MM
vx

\342\200\224

(ca/k)

-;

0)

(633)

The

factor

in brackets

on the
\302\253(*,*)

left

is the

dielectric

function u_WJt)

-l-^jdu

(634)
e(\342\200\224k,~o)*) \342\200\224

wherethe
Equation

definition

(6.22)

of g{u) has

been used.Note that

t*(k,cu).

(6.33)

then becomes

E(o>)
As
the

TTTi\342\200\224T

k^tik^w)

J/

dy
vx

\342\200\236. \342\200\224

(w/k)

(6.35)

with all Laplace

inverse

transforms, E(w) is defined

transform

only

for

o^ sufficiently

large, and

Laplace

is carried
must With

out

[ -^ E(a)e-\"\302\273 in Fig. along the Laplace contour as shown

E(t)
all poles of E(w), which contour as shown in Fig.
by

(6.36)

pass the

above Laplace and thus the in

contour

continuing
think u

w, > 0 in the evaluation the function g(u) to the entire

6,3. The Laplace contour includes all zeros of t(k,w). 6.3, we have co; > 0 everywhere on the of t(kyw) in (6.34). By analytically
(6.35) w-axis,

of

\342\200\224 cu/k

complex u = u, in (6.34) as occurring along the real integration the upper half w-plane, as shown in Fig. 6.4.

+ ;w,-plane, we can with a pole at

78

Vlaaov

Equation

<\342\200\242* A

\342\200\242 <i>) = 0 \342\202\254(k,

Fig. 6.3

Laplace contour.
Laplace

The inverse
E(w)

transform

(6.36) is

accomplished by analytically
when

continuing

to the
must

entire complexw-plane.By
continue
above

(6.35),

we analytically
when

we

analytically

co-axisfrom
integration

to

contour;
u \342\200\224 w/k.

residue at

e(&,cu). This means that below, we cannot allow the pole if it did, the value of \302\253(&,oj)would we must deform the integration Thus, 6.5 when
known other
to,

in Fig. jump
contour

continueE(w), crosses the real 6.4 to cross the

\342\200\224

by

2rri

times

the

in the

complex
in Figs.

in Fig. u-plane as shown 6.4 and 6.5 are collectively be used to evaluate the
With

<

0. The two in (6.35).

as the

sets of contours shown contour Landau contour. A similar

must

integral

E((o)

in (6.35) with

contour
the

in (6.36)

contour

the L continued to the entire complex w-plane, in Fig. 6.6. We do not attempt to close can be deformedas shown a semicircle in the lower half to-plane, since it is not clear from

analytically

\"i 11

\342\200\242 u = ib/k

Fig. 6.4
u>>

Contour of integration

used

in evaluating

the dielectric function

(6.34)

when

>

0.

Landau Contour

79

ii

(y

= u/k

Fig.
co,

6.5
<

Contour

of

integration

used

in evaluating

the dielectric function

(6.34)

when

0.

this to be done. that E((u) falls off fast enough at large negative gj, for There are four we treat 6.6 separately. each part of the-contour in Fig. the one at point/I as contributions. there are the poles of E(w} such First, We rather than from in Fig. 6.6. assume that this pole comes from a zero of t(k,a>) of (6.35). Denoting the frequency at point A by wA, the other factor on the right

(6.35)

Rather, types of

this pole contributes a term the time dependence exp(\342\200\224i<oAt). We call to\302\243(r) with of the these contributions the normal modes,and wenote that since the frequencies = are to the waves found by 0, they correspond normal.modes, given by tik,to)
solving

the

dispersion

reJation (6.21)

in

the

previous

section.

After some

time

has

<\342\200\242*>

\"M

<3

Fig.

6.6

Deformed

Laplace contour used

in

taking

the inverse

Laplace

transform

(6.36).

60

Viabov Equation

elapsed, the dominant contribution from the normal modes comes from the one is of Fig. 6.6. If this the largest part of the frequency, as in points imaginary it the the mode is unstable and with if is normal time; grows negative, positive, normal mode is damped and decayswith time. there are contributions from like the one from point B to Second, segments C. With the contour a distance 7 > 0 below the real w-axis, this point
with contribution is

of the

form

fcdm E(0 ~ -v Ztt

Jg

E{m)e^\"\"'

>\">\"

fcdw
Jq

\342\226\240=\302\243(\<?\"\"\"''")

Lit

(6.37)

which decays very.rapidlywith time. Thus, after an initial transient.period contributions can be ignored. are contributions there from the two segments like the one from Third, to point E, of the form
these j
\342\200\224

ol-time, D

point

fir

E(w)e'i'\"'

= These

g-im.1 f'JU.
JD

2.TT

+ \302\243(aJ()

)^
for

(6.38)
cua
by (6.35) \342\200\224_\302\253>;

contributions
large

can be
w.

varies as w'1 for

Fourth,

ignored since\302\243^u)Js..small
infinity

it

the segment

from point E to
\302\243(f)

gives

a contribution

r~

e-'-'Eiw)

(6.39)
that

which

vanishes

since

for

b>a an

\342\200\224 the ..<\302\273

integrand

Thus, the response to

oscillate

initial

perturbation

fast. oscillates-infinitely consists of normal modes

mode frequenciesgiven by the dispersion relation (6.21), and transients.After some time, the normal mode with the largest imaginary part dominates. This discussion refers to a single wave number k. A spatially localized in a plasma will have a spectrum of wave numbers, and the response perturbation after of a spectrum of normal modes at an initial transient period will consist wave numbers. If any one of the normal mode frequencieshas a positive different imaginary grows with time. If all part, the plasma is unstable and the perturbation of the normal have negative imaginary mode the perturbation frequencies parts, the real and evaluate eventually damps away. In the next section, we quantitatively mode in terms of the zero-order imaginary parts of the normal frequencies
with

the normal

distribution

function/w(

v.),

6.5

LANDAU
this

DAMPING
we return

to the Langmuir wave dispersion relation and use (6.21) contours to the contribution evaluate carefully integration = w/k. This calculation of the is especially pole at u elegant when we assume that can be checked after <o is calculated. Io>,-1 \302\253 \\<ur\\, which in the form Writing the dispersion relation (6.21)
section,

In

our knowledge

of the

Landau Damping
\302\253(*,w)

81
(6.40)

e, +

0 ;'\302\253,\342\226\240

and Taylor

expanding

about

<o

\342\200\224

cu, yields +

+ /\302\253,(*,\302\253,)

i\302\253X*.av)

'A

a<rl

'\"j

= 0 product of oj;,
which

(6.41)
which can

Here

the

term

<u,<de,-/daj

is ignored

because

it is the

is smali, be seen
yields

and dt/dw, which by equating\"the real

can

be assumed
imaginary

to be small
parts

and

because^~<^,

of (6.41)
\342\200\224 0

separately to zero; this

tr(k,tor) and
*-

(6.42)

</(*,<\",)

U>i

der(k,aj)/doj\\OJ=
in
in

(6.43)
Fig. 6.7,

When

w,

0, the

Landau contour is as shown

to

(see Appendix C), as applied

\342\200\224 = \342\200\224 a u

the

contour

Fig.

6.7. The is

Plemelj formula

P
this

{\342\200\224 } \342\200\224

\\u

a /

nid(u y to be

- a)
written

(6.44)

where

P means

principal value;
\302\243(*.*,)

allows
2

(6.34)
r~
du

d\342\200\236g(u)

^-Pf
2

\342\200\224

{(u,/k)
\342\226\240.

nl' yr

d\302\273g{u)\\u=ai/k

(6.45)

where

for

any function

f{u),
a

Prduj^\342\200\242L The

u-

= nm\\rduJ^+r f-<r LL
u

J^

du^\\
u

a]

(6.46)

of (6.44) term on the right comes from integrating around the of 2ni times the residue. The integrand of one-half which 6.7, Fig. yields is shown as The 6.8. two (6.46) Jarge contributions of opposite Fig. sign cancel each other, so that the principal value is not very sensitive to the properties of the ~ at a. From real near the u and we the determine (6.42) (6.45) pole function/ty) second
semicircle in

part

of the frequency

-<ty

from 2
/\"a du u

\302\253,(*,\302\253,)

0=1-

dug(u)
\342\200\224

^rPJ k~ J.oo

(6.47)
\342\200\224

(w/k)

purposes by parts as

For

of
in

this

(6.25)

can can is integration, we \\i take integration, we dug(u) = 0 at to (6.27), and obtain

w/k,

integrate

tX.k,u>r) =

- ~

3k2v,2cu.2

(6.48)

which

by

(6.28)

yields,

with the

assumption k2v2

\302\253

w,2,

CD2

(6.49)

82

Vlasov

Equation

Fig.
exactly

6.7
on

Landau contour the real axis.

the g(u)u

when

(Uf

\342\200\224 0. The

straight

line

portions

of the

contour are

[Note that /
order

that du

expressions = 0 and
cu,

below
(6.43)

(6.26) are valid

that

for an

arbitrary
du

g(w),
g(u)u2

provided
\342\200\224

provided

one

defines

ve by / ^

v2.]

In

to calculate

with

we need

der(k,u>)
where

der(k,wr) da)r

2(ue2

2
(6.50)

\302\253V

terms

Q(k2\\^)

have been
w,

ignored. Then
mo?
-jpdug(u)\\u=li)/k finally

by

(6.43)

and (6.45),
(6.51)

The

total

normal

mode frequency is
=

we
for

(l

y *2V

+
)

-^

dvg(u)

U=ai/k

(6.52)
1. The by

This equation
generalization of

is valid

all Langmuir

(6.52)

to encompass

waves such that khe \302\253 all wave numbers has beenpresented

Jackson

[3].

<0

I:

Fig.

6.8

Principal

value integrand.

Wave

Energy

83

When damped.

the slope

of the

distribution

function

dug(u)\\u=m,k
waves

is negative,

as with

the

Maxwellian

distribution

in Fig.

6.2, Langmuir

have<f^,-

<TT)\302\243nd are

Landau

When the slope is positive at u \342\200\224 as it is for .arrange ..pf wave co^/A^ distribution in Fig. 5.1 at / = 0, then these wave numbers in the \"bump-on-tail\" numbers grow exponentially. With a Maxwellian of (6.24) one can g(u) given by the first term on the right evaluate which is explicitly to,-,
7TO\302\273f3

\342\226\240>\342\226\240>'\342\226\240

\"\"

a'

(i\")
0 and

'-(db1\"
increases
a>(-

exP C-S/^iexpJ-l/?*^^)
rapidly with increasing tue is so large that
such

(6-53)
such never

This vanishes for

that

\342\200\224

for

kke

> 0.3 the

shall can

damping
consider

wave number, waves are

observed. In Section 6.7 we

this Heuristically,

the physical

mechanism of Landau damping.

be

considered

as follows.

Consider a

wave

with

a phase

Those with speeds u speed V = co/k in a Maxweliian plasma (Fig.6.2). particles with the wave. Particles with very dose to V'v interact slightly speeds strongly faster than V are grabbed down, by the wave and slowed giving up energy to the while particles with speeds slightly slower than the wave are sped up, taking wave, the from wave. Since in a Maxwellian with energy plasma there are more particles less with the than than V result net than V^ , slightly speeds speeds slightly greater is an energy gain by the particles and an energy loss by the wave; this is Landau

damping.

On the

other

hand,
the faster
the

consider
left half

du(g) > 0 as on
slightly particles

the wave, and

wave

\342\200\224 a wave with phase speed V \342\200\224 u such that o}r/k of the \"bump-on-tail\" in Fig. 5.1. Now there are more than V than slightly the particles lose net energy to slower, in These ideas will Section be made grows. quantitative

6.7.

6.6

WAVE

ENERGY
real

for and imaginary parts of the normal modefrequency function are determined from a knowledge of the dielectric is due to function for longitudinal waves t(k,a>). The importance of the dielectric its equivalence to Poisson'sequation

In Section 6.5 the

longitudinal

waves

ikE
which

Anp

(6.54)

is effectively

replaced

by

ike(k,o>)E =
for

0
of the

(6.55)
function.

purposes

of calculating
the

normal
\"1\"

contained in Poisson's important to note that

equation

modes [see (6.33)].Thus, all is also contained in the dielectric in the dielectric function
2

physics It is

*(*.\302\253)=

dug(u)

-J^jdu

u_

(6.34)

84
comes

VlaBOV

Equation

from the left side of Poisson's contribution) equation (the \"vacuum\" term comes from the right of Poisson's side equation and represents = of the plasma (plasma = medium the contribution dielectric). The dielectric function t(k,<t>) a useful provides very approach to wave energy. In this section, we present a somewhat heuristic demonstration of the relation between the dielectric function and wave A more rigorous development energy. can be found in Landau and Lifshitz [4]. When we deal with energy, we deal with such as electric quantities, squared we must real be certain to have only before fields; therefore quantities squaring.
the whereas

other

Consider a

real

oscillatory
\302\243(t)

electric

field
(~i<uTt)

E{t) exp
The

E*(t)exp(iatrt)

(6.56)
at

at a
spatial

fixed

spatial

point.

time-averaged

electric field energy density

this

point is
WE

= ^16tt

IE2

exp

(~2iwrt)

2\\E\\2

E*1 exp

(2iwrt)]

(6.57)
\302\261 2iwrt

where the

terms

at frequencies

vanish

on averaging

over the fast time scale

that linear

2n/a),.
With

the

real

electric
Vi

field
J*(t)

\302\243 one

can

associate

{hJ{t)

exp

+ (\342\200\224imrt)

exp

(iojrt).
current

there

is a

linear relation

between

J(t)
where

a real current 7, such Since we are dealing with and electric field,
between for

J{t) waves,

\342\200\224

a(m)E(t)

(6.58)

u(oj) is the conductivity. There is a simple relationship and the dielectric function e(u>).Ampere's law conductivity a(ai)

the

longitudinal

waves

yields
0 =
\342\200\236

vxB=

4* , \342\200\224^J+

3E

t-

dt

C C

\\\342\200\224l(u

dt
*ME

\342\200\22410)

(6.59)

with which

we

identify

t(w)

1 +

4nio(cu)
theory we

(6.60)
have introduced
the

where displacement

in

accordance
D
\342\200\224 eE.

with

electromagnetic

Wave Energy

85
energy.

Let us now develop an

From the
first

expression

form

of Ampere's

for the time rate of change law in (6.59), we obtain for

a\302\243

of
real

wave
fields

AnJ

dt

(6.61)

Multiplying

each side

by

E/An

yields

J_
8tt
=
1

J^
dt
+

(\302\243f = W

\302\243J

\342\200\224 [\302\243exp(\342\200\224mri)

E* exp(iu),t)][oE

exp(\342\200\224ia)rt)

where we short time

have 2n/air>

used the

+ a*E* (6.62) exp (iwri)] and the of both sides over the (6.58). Taking (6.56) average second harmonic terms disappear and we have, using (6.57),

16.
At this

= W |E|2

\"

T
-

(E\"*\302\243*

E*\302\260E)

(6.63)

point we expand a(w)

exactly as we

expanded

t(<o) in

(6.41). From

(6.60), (6.64)

= I \302\253r(\302\253\",)

while
ti(uir)

in

4nor(<or)

a,
(6.41),

(6.65)
|o,(\302\253wr)| \302\253

Consistent

with

the

assumptions

used

we assume

\\a;(wr)\\

and

expand

da do.)

iaii

ar(mr)

iO({wr)

\342\200\224 &>,

dO;

dot
being
E(t)

(6.66)
second order in small the time dependence

where we
quantities.
exp(&i,r);

have

ignored dE/dt

the term

ot,{dor/'dw)\\

as

By (6.56), the
therefore

normal mode electric field ~ u>E, and we can write

dat
to,

has

dot

E =

do,
dai

d
.

dt

(6.67)

whereupon

(6.63) becomes

1 doj
dot

T^,
Moving

{\302\243|.7W

(6.68)

a term

to the

left

side,

we find

86

Vlasov

Equation

1 16tt

d dt
l\302\243l2|\302\243|

do,

dm

. *\"

|\302\243|

o,(a,,)|\302\243|2

(6.69)

field

energy

particle

energy

dissipation

where we
field

first term on the left as the time derivative of the electric the second term on the left involves Because a,, we identify it as the energy. in the current. The right contained side time derivative of the particle energy which is and thus to due to to o^ represents ar((or), e^w,) dissipation proportional is as resistive of the it known the by (6.43). Since a,{<or) represents dissipation, part in the wave and is thus while Oj(m,) represents the particle energy conductivity,

recognize the

called

the

reactive
terms Thus,

The two
energy

on the left

W\\<*..

part of the conductivity. of(6.69) represent the time as a function of the electric field
= W\302\253

derivative energy

of the density

total wave

(6.57),

From (6.64), the

constant

can

('-*t\302\243|> be written dQi

(6.70)

l-*v.-dZV

=^b\"'<^

(6.71)

so the

total

wave

energy

is
= -

WM \"ioi

-j^

[ver{(o)~\\w

WE

(6.72)
have

For

example,

for Langmuir

waves with
tr(<o)

k\\e

\342\200\224\342\200\242 we

0,

[see (6.48)]

j-

(6.73)
= 2 and electric field
in

Therefore
4dm
so \" w' GoOL

=
in

1+4

at1

(6.74)

there

are equal

amounts of energy

particles

a Langmuir

wave.

EXERCISE
Since the

Compare

this

result

to your

result exp

in

Problem we

6.4. must

wave energy is ~

and |\302\243|2,

E ~

(&>,Y),

have

=
dt
Let

2m

W\302\253

(6.75)
which

us verify

that (6.75) is

indeed satisfied
o,(mr)\\E\\2

by =

(6.69), \"

says

dW

\342\200\224j?-

- 1 y
\342\200\224

1
y
o,{(or)l6nW\302\243

&iror(cur)

W,o

(d/d<o)(u>t,)\\

(6.76)

Physics of
But
(d/da>\\mt,)\\u>r \342\200\224

Landau

Damping and

87
\342\200\224

a)r{dtr/dai)\\w.

since

er{wr) =

by

(6.42),

or(wr)

a>rii(wr)/4Tr

from

(6,65); dt

thus (6.76) is
~

\342\200\224TT~

der/dw | w

j\342\200\224/j i

\"lot

\342\200\224

itOiVrxoi

(6.7/)

Thus, (6.75) is indeed satisfied. in for growth rate and (6,72)for wave energy terms of the dielectric function are applicable to all electrostatic waves in a e(k,w) Because and are very useful in practice. of the form (6.34), one can plasma, that a full of e(k,w) for all values of k and a full m implies plausibly state knowledge In the next section, we consider in knowledge of the distribution function g(u). detail the this leads to a effect of an electrostatic wave on the distribution function; where

(6.43)

has been

used to insert <u,.

(6.43)

The convenient

formulas

microscopic understanding
6.7
In

of

Landau

damping.

PHYSICS
Section

OF LANDAU DAMPING

as a phenomenon of Landau damping (6.52)is introduced In the the of of solution the relation. dispersion present consequence This is done by sectionwe discuss the detailed physics of Landau damping [5]. distribution the effect of tbcsmajl w^ye, associated with the perturbed considering function fi(x,v,t \342\200\224 on the 0), background plasma represented by/0(v).For convenience in this section, we denote the x-component of velocity by v, and suppress the ^'electron\"subscripton/, and/,. \342\200\224 \342\200\224sin Consider a linear (kx' cort) E0 Langmuh\" wave of the form Ex(x',t) where x' denotes the laboratory frame of reference, constant, and for E0 is a small the moment we ignore the imaginary of the frequency. In the frame of part to the laboratory reference x moving with the phase speed io,/k > 0 with respect \342\200\224 of time and is given by E,(x) frame, the wave field is independent EQ sin (kx), as shown in Fig. 6.9. All of the particles in the background distribution function f0(v) are slowed are affected this and some are while others electric field, speeded up by down. We focus our attention on only those particles in/0(v) that have speed v0 in \342\200\224 the lab frame at / \342\200\224 0 and, in the frame moving thus, have speed v \342\200\224 vQ v^ = with of particles with the wave This \"beam\" v-, 6.10). a>r/k phase speed (Fig. see the energy of some speed vQ in the lab frame and speed v0 in the wave frame will

6.5 the

mathematical

(x) \302\243,

Fig.
right

6.9

Stationary electric field

wr/k
with

as

seen

in the frame x

\342\200\224 x' \342\200\224

(ai,/k)t

moving

to the

at speed

respect

to the

laboratory frame x'.

88

Viatov

Equation

-U-;
k M

-*

Fig.

6.10

speed C0 =

Beam u0

of electrons,

all

with
the

speed
moving

y0

with

respect

to the

laboratory

frame

and

vv with respect to

frame.

of its members increase with with time, depending on the will have experienced a change
particle's

lime initial in
in

and

the energy of some of its members decrease a time a After t, particle position xQ. particle Au (independent of frame) so that the speed
lab

energy,

as measured
AE

the

frame, Avf

suffers a
2

change

\342\200\224 +' *\"' \"\342\200\242*v\"\302\260 me(vQ

mev0'

=
where

mev0Av +

G[(Av)2]
it

(6.78)
can to

we

present
interest.

We

ignore the term in (Au)2 in what follows; derivation this term gives a negligiblecontribution in the average change in eneTgy are interested
shall
(AE)X0

be shown quantities

that
of

in

the

over

a wavelength,

mtu0(Au)JD

(6.79)
in

Since

Av

can

be calculated

in any frame, we '0 '\"e

work

th^

wave
kx(t')

frame.

Then
(6.80)

-eE0 (t')df = m.

dt' /: \"0

sin

If we insert in (6.80) the unperturbed where x(t) is the orbit of the particle. particle wave we would find orbit x(t) \342\200\224 field, x0 + v0tt without the effects of the = 0. the lowest order correction to the particle orbit include Thus, we must (Av)x0 due to the effect of the wave. This is doneas follows: Av{t)

-eE0 \342\200\224

dt'sinkx(t')

x0 + /
eEn
va

dl\" \302\260

v(t\
i

f'\"

m,

Ju

dt'\"smk%(t\

y *o +
vut'\"

(6.81)

where

we have

gone far enough to

we
find

pick up

the

lowest

order

correction

in

En.

Performing

the last integration

Physics

of Landau

Damping

89
(6.82)

v(t\")

530

eE0

mckv0

[cos(kx0

kvat\")

\342\200\224

cos

kx0]

The next to last integration yields x(t') =

eEn
[sin
x0

v0t'

t'eEe, \342\200\224
cos
m\342\200\236kvn

(kxa)

The first to En,

integrand

is

mek1vn2 of the form sin (kx0 t'eEn

meva

(kx0

kv0l')

\342\200\224

sin

(kx0)]
A

(6.83)
is proportional

kv0t'

A) where

\342\200\224\342\200\224

cos

(kxa)

+ Since we are

eE0
mekv02
the
sin

[sin (kx0 +
lowest

\342\200\224 kvnt')

sin(kxn)]
in\302\2430>w^

(6.84) can

looking for
in A.

order A)

correction
+ A

Taylor

expand

(a

\342\200\224 sin a

cos a

(6.85)
+ kv0t')]
the

to lowest
Av{t)
We

order

Then
/*'

\342\200\224

eE

dt'[A
over

cos (kx0
one

kv0t')

sin (kx0
which

(6.86)

next

wish

disappears. The

other

to average Av terms are

wavelength,

upon

sin term

evaluated using the identities

cos(w
\342\200\224

(sin (u
(sin

\342\200\224

a)

b))u

\342\200\224 r-

sin (a
a)

\342\200\224

b)

(6.87)

(w

\342\200\224

a)

sin (w

\342\200\224

b))u

\342\200\224

(cos

(w
6)

\342\200\224

cos

(w

\342\200\224

b))u

where means )\342\200\236

-r- cos (a

(6.88)
the

an

average

over one
Y

period of
f

variable

u. We

find

(eE

+
&v0

cos

(k

V)j

(6.89)

The integration

can

be performed,

and yields

<Au(0h\342\200\236

(^)
4-

2fc?

\\2[cos

(kv()t)

1]
(6.90)
and

sin (kvut)} fct>\342\200\236r

Our aim is to
all

form

the

change

of energy,
find

\342\200\224 (A\302\243)A(> W7Pv0(Aii)Vll

integrate
of the
\302\253

over

velocities

v0 in

the lab frame to

of

the

total

that

Before doing so, let us evaluate early time for one \"beam\"

change

in

energy

particles.
1. Note

(6.90)

at early
v0

velocity

time, such that kvi may not be early time

for

another

90
\"beam\"

Vlasov Equation
of velocity
\302\273 v0.

Using

the formulas
\302\253 x

sinx
and

... -^o +
+ 4r 24

x3

(6.91)

cosx
we find
2(cosx

=\302\273 i

4~ 2

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 \342\200\242

(6-92)

\342\200\224

1)

xsinx

\342\200\224x \342\226\240==

,, 12

(6:93)

Therefore

(6.90) becomes

r
*\"\302\273-\342\200\224(\302\243I

^r' 0,
that

4S\"<<'
is,

(6.94)
faster
than

Thus, we seethat
are indeed

\"beams\"

with

v >

those

moving

the

wave,

slowed down at early times, in the sense of an average overx().\"Beams\" v < 0, those moving with slower than the wave, are sped up in an average sense. We are now ready to integrate the spatially averaged energy over all change for because velocities, in the lab frame. We cannot use (6.94) (Av)Xll, kv0t \302\253 1 is not true for all \"beams\" at a given t. Rather, we use (6.90) to find the total time energy change W(t),
W(t)

=T

dvvMvoU&E)*

P
v0

dv0Mv\302\273)mfv0(*vK

(6-95)

where

we have

is convenient
becomes

to make the

used (6.78). Since(6.90) involves of variable change

=

velocities

vq

\342\200\224

u0 in the wave frame, it in (6.95), which

v^

W{t)

m,

dvv

/(Wo

^)(Av}m

(6.96)

where f(va)
from

+ /<>(\302\243(>

v0).

We expect the

particles

with

velocities

close to
varies

ii()

*=\302\273 this

the

expression

(6.90)
The

for

(Av)X::

as

major contribution to (6.96)to come can be seen from the fact that 0; ^ (Co)-3. We therefore expand f(vv)
+

7(0)

v0

/'(0).

product

?(i>oX5o +
+

=
vv)

f(0)va

7(0)w\342\200\236

V7'(0)

+ is odd

vovJ'(0)
in in

(6.97)
terms in (6.97)
latter
that

has four
even

terms.
vu

Since give

in (6.90) <Au>A\342\200\236

the two ti\342\200\236, (6.96)

are

in

will

odd terms in makes a much larger contribution.

EXERCISE

zero when the integration and vuv ]\"(0) (6.97),f(Q)vQ,

is performed,

Only the two

term

contribute. Usually, the

Verify

this statement

for a

Maxwellian,with

va

\302\273

ve.

Physics

of

Landau

Damping

91

If we

keep

only

the \"

latter

term,

(6.96) becomes
\"

W(t)

\342\200\2242F~

-Lv + kii0t sin {kv0t)}

Y^l
\342\200\224

{2[cos(^\302\273')

1]

(6.98)
/
+
in

With

the

change

of variable x I = kt

kvat,

the

integral
1)

(6.98)

becomes

\342\200\224\342\200\224 \342\200\224

X \342\200\242'-go

[2(cosx

xsinx]
yield

(6.99)

The

second

term is found from an integral table to , sin x = dx\342\200\224\342\200\224 n r x

other

(6.100)

while

the

term

yields

\342\200\224

In.

EXERCISE

(a)

Verify

the

last

statement

by changing

the

limits

of integration

to

(0,\302\260\302\260),

(b)

carefully integrating by parts, and using (6.100). Evaluate contour (6.100) using integration. First, move the the (nonexistent) pole at z = 0 and then expand the sine in exponentials.

contour terms

off of of

Thus,

we find
\342\204\242

^'<\302\260> (\302\243)'

(6.101)

or

T>--t^-/o(\302\253v)
or

(6.102)
(\342\200\224j

identifying

f0 with nag,

and

taking

wr

\302\273

aje,

W(D

\302\253V

gp

g'(w^o2/

(6.103)

6.103 shows as the first power that the total particle energy is changing Equation of time r, and is positive when g'(v ) < 0 and negative > 0. The when g'(vv) energy gained or lost by the particles must come from the wave.The rate of change of wave energy Wmi must be equal and opposite to the rate of change of particle

energy. From (6.103),

\342\200\224

Wvm

--tover

W(t) =
a

g'(v)En>

(6.104)

The

total

wave energy,
\342\200\224

averaged of energy
in

wavelength,

is

Wvn-C

\342\200\224

2E02

(sin2

(kx))x/%n E02/&n, wave has equal amounts energy. Thus, (6.104) is

where

the factor

of 2 is introduced becausea electric field energy and in particle

Langmuir

kinetic

W\342\200\236w \342\226\240jf

^-g-ivJW^

(6.105)

92
If the wave

Vlasov

Equation

electric field amplitude is varying ~ exp (27/); thus energy Wm^

UrY wave dt =

with

time

as E0(t)

~ exp (7/),

then

the

2yW*m

(6.106)

Comparing

(6.106)

and (6.105), we

find

(6.107)
which integration of We

is in

the
see

exact agreement linearized Vlasov that

with

with

the

formula

(6.52)

obtained
the

by

contour

therefore

Landau

equation. damping is related to

moving

initial
than

behavior
the

of the
being

background particles,
slowed at early times

particles

slightly
slightly

faster
more

wave

in a spatially times; this is true only averaged sense. The net from comes contributions from all particles, Landau (or damping growth) over because of the in however, averaged (6.90), particles space; vQ~i dependence close to the wave phase speedgive the biggest contribution, which is why g'(v ) is so important. is a linear one and thus is exact The theory just developed only for waves of In the next section we the infinitesimal discuss heuristically amplitude. of these modification ideas for waves of finite amplitude.

and particlesmoving

slowly

than the wave

being spedup
Landau

at

early

6.8

NONLINEAR
sections

STAGE

OF LANDAU

DAMPING

In previous
the linearized
background

we have treated linear Landau damping, first by integrating Vlasov equation, and then by considering the detailed orbits of the distribution function. Let us next look at the consequencesof finite
think

wave

amplitude.
in distribution

We again
background \342\200\224

of the initial in the function,

terms

value

problem.
the

We consider
wave
\302\243(x,t)

the
E0(t)

presence of

\342\200\224

sin

wave frame, moving at velocity v \342\200\224 with respect to the wrt). (kx (a,/k sin lab frame, the electric field is E(x) \342\200\224 electrostatic kx, witneorresponding :\302\2430 = In wave kx this cos frame, potential <p(x) (Ea/k) ignoring the slow (Fig. 6.11). time of electrons see the a electric field, so time-independent dependence E0(t), is is their total energyH ~ \342\200\224 + a in the when v measured Vimv2 constant, e<p(x) wave frame. For eachparticle,the constant H is determined by the initial position
In the and

initial

velocity; therefore,
=

H = of

ev[x(/)l

Vimv\\t)
Vimv\\t

e<j>[x(t

0)] motion

0)

(6.108)

The corresponding equation mx

Thus,

is
\342\200\224

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

eEa well

d
(6.109)
\342\200\224

eEn$mkx in a

\342\200\224~r~ (\342\200\224coskx)

the particles

are

moving

potential

e<p(x)

~ \342\200\224

(eEa/k)

cos kx.

Nonlinear

Stage

of Landau

Damping

93

Electric field

and

electrostatic

potential

in

the

Langmuir
These

wave frame.
have

Consider all particles with v = 0 at time / = 0. energies depending on their position; from (6.108),
H

particles

different

e<fi[x(t

0)]
in

(6.110)
Fig.

At

0, these particles

find

themselves

in a

.patential field as shown

6.12.

in.the ataB begin to move .well, wuhxoastant Those a slight at C do the same. Those at ^.arg.marj^allj^tahle; energy. perturbation wilt allow in the well. Each of these them to begin moving particles oscillates of oscillation, which decreases as we ascertain frequency iri_thewell_wttjhi move up the well, until the fr\302\243CiU\302\243ncy.at,Z)js.zero_andtbe-petkiiLiilfiilite. Near the bottom of the well, at 6 for instance, we can find the frequency of oscillation by the force about x = 0; thus from expanding (6.109), \342\200\224 ** \342\200\224 \342\200\224 mx eE0kx eE0 sin kx (6.111)

Particles

at

A.

do

nqtjnoye.

Particles

from

which we

identify

the

characteristic

frequency
eE0k

of oscillation,
(6.112)

w =

1/2
t\302\273b

\342\200\242ffl

(6.113)

where

mh

is known

as the

bounce frequency.

Fig.

6.12

Potential

well for

electrons in

a Langmuir

wave.

94
Linear
particle
moved

Vlasov

Equation

Landau
orbits.
a

damping was

derived on

the

basis

of only

after one-half of a bounce However, period, substantial fraction of a wavelength, and linear

small perturbations in the particle at B has

theory

is invalidated.

Thus, we expect

linear Landau
'

damping

to

hold
/

only for \\1/2

short times, such that

\302\253

TFT
is to

(6114) orbits in
the

Another

way

to look
in

at

this

phenomenon

draw the particle

this
v

v-x

plane,

as shown
orbits

Fig.

6.13.
for

The labels A,
particles

B, C, andZ) in
initial t

the previous figure,

all

with time

velocity

figure = 0.
of

correspond

to

The solid

lines

indicate the
Consider
particle

of these

particles,
theinitial same

and also indicate curves

\342\200\224 0. It

constant

energy.

the particle at.-iTHt at B and, thus, the

potential

finite kinetic
finds
find 5t?out

energy at

0, itsjtqtal

same position as the energy. However, because it also has a \342\200\224 Vimv1 is larger, and it energy eipB +
has the

itself

a particle

an even on the same_orbit as particteC. larger at position/?. This particle is calleduntrapped,

For

initial
since

its nrfrit

velocity, we carries right.

their

of Ihejaaginal

By contrast, the remain forever

untrapped;
At right

particles
in

wavelength and^nf^thejiei^hbj)nng^avelen^thU)the at A,B, C, and E are calledtrapped, because

original
it theji^amrm, because

orbits
nor

the

wavelength.

The particle

atD is neither
the

trapped

its orbit is called

separates

from the untrapped

the if v

orbits.

trapped moving

orbits

initial

>

time / = 6, the particles take off 0 and to the left if v < 0, as shown

alongjtlisir
in

orbits, 6.14.

Fig.

During

to the the time each

from iii^Ct to the tip of its arrow, we have the moves particle represeniscLbxa-riQt of or the slope of the distribution When lipear Lafldau damping, growth^. period U negative, this early time behavior results in Landau function wrtfiilie damping, the both trapped and particles on the average gaining energy from wave; of a bounce after a substantial fraction contribute. However, untrapped particles the smeared out around, their period, phase space orbits and tJftppe^p^rti.cle&.are the stage of linear Landau damping is over. The smearing processis facilitated by

in the v-x plane, neglecting Fig. 6.13 Particle orbits electric field due to the motion of' the particles.

the

sclf'-consistcnt

change

in

the

wave

Nonlinear

Stage of

Landau

Damping

95

Fig. 6.14
the

Initial

particle

orbits

in x-v

phase space.

fact

that
At

periods.

an, as in
with

Fig.

bounce trappy partir-la. m-ryityj have slightjy.dififerent npighh'nring = 0 in the wave frame, the initial a Maxwellidistribution might be 6.15. At a much later time the particles after many bounce_periods,
are

velocity-.\302\253_\302\253*xy

sm^refi
< v <

The flat region is

by

v, v^'\342\200\224

p^t and the distribution looks as in Fig. 6.16. v \342\200\236 + ur, where the trapping speed defined $\302\243js =
2\\e<p\\miX

Vimv,2
or

(6.115)

v, = 2
(\302\243)U

1/2 W\\ ma a

(6.116)

or

(6.117)

Note the

relation between the

from

bounce

frequency =

<^from

(6.113), and the trapping (6.118)

speed v,

(6.117),
cah

Vikv,

f0M

Fig.

6.15

Maxwellian

at

0, x

- 0.

96

Vlasov

Equation

Fig.

6.16

Distribution

at

= 0, t

\302\273 0.

We
problem

of

can now a finite

scenario attempt to construct an overall At wave. early amplitude Langmuir

the \302\243>
_ appropriate

for the
time
if

initial

value

we \302\253 \302\253>*'V

have

damping particles have gone,through

took

Landau

a half can

This reversal of energy is by no means complete, they initially this the trapped particles are out of phase with each time because however, by other. We can then construct a picture of the behavior of wave amplitude versus in Fig. 6.17. Here, yL is the Landau as shown time damping rate, and we have assumed >yL \302\273 a)^ For very large time, far off the right side of the figure, the a straight curve will approach mixed, and the line, all the phases will be completely of M uch wave will become a BGK mode [6] (see Section the 6.13). present of treatment discussion has been heuristic. A completely self-consistentand nonlinear a of foT waves is current research; see, example, interesting Langmuir very topic References [7] to [9].
out

second half of a bounce,they

trapped 7r/wb, .Qgifnfimg.jaXe, to come through the a bqujnce and as they start that put back into the wave some of the energy

At t

*\302\273

the

of it.

log

IE Ml

Tt1 27i

3ft

*Tl

Fig.

6.17

Langmuir

wave

amplitude

versus

time.

Stability:

Nyquist

Method,

Penrose

Criterion

97

6.9
In

STABILITY: NYQUIST METHOD,PENROSE CRITERION

6.2 we discussed methods of constructing Section Vlasov Once we equilibria. have found these equilibria, we must ask the question: Are they stable or unstable? For example, we know that when the ions and electrons are both Maxwellian with no relative drift, we expect the system to be stable.On the other hand, when the cold ions, elementary fluid electrons form a coldbeam moving theory (see through or not a spatially uniform 7) predicts instability. The question of whether Chapter method. the [Note that equilibrium is stable can be answeredby the Nyquist must be uniform; this means that the Nyquist method unfortunately equilibrium cannot determine the stability of BGK modes(see Section 6.13)]. of an equilibrium We know that all information concerning the linear stability to electrostatic perturbations is contained in the dielectric function e(k,w), which is obtained an by linearizing the basic physical equations about equilibrium. of e(k,<u) everywhere in the complex Knowledge to-plane determines all of the

electrostatic stability properties Consider a general function

constant,

of a
e(k,m).

system.
k as a fixed real a* only. Form a new
positive function

we

can

then consider
it

to

Regarding be a function of

(1/e)

de/dai. 1

Then f I
(

turns

out
do

that
\342\200\224 N \342\200\224 tf of

t z\342\200\224: LttI Jr

de \342\200\224
oai

zeros

ol e(k,ai)

inside the contour

(6.119)

where c^ is any
counterclockwise

in the complex aj-plane, the integration is in the has no poles in the enclosed and assume de/dm we direction, Near and of (6.119)is as follows: e has derivation The zeros. region, only simple of have zero we e, any simple w0

closed contour

e(k,a>) =
while

0. +{~-\\

(to.

-jtto)

\342\200\242 . .

(6.120)

de
dm

de
dot
dot2

(a

w0)

. .

(6.121)

Thus,

near

cou, we

have
de

da)

(6.122)

A trivial

application of the
side

residue

theorem

to the

left

side

of (6.119)

then yields

of roots of t(<\302\273,k) = Oin Thus, (6.119) tells us the number a certain region of cu-space. In orderto locate all the unstable roots, we simply a all of need to evaluate that the contour includes (6.119) upper half toalong \342\200\224 In since 0 0 when > means 6.18, plane, having e(k,eu) to, instability. Fig. = 0 (left), = W N would would in while (6.119) 2, yield yield Fig. 6.19, (6.119)

the right

of (6.119).

AT =

contourin corresponding
\302\261 27T1

1 (middle), and N = 3 (right). As one integrates around a contour

in

the

aj-plane,

the

complex

e-plane.
=

In that
r

possible to draw a have from (6.119) we plane

it is

i
[ Jc t

\302\273

|l acu

rfw

LttI

J,.

Ldt

= N

(6.123)

98

Via

so v

Equation

Fig. 6.18

Contour ca encircling

the

upper

half of

the

oj-plane.

obtained by evaluating e(k,a>) at each point c{ is the contour in the \342\202\254-plane on the contour cw in the w-plane. Thus, the middle term in (6.123) says that the contour ct must pick up N zeros of e, so that in the \302\253-plane it must circle the origin in Fig. 6.19. N times. Three examples are shown

where

We
whether a

thus

physical draw simply encircles

for determining a powerful method, technique, the Nyquist function *(k,(o) is stable or not. We system described by a dielectric the curve c( in the t-plane, which found by mapping the curve c\342\200\236, the the upper half wplane. If ce does not encircle the origin t \342\200\224 0, then
have
cE

system is stable. If The Nyquist unstable. instability.

does method

encircle by

the origin one or more times, the itself does not tell us the growth

system rate

is

of the

S
e=0

(E^<
3\302\273 <ii, \302\273Ulf

Fig. 6.19

Threeexamples

of contours

c0l

and

the corresponding

contours

c\\.

Stability:

Nyquist

Method, Penrose
system,
\342\200\224 0. We

Criterion

99

Let
e(k,w) contour

us test

these ideas using

the

Vlasov-Poisson
<u,

as represented

by cw

in (6.34) for any in (6.45) for w, and onto the e-plane. First, consider the

are trying
at
\302\260\302\260. Then

to map the
(6.34)

semicircle

yields

everywhere vanishes.

The

along

the

e(*,&0 = 1 \302\260\302\260 the second on the semicircle, since for |<u| \342\200\224 is the path from a> remainder of the cu> contour the situation when real co-axis. But this is precisely
at >

(6.124)
term
~
we

in (6.34) use the

\342\200\224 \302\260\302\260 -H\302\273 to w \342\200\224

can

form
as

(6.45).
By

looking

\342\200\224 1 0. Also, for large |<u|,t, \342\200\224 in We thus have our in the as shown the beginning of oj^/u)2. path \302\253-plane Fig. c( in Fig. 6.21, we shall have 6.20. If the remaining part of the path ce looks as it does no instability of ce because the origin is not encircled. However, if the remainder looks as in Fig. 6.22 we have one unstable mode,becausethe origin is encircled

aj

\342\200\224 +<\302\273, a,

the sign 0, while

of the as w

imaginary \302\273, e,

term

in

(6.45),

we can

see that

<

once

in

the

contour shown in
predicting

to obtain the Note that it is impossible direction. in the the clockwise because this encircles 6.23 sense, Fig. origin N \342\200\224 \342\200\224\\ which is nonsense. by (6.123),
counterclockwise
handy
t

formula (6.45), which describes the entire path ct except crosses the real we know 1, immediately all the places where cf \342\200\224 e-axis. Theseare just the places where e, \342\200\224 or where 0. 0, by (6.45), dug{u)\\u/k \342\200\224 In a where 0. this has one Thus, u0 dug(u) single humped g(u) only position case, ct can only cross the real e-axis in one place, and we immediately know that this is a stable system. This is because it is not possible, with what we already know the contour a sense and only about to encircle the in counterclockwise origin ct, cross the real e-axis once.

Becauseof the

for the point

mS

Fig.

6.20
with

Portion of

the

contour

ct that

comes from

all

portions

of the

cw

contour

in Fig.

6.18

\342\200\224 |\302\253u| \302\260e.

100

Vlaeov

Equation

Fig. 6.21

contour

ct that

would

yield

no

instability.

We can
vanishes.

verify

this

conclusion

by evaluating

e, at the position o^^Jcu^y/htit

du

t,

From

(6.45),

e, = I
=

rr P I

dug{u)
o/k

du\302\243>r.

dug(u) u - w\342\200\236

(6.125)

If in
we

the numerator
write

of the
,=

integrand

we subtract

zero,

in

the

form

of 0

\342\200\224 d\342\200\236g{u0),

can

l-^ff*

du[giu)-gM
u

ua

(6.126)

Fig. 6.22

contour

ct that

indicates one

unstable

mode.

Stability:

NyquiBt Method,

Penrose Criterion

101

-*-\302\253\302\273\342\200\242

Fig.

6.23

A contour

ct

that

can never

occur because it

indicates

A' =

\342\200\224

1.

We

can

integrate
to

(6.126) by parts,
-

becauseall

quantities

are

well defined

atjhe

singularity,

obtain

-l+wJju (/_ %)2 where the principal value symbol is nQJangex.aeeded-.The (6.127) integrandjn of. is the maximum since value definite, yields Thus, g. (6.127) positive g(u0)
*,(<\"

\302\253P(a,

ku0)

(6.127)

is

=
in

ku0) >
6.24,

1
confirming

(6.128)
our prediction
that

so that
origin

the

picture

is not

distribution. This

encircled and that there is no instability for a single-humped result is known as Gardner's theorem [3, 10].

of c( is

as shown

Fig.

the

contribution as

we must remember that includes an ion In interpreting this result g(u] the above well as an electron contribution. Thus, one situation in which
a single
of

result holds is when

background
depends

infinitely

massive

mpyjjigjhxcuigh humped^ejectrori^distributjpjijs shows that g{u) \302\260\302\260, ions; when w, \342\200\224 (6.22)

only

on

the

dec^n\342\200\236di$,tjiljulicia.

Next,

consider

the

case where the

them

relative

minimum

between

(Fig.

6.25).

distribution has a double hump, Then (6.45) predicts three values

with

of w;

e(ui =

kua)

Fig.

6.24

Contour cf obtained from Vlasov-Poisson theory

for

a single-humped

distribution g(u).

102

Vlasov Equation

\"l

\"0

\302\2532 distribution,

Fig.

6.25

A double-humped

with

zero

slope at u,,

w0,

and

u,

u>

\342\200\224

kuu

\342\200\224

ku0,

and

m =
ai_n

maximum
tr((o

of g(u) ku^) >.. I.)

Verify

pccurs
this,

ku^ where cf crosses thejeaLajds.If the absolute \342\200\224 it is straightforward to show that then u,?

EXERCISE

using

the same

argument as

in

(6.127)

and

(6.128).

It furthermore must case that as we move along the w contour from be the to w \342\200\224 we encounter at = \342\200\224\302\260\302\260 the crossings of the real e-axis in the ordeT +\302\260\302\260, \342\200\224 then eVu = /cw2)- Thus, the first part of ct looks as shown e(w \342\200\224 ku}), e(w ku<$),'.and
in Fig. is possibility
shown

6.26. We
as shown
in

Fig.

are now allowedtwo more crossings of the real e-axis.One in Fig. 6.27, which does not give instability. Another possibility is 6.28, which indicates one unstable root. We see that a necessary
is

condition for
which

instability

e(oi

= ku0)
2

<i\302\247J

(6.129)

from

(6.45) is
r<*

e(a> \342\200\224 ku0)

\342\200\224 1

du

dug(u)

(6.130)

Fig. 6.26

Portions

of

cf for

a double-humped

distribution.

Stability:

Nyquist

Method,

Penrose

Criterion

103

Fig.

6.27

Contour

ct for a

stable double-humped

distribution.

By once to obtain

again subtracting e(w =

0 =
=

dug(u0)

in the

numerator,

we can
-

integrate by

parts

ku0)

+.

o>,2i r J -p-

du

[g(\"o)

?(\302\253)]

(6.131)

where
e{w

the justification is ku0) < 0 for instability.

the same
But

as
-

in

(6.127).

Now

(6.129)

says we need

this

will be

assured if
< 0

te(\302\2530)

g(\302\253)]

/\"

du

(w

w0)2

(6.132)

\342\202\254

Fig.

6.28

Contour

ct for

an

unstable

double-humped

distribution.

104

Vlasov

Equation

Fig.

6.29

Three

regipns

C that A, \302\243,

contribute

to

the

integral

in (6.132).

necessary condition for is called the Penrose criterion \302\24311, Equation 12]; it is a necessary (6.132) instability. of a and sufficient condition for the linear instability Vlasov-Poisson equilibrium. in Fig. Consider the integration in (6.132) as applied to the three regions shown of is A and C the 6.29. In al! B. the integrand negative, whilejn regions region is the the contribution.in JHnust exceed positive integrand positive. Thus, negative C in order that the Pemose^riterion be satisfied.Notice contributionsTroin'/^jand ---\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240 \342\226\240s-' ... r the negative contribution in0> is enhanced by aideep that hole)

for when (6.132) is true, = ku0) = \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260 fork e(w = < Ojwhile_e(w e(cu

(6.131)ranges from
\342\200\224

_= \302\253(<u.

ku0)

\\ fc,

for we

\342\200\224 \302\260\302\260 to

0.

Thus,

for
which

some value
is the

of

must

have

ku0)

fcwz)_>ii\302\247^

EXERCISE
The
requiring!

Show

that

if #(Ko)

= 0; the

Penrose criterion is always

that

satisfied.
By

Nyquist
e(co

method
= ku0)

also tells us the range of unstable < 0 and e(co. = kUi) > 0, we find

wave numbers.
Eq.

(6.131)

for

Fig. 6.30 Two drifting

Maxwellians

with

i;, <

vdrii,

that

are unstable.

Stability: General
g(u>

Theory

of Linear

Vlasov Waves

105

I\342\200\224I \"drill I 1

Fig.

6.31

Two drifting MaxweJIians

with

udrilt

<

i>(.

that

are stable.

f{<s)

ku0)

and the

equivalent expression for

(u

t{w

ku2) yield

\"\302\253

-Ldu

<
u2f

<

\"-11.

<\342\200\236

u0y

<6-I33>

for thfijarige. of,jj.n&t3ble-.wayfc_nurftbe,i, We hole to predict have seen that the Penrose criterion needsa deep enough Maxwellian instability. Thus, two weakly drifting groups of electrons will be unstable the thermal speed, as velocity only when, crudely, the drift equals in Figs. indicated 6.30 and 6.31. in the problems. Other casesof stability thereof will be explored or lack

6.10

GENERAL THEORY

OF

LINEAR

VLASOV

WAVES

In preceding sectionswe have discussed waves in the context of linear electrostatic the Vlasov and Poissonequations; there was no background magnetic field. We a new physical found waves and ion-acoustic waves, and we found Langmuir a background effect, Landau damping. Let us now include magnetic field, and set waves. that will yield all linear waves, including electromagnetic up an approach is the which Several new effects will appear. One of these is cyclotron damping, magnetized

The basicequation

analogue of Landau damping.

is the

Vlasov

equation,

8,/, + where E(x,t) and

''U
have

^ (e

\342\200\242

b)

v,/=

(6.134)

(6.134)
fs(x,v,t)

about

space independent, zero order distribution + fs0(v) /sl(x,v,0, we have

a

B(x,0 can
and

internal

and external

contributions. Linearizing
function,

time

-J-

(eo

^XB,)'

V,

fM(y)

(6.135)

for each species, and

106

Vlasov

Equation

^tfs^ +

\342\200\242 + VK/\342\200\236

-^
+

(e0
X

+
Bl

^
)

\342\200\242 VT/\342\200\236

B0]
\"

~
\"J\"

(E\302\273

V,/*

(6'136)

The total charge density is

P(*.0 = 2

qs[d>vfs](x,v>t)

(6.137)

while

the total current

is

J(x.O =
where

g,[d3vyftl(x,Y,t)

(6.138)

we have

(6.135) Combining

to (6.138)

taken the zero orderchargedensity with Maxwell's equations

V \342\200\242 =

and

current

to vanish.

E,

4irp

(6.139)
<6-14\302\260)

v XEi and

= -

7 17
0

= V \342\226\240 Bi

(6.141)

we have a
relation

completeset of
solve

linear

equations

with

which to

find

the

dispersion in Section

for an arbitrary
the

Let us now

linear wave. first order Vlasov equation (6.136). Recall

that

6.2 we introduced the concept of unperturbed orbits of hypothetical that the zero order Vlasov equation (6.135) couldbe written
=
\342\226\240\302\247j-fjy)

particles, so

(6.143) functions

We then proceeded to

find

equilibrium

distribution

that were functions

of the
particle
magnetic fields.

constants

particles. Considera hypothetical a in of zero force electric and order field, consisting moving given For the present, we allow the zero orderelectric and fields magnetic
of motion

of the hypothetical

to be in

functions of both
Newton's

space

and

time; later we

will

make

them

constant.
find

From
its orbit variables
these

laws

of motion

we can
orbit

follow the
in velocity

orbit

of a

particle to

X(/),

real space,
are

and \\(t), its

space. The equations for

V(f)

X(t) =
and

(6.144)

V(0
we

-J-

+
[E\342\200\236[X(r),r]

B0[X(/),/]]
every

(6.145)
in seven-

In

particular,

associate

one of

these orbits with

the

point

(x,v,f)

dimensional phase
That

space, by

choosing

appropriate

constant

of integration.

is,

we choose

Stability: General

Theory

ol Linear

Vlasov Waves

107

x(o
or

= x

- r x(/-)< \\dt\"
\342\200\242V

(6.146)

X(f')
which

[' \\(t\dt\"
that

(6.147)

satisfies

(6.144)

and also

has the property

X(r)

(6.148)
of integration such that

Similarly, for

velocity,

we

choose
V(/')

the constant
= v

[' \\(t\dt\"

(6.149)
which

Thus,

the

orbit

[X(/'),V(f')J
function

is the orbit
/t(x,v,f)
I

of that
Then

particle

reaches

(x,v) at time /.

the position

Considerany

-X(,)-

l\302\273=V(0

dt'

A(x',v',0

1 =
*'=*<'\342\200\242)

=V(0

dh , \342\226\240 \342\226\240 ,s (x 'v \342\200\242'} x'=X(/') 17

x'=x(n
\302\273'=V(f)

Y'=V(/')

+ X(r')

\342\200\242

Vx.fc(x',v',<')

V(/')

\342\200\242

Vy-h(x',v',t')

x'=X(0
\302\273'=v<n

(6.150)

Along

the

unperturbed

orbit, we have

X(/')

\342\200\224

V(/')

=
^

v', and
(6.151)
h \342\200\224 and

V(r')
Thus,

j^ [e0[X(O,O
is just the
left

+ ^side

B0[X(f'),n)

the right side of (6.150) can write (6.136) as

\342\226\240jp-fAx'.y'.n

of (6.136)

when

fsU

we

=
<=xin
\302\273'=V(f)

j^
\342\200\242

(e,[X(o./']
x'=X(/')
Y'=V</')

V(0

B1[X(0,n]
Both
unperturbed

Vv./v0(x',v',O

(6.152)

sides of
orbit

(6.152) can be integrated that ends up at X(0

/\342\200\236(x,v,o

from
\342\200\224 x and

t'

\342\200\224 <x> to

('

\342\200\224 I

aiong
is

the

V(/)

= v.
=

The result
-<*>]

fsl[X(nv(0,r

-%-

df
\302\243

+
(E1[x(o,n

^px'=X(f')

* B.wo.n

J
(6.153)

Vv./^(x',v'j')

v'=V{C)

108
Equation

Vlasov Equation
(6.153)

is a

formal solution
the

evaluate Ej,B|, and/^ at

the

correct

point

at time /'. particle hypothetical \342\200\224 0, B0 stationary zero order fields E0 \342\200\224 constant, can be used in more only of velocity, although (6.153) Let us look for plane wave solutions to (6.153), E[(x,0
Bi(x,0 and
exp /s)(x,v,0 = /\342\200\236(v) are constant vectors. For the

where in the integrand we must fsl, of the unperturbed orbit [X(/'),V(/')] of From now on, we consider only uniform,
for

and/^ general
\342\200\242

\342\200\224

/s0(v)

a function

cases.

=
=

\302\243 exp fi

(-ia)l (-io)l

+ ik + ik

x) x)

(6.154) (6.155)

exp

\342\200\242

(-iwt
moment,

4- ik

\342\200\242

x)

(6.156)

where
wave

\302\243 and

we take

Im(w) >

0, so the

to time. Then a finite at time is exponentially amplitude growing with respect = = \342\200\224 = contribution t implies/3l(r' of/,,(/' \342\200\224\302\260\ \302\260o) 0, and we can ignore the in (6.153). The philosophy here is to find a dispersion relation valid for Im(ot) > 0, for arbitrary <u. This is the and then to analytically continue the dispersion relation

same technique

used earlier for

for

Langmuir

waves,

which

led

in

that

case

to the

Landau contour

evaluating reads

the

electrostatic

dispersion

relation.

now Equation (6.153)

/\302\273

exp

(-/\302\253,*

/k-x)

- -

-^- j'
M<\"''

dt'

\302\243 +

^p-

fi

]
(6-157)

\342\200\242

Vv./s0(v')l^V(O Moving

e*P

* ' x<0]

exp

+ {\342\200\224iwt

ik

\342\200\242 to

x)

the right

we

find

+
'\342\226\240M--iJC*'[\302\253

J!irI''\302\253]

Making

the

change

of variable

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 f t we

have

\342\200\242

Vv./^(v')|V(r)

exp

{-iwr

+ ik

\342\200\242

[X(t)

x]}
that

(6.159)
yields

where we

V(t - 0)] -

realize

that
(x,v).

in

this notation, fX(r), V(r)] is the orbit

[X(r

= 0),

^.11
Let

LINEAR
us

VLASOV
(6.159)

WAVES IN UNMAGNETIZED

PLASMA
zero order
(6.160)

evaluate
the

for the case

orbits

of an

equilibrium

plasma

with no

fields.Then
and

unperturbed

are from

V(f) =
X(/')

(6.147) and (6.149):

= x - v(/ = x + vr

/')

(6.161)

Linear

Vlasov

Waves

In Unmagnetized

Plasma

109

Since V(r)

does

not

depend

on r,

(6.I59) becomes

dr

exp

+ (\342\200\224ioir

ik

\342\200\242

vr)

(6.162)

Since

Ini(cy) >

0, the integral is well behaved and

f

we

find 1

dr exp (\342\200\224iwT +

/k

\342\200\242

vr)

-i(a>

\342\200\224 k \342\200\242

v)

(6.163)

so that

M
Taking
relation, Taking fi

=
/(a)

\342\200\224 \342\200\242

v)

hlx\302\253h-

/\302\253><*)

(6.164)

0 and

each species with

B,(x,/)

looking for

electrostaticwaves,
obtain

Poisson's

equatjoato

leading_to.Langmuir_j&av\302\243s,

(6.142)

and

Faraday's

8 exp (\342\200\224/&>/ -f law (6.140) that ik

X

we could combine (6.164) for our pjd Vlasov-Poisson dispersion ionracaustic ~wayes, and Landau damping. ik \342\200\242 \302\245\" 0, we find from Ampere's law x)

E,

\342\200\224

B,

(6.165)

and

ik

\342\200\236

B, =

47T

7 ft) \342\200\236

(6.166)

or
c2[k

(k

X E,)]

= ~i4nmJ

a>2E{

(6.167)
the term

For isotropic
^vfsoin

zero order distribution

vanishes.
Verify

functions/j0(v)

\342\200\224

/,0(i/),

(v

B)

\342\200\242

(6.164)

EXERCISE
Then

this.

J(M)

X </,/Vvv/tl(x,v,/)
'

= D q,exp(-iatt+ ik-x)(d\\\342\200\224 V T m, i(w

Let us look
and

vv/^(v)

k
X

\342\200\242

v)

(6.168) '

for transverse
becomes
(w2

waves,

such

that

\302\243 _L

k. Then

(k

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\243) k2\302\243,

(6.167)

*V)B

- -4rr/o) V-^'fmj
6.32. Then the

rfv

t *
j(fl)

'\342\226\240
- V'/k

Vv/j0(v)
\342\200\242

v)

(6.169)

where

the harmonic

arranged as shown

dependence has been factored

numerator
in

out.

in Fig.

Suppose has (6.169)

the vectors
a term

are

\342\200\242 \302\243 Vv =

110

Vlasov Equation
z, B,

\342\226\240y.Bt

Fig.

6.32

Vector components the denominator

for

an

electromagnetic

wave
\342\200\224

in

an

unmagnetized

plasma.

\302\243

dv

, while

is of

the only

form the

oi

kvx.

Thus, =

we can
\302\243$

integrate
We \302\243.

by

parts

in the

numerator,

picking out

term

\302\243 dUr\\

find

(a1
where obtain

- k2c2)l=
defined by
m,

4nu&

\342\200\224

e2

r
dvx
cu

g(v*)
~

n0J (6.22)

kvx

(6.170)

g(vj

is as usual
by allowing

and out

dependence

\342\200\224 \302\260\302\260. Dividing

the dispersion

relation for =
k~c2

electromagnetic

where we have ignored the ion we finally the constant vector \302\243, waves in unmagnetized plasma,
g(\"\302\273)

we2(o

I
<J-aa

dVy
i

\342\200\224 kv\342\200\236

(6.171)

must

in (6.171), the Landau contour the pole there might be a problemwith The waves. be used, for the same reason as in the discussion of Langmuir with the assumption w/k \302\273 t^for all integral in (6.171) can easily be performed \342\200\224 \302\253* the \302\253, dvx g(vx) = 1, and we find kvx vx of interest. Then <a integral/\"
Whenever *V

(6.172) plasma.

for linear

electromagneticwaves
in

in

unmagnetized
even

EXERCISE
integral

Show from (6.172) that

(6.171),

in a more

accurate
contribution

treatment of

the

there

is no need

to consider a

involving

gM\\v=a,/k-

In this section uniform plasma

next

we
with

have seen how electrostatic and fields are treated via no external

electromagnetic

waves

in a

the Vlasov equation. In the

a uniformly

section

we shall

set up the equivalent procedurefor

magnetized

plasma.

6.12

LINEAR VLASOVWAVES
seen

IN

MAGNETIZED

PLASMA

In the previous section we have solved by integrating along the

that

the linearized Vlasov

particles

equation can
in the

be

orbits of hypothetical

moving

zero

Linear

Vlasov

Waves

in Magnetized

Plasma

111
effect
the of a

orderfields;
of
the

these

orbits

wave

motion

are called unperturbed because they do not feel the for which one is looking. In an unmagnetized plasma,
it is

unperturbed
distribution

orbits are simple,and

function.
field

straightforward
the

to evaluate
the

the

perturbed

Consider

the evaluation

of (6.159)in
orbits

presence

uniform background
the

magneticfield. Now
\302\253,V(r)

unperturbed

are spirals

around
(6.173)

magnetic

tines, satisfying

Newton's law
-

-^-

V(r)

Bu

X(r

the magnetic field in the Choosing = 0) - x, V(r = v, are = 0)

Vz{t)

^-direction,
=

the

gyro-orbits

that

satisfy

v,

(6.174)

Z(T) = z
VIt)

+ v,t
(<p

(6.175)
D.st)

v\302\261

cos

(6.176)
sin

X{t) = x and

-^=

sin

(<p

(Ist) +
~

-^

(6.177)

Vy(T)

v\302\261sm{<p

1\\t)

(6.178)

Y(t) = y
where
the

cos

-\302\243\302\261-

(V

ClsT)
ip

~
is a

cos
j\302\261

(6.179)

gyrofrequency

is fts
that

= qxBQ/msc< and
to (6.179)
satisfy

constant
with

0 <

tp

<

2n.

EXERCISE

Verify

(6.174)

(6.173)

the appropriate

boundary conditions.

Inserting the orbit (6.174) to (6.179) into (6.159), we can carry out the integration over t in (6.159). B in terms of E, we Then using Maxwell's equations to eliminate for in a could obtain a genera! relation waves uniformly magnetized dispersion contain would all of the waves to be encountered plasma. This dispersion relation next Alfven waves, upper-hybrid in the on fluid for example, chapter theory, In and waves. addition, entirely new wave modes appearin waves, extraordinary from the Vlasov a fluid formulation. which are formulation, impossibleto obtain Known as Bernsteinmodes, these the detailed interaction of the waves on depend wave with the gyro-orbits of the particles. motion of (6.159) are quite tedious (see [13],p. 405 Because the details of the evaluation
the derivation and point to the and [15]), we shall simply sketch choosethe natural terms. zero we For the order distribution, physically interesting \342\200\224 + function of the constants of the motion/^, = fs0(v\302\261,v,). Then with v\302\261 (vx2
and

[14]

v/Y'2

we have
Vv/*,)(\"_,_< \302\27301 \302\273=v<o

(x

+
dVifM

9 dUrfM

+ z ^/rtjWfn
dUl

- (VJ + VJ) 4t
EXERCISE
Verify

fM

+ 5 dvJsU

(6.180)

this

equation.

112

Vlasov Equation
in

Every term

(6.180),

except
outside

and can be
magnetic

taken

the

of motion of a particle orbit Vxand Vy, is a constant in integration (6.159). In general, the perturbed
the

field B

can have three components. However, fi)

\342\200\242

combination

(V x

v,fM

{-vxvfiy

+ v2vyBx) -f-

/\342\200\236,

(VxBy -SxVy)dv/M
be
in

(6.181)
terms

has only
After

single taking
if

equations

Vx, \302\243 constants and fi (expressed as as well desired) nJand/!o(n\302\261,iiJ)

the
form

terms,

K^that depend on t and must

outside

kept of \302\243 through

inside the

integral.

Maxwell's

the

integral,

all remaining

terms are of the

r
The integrals

dr

Vy(r) 1

exp

+ {\342\200\224io)T

/k

\342\200\242

[X(r)

\342\200\224

x]}

(6.182)

(6.182)

can

be

evaluated
=

in terms

of the identities
(6.183)

gtosinfl

\302\243/n(fl)exp(i/t0)

and
e-/aSin8

\302\243Jn(a)exp(-ind)

(6.184)
loss

where/,, is the Bessel function to be k = kxx wave number

k

of ordern. Without
+

of generality,

we choose the

ksz\\ then (6.175) \342\200\242 =

[X(r)

and (6.177) yield

x]

k2v2T X^ I sin <p rr\342\200\224

sin

\342\200\224 ((f>

fl,r)

(6.185)

Thus,

choosing

the factor

unity

in

(6.182)

as an

example, (6.182) becomes

(6.186)

l =
where

rfTr\"\"r+,^\302\273--rr,'l,5in,,f\"n'7'e''8sill\302\273

a =

kxvx/fls.

With

(6.183)

and

(6.184)

we have

1= f
X

dTe-imT+ik=\"--T'^ CO

J,(a)

e-u<p+nn.T

Jn(a)e'\"v \302\243 n=-ee three

(6.187) exponential

The

integration
We

can
find

now be

performed becauseonly
X JtW**
that

factors

depend on r.
i

\342\226\2401

JM

z-(
just calculated

(6.188)
involving^

glance

back

at (6.159)
this

shows

we

have

the term

<V/jo(uj_'fJ;

term

is therefore

Linear Via

so v

Wavea

In

Magnetized

Plasma

113

ms
{+

i1~L

'<\302\253> \342\200\236tr\342\200\236 \302\243 and

/n. ~

(6.189)
*--\"--)

other

terms

involving

8}

where fl = kxv\302\261/fls. The other terms in (6.189^re no harder to calculate than the \342\200\224 the one shown; for example, integral (6.182) flsr) involving Vx{t) \342\200\224 u\302\261cos(<^ \342\200\224 \342\200\224 + exp {\342\200\224iip + is easily calculated using Vx(r) ffl,T)]/2, 'fisr) v\302\261[exp (zV the form (6.187) and has the effect of shifting the indices which fits naturally into of the Bessel functions the perturbed magnetic up and down by one. Eliminating field using Maxwell's equations,we find as in the previous section [Eqs.(6.167),

(6.169)]

(o2t

c2[k

X (k

\302\243)]

-Awiw

X
s

iSJ

<Pvsf(\\) -<

(6.190)

where/s(v)
Thus,

(6.190)

coefficients

from (6.189) is linearly is three equations in equal to zero yields the

Landau

three

of \302\243. proportional to the various components unknowns; setting the determinant of the
found velocity

Eqs. (8.10.10) and

In (6.190), the (8.10.11).

contour.

horrendous dispersion relation

integral

must,

in Ref. 13, as usual, be

performed along the

By taking

from appropriate limits, we could obtain (6.190) there occur waves called Bernstein fluid In addition, theory. \342\200\224 0 in modes propagate across the magnetic field, so that kz

all of the
modes

waves of

These the denominator of

[16].

(6.189), and are predominantly

outside

electrostatic.

Then
dispersion

sums of terms like (m \342\200\224 This term goes from \342\200\224\302\260\302\260 as w changes to +\302\260\302\260 by a small !Cls)~l. amount Cis.The result is a set of modes,one for each harmonic of the cyclotron to the upper-hybrid frequency of each species. One of these modes corresponds is mode (see Chapter 7) in the limit of small wave number. The dispersion diagram + cu2)1'2 as shown in Fig. 6.33. This figure is for the case (oi!H \342\200\224 (D./ qualitatively that there are waves for any such that between 2|fte| and 3|fl,|. Notice frequency |Ov| < (x) < <ioUH, but that for <o > (nvli there are \"stop\" bands where no waves
the

integral

of (6.189),

and

the

can the denominator will contain relation

be taken

exist.

There

are other

interesting features
representing = but

of

(6.189)

and

(6.190).

Recall
with

that

in

the
the

unmagnetized
form

case, Landau

damping came from

a resonant

denominator speeds
vz along
will

of

\342\200\224 (<\302\273 kv)~\\

to the wave
resonant

phase speed,v
those

strong interaction with particles cu/k. From (6.189), we get the

equal
the

same kind of
yield

denominator,

involving

magnetic field.
dampinginvolving

The same procedureas in

paticles

only the component

the

of

velocity

unmagnetized

case

with parallel

speeds

k,
If k;
\342\200\224\342\226\240. m 0, and

1=
/,

0,\302\2611,\302\2612,

(6.191)

lfis for

any

there

is no

damping.

114
3k
\"

Vlasov

Equation

kx\"e

Fig.

6.33

Sketch of

the

dispersion

curves

for electron

Bernstein modes.

When

we have
particle sees

0 in (6.19I), we have our old friend Landau cyclotron damping. Physically, cyclotron damping a wave whose Doppler shifted frequency is the
/

damping. occurs
gyrofrequency

When / when the

or

\302\245\" 0,

some

harmonic

thereof:
w

k2v2

= ID.S,

I =

.... \302\2611,\302\2612,
at

(6.192)
one

/ consider circularly polarized. For example,

field shown
in

Suppose

the

wave

is circularly

polarized,

or has
its

least

\342\200\224 1. Then

Fig.

6.34

as it goes
and

around
thus the

gyro-orbit.

that is component the particle might see the the particle can Evidently,
relativistic

be continuously
The

accelerated

concept

plasmas.

Then

fis = qfi^/m^c isa function

of cyclotron

wave is damped. has an interesting extension to damping

of particle

speed, since the relativistic

Fig. 6.34
points

Orientation

of the

electric field of a wave,

and

the

position

of a particle,

at four

around

the particle's

gyro-orbit.

t
mass is a function of as well as u2. Uj_
section,
condition particle speed.Theresonance

BGK

Modes

115

(6.192)

then

depends

on

This completes our discussion of

next

linear example

waves

in uniform

we encounter

our

first

of a

nonlinear

Vlasov plasma. In the wave.

6.13
In

BGK MODES
sections
the

preceding

we have
of

plasma. As
ignored
nonlinear

intensity

such

studied the linear waves that can exist waves is increased, nonlinear effects
There

in a

Vlasov
are

that

in the
effects,

linear derivation becomeimportant. and much current research in

theoretical, experimental, and numerical study we introduce an important class of nonlinear

.Bernstein,
Jn

many different is devoted to the plasma physics waves. In this section, of nonlinear the BGK modes, named after wayxs,
are
equilibrium

Case

and Greene, C of Section

A^ruskal [6]. 6.2 we encountered an

varying

distribution

function

in

the presence
just

of a^patJAlly

electrostatic

potential.

A BGK

mode involves

is produced function, where the electrostatic -potential Poisson's function through equation. self-consistently by the distribution with spatial For simplicity, let us consider the time independent situation in the x-direction. is variation only the Vlasov Then for each species equation

such

a distribution

where
Poisson's

=_;vx.

The

potential

<p(x) must be

determined sell-consistently through

~
\302\243

equation

~,
where
integrated over.

= 4jre
[\302\243\" that

dvfe(x,v)

\302\253>\342\200\242194)

dvftx.v)]

it is

understood
already

the

vy and

vz

dependencies

of/,(*,
are

v) have just

been

We

know the solutions

these of (6.193);

the equilibrium

distribution
equation,

functions
which

one for 2q,tp(x)/m.,],

is

(6.12). Thus,
each

we

can

pick,

two arbitrary
in

functions f,[vr2
solve the
resulting

species,

insert

these

(6.194),

and

|^

47re

dv
j\302\260\302\260

[/,

[u2

- le^x)/m,

]
(6.195)

-/
This equation
For
must

+
[v2

2^(x)/w,]]

be

solved
to out

example, we may wish solutions. soliton It turns

nonlinear

for <p(x) subject to appropriate boundary conditions. look for periodic wavelike solutions, or for localized that there exists a huge number of solutionsto the equation

integro-diiferential

(6.195).
each

is

Let us begin to study (6.195) by looking at a very simple case, where a cold beam o\302\243parlicles, each of species s having the same particle
position.

species

speed

at a

given

Thus,

we choose
2\302\253jju\302\2436[u2.-

fe(x,v) =

2e<p(x)/m,

u/j

(6.196)

116
where
that

Vlasov

Equation

is,

for definiteness we recall the

we choose relation

only

the

positive

root

inside the delta function;

d[f(y)] =
dy

(6.197)

where

ya is the

solution of/(_y0)

\342\200\224 Then

0.

(6.196)

becomes
ve)

fe(x,v) =
where

\302\2730

S(v ~

(6.198)

v*(x)
Similarly,

= [y,2 + 2e^ixVmtV/2

(6.199)

for

the

ions we

take

f,{x,v) with

\342\200\224 na

d{v

rii)

(6.200)

vM

= [vf

- leyM/m,]\"2

(6.201)

Here,
and

u,

and

(6.201)

normalization

end of the
We

we choose ve are arbitrary constants that (6.199) large enough that for ve and 5f. We have chosen the values always yield real positive constants we at the must check n0 the same for ions and electrons; calculation that this gives an overall neutral plasma.

now

look

for spatially

over periodic solutions to (6.195). Integrating/,.,/

all

velocity

space,

we

find

n\302\243x)

n0

(6.202)

and
n,(x)

n0

\302\245-

(6.203)

so that

(6.195)

becomes (6.204)

dx2
or

\\ve

vj

We notice the
tial

fortunate circumstance that

that

(6.205)

is in

the form

of a pseudopoten(6.206)

equation;

is, it is

in

the

form

g
with

= \302\243

VM

VM

- 4^

+
[\302\253.\342\200\236.' (l

^)'\\

>n,W

(l

^-f}

(6.207)

BGK

Modes

117

VW
Ii

-*

-T/7e

|
I I

7V2e

I I -Q2)'AnnaT I

V
j

-BxOqT

Fig. 6.35 Pseudopotential through an ion beam. As a

well

used

in finding

BGK modesfor an =
=

electron

beam

traveling

specific example, let

V{<?)

us

choose

mev/

wi(-u,-2

T. Then

4rrn0T

[(1
in

+
Fig.

^)
6.35.

(l

^)

(6.208)

The

sketch

calledpseudopotential
motion

of V(<p) is

as shown
equations
\342\200\224

because

mx
in

= F(x)
the

dV{x)/dx.

somewhere between
forever
oscillates

\342\200\224(32)1/2 nn0T

of the form (6.206) are Equations of their resemblance to Newton's law of With an initial choice of the \"pseudoenergy\" and \342\200\22487rnor,the \"pseudoparticle\" oscillates

periodic of very small

In

that well, producing a spatially periodicpotential is a in Fig. 6.36. The function between <p(x) \342\200\224v50;and<p^, as shown a sine function in the limit function but is not a sine function; it becomes

pseudopotential

.\302\253p|jV

the

limit of
(6.205),

small

<\302\243Ujwecan

make

roots in

assuming

etp{x)/T

\302\253

analytic I for

progress by expanding all x. We obtain

=

the square

-^2
with solution

<P \342\200\224j\342\200\224

(6.209)

ip{x) = where we have defined an

Recall
effective

v50

sin

(21''2 x/Kefi)

(6.210)
(6.211)

Debye

length

\342\200\224 K\302\253 vjaie

that

vt

here

is a

constant
<t>(x)

and not a thermal speed.

I,

Fig.

6.36

Periodic BGK modes for

an

electron

beam

moving through

an

ion

beam.

118
Our

Vlasov Equation
physical

picture

the linear limit (6.210), is accelerated beam

lower

of this BGK mode, both the nonlinear version (6.206) and is as follows. A spatially periodic ion exists. The potential
through

regions

of

In other words,
\342\200\224

density there. The net result is a negative the right amount to produce potential, of \342\200\242exactly the negative potential ./The argument opposite produces the regions of positive The potential and densities thus have the phase relationships shown in potential. 6.37. The important point is that this physical process works-not only in the Fig. linear regime of (6.210), but also the nonlinear regime of (6.2X>6). In the preceding discussion we assumed that the ion and electron velocities were so that none of them in the electrostatic potential wells. were large enough trapped
a higher
we e<p(x)

the density there, while negative potential and thus has net charge in regions of negative

electron

large beam

negative potential and is decelerated in regions

thus

has

of

large

for

all x.

had ion energy > e<p{x)for all We can also considerthe case where
the

ions are trapped in

potential

potential

wells. Amazingly,
by

it

falx)

can be

constructed
electrons,

choosing

appropriate

electron energy > of the electrons or turns out that almost any of trapped distributions
x,

and

some

electrons, untrapped

trapped

ions,

and untrapped

ions.

<i\302\273,W

\"o

''\302\273\302\253

Fig.
and

6.37
net

charge

Phase relationships among electrostaticpotential, density in the BGK mode of Fig. 6.36.

electron

density,

ion density,

BGK

Modes

119

For this
that

discussion

it

is

convenient

depend
With

v.

the

{H

on energy^j-ather = substitutionH
=

q,v)\302\245'2,dv

[2m,(H~-

of distribution to think in terms than distribution functions that depend \342\200\224 = m\342\200\236vdv lAmsv2 + qs<p, we have <tfi dv and qs<p)Yn

functions
on velocity ms[{2/ms)

fkv)dv =fs[v(H)]dv =\342\226\240 \\2mAH

Equation
convenience

UH) dU
(6.212)
gs<p)Y'2

6.212
(we

do

applies to particles not need to do this

with

positive

speeds.

If we

assume for

in
then

general)
we

that
have

there are

equal

numbers

of

left-going

and

right-going
;w,(x)-=

particles,
/

dvfs(x,v)

= 2 I

dvf,{x,v)
(6.213)

=
where the lower
particle
since
limit

2T

dH
[2ms(H

L(x,H)
-

qs<p)f

on

the

energy
q,tp{X)

integration
for

must be taken to

be

qsip;

no

can have

energy less than

qsy>.

then its
in

velocity would be imaginary

6^38. Then any ion with total the potential hills; the ion with trapped oscillates forever on solid the line.shown. An ion with total energy H energy e<pQ than will travel to the left or to the right. The electrons, forever greater e<pm^ of their negative charge.Thus, see the because however, potentiaojpside^down, between the potential will be electron with than any trapped \342\200\224e<^mj\342\200\236 energy Htless

^Amsv7 Consider a

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 H

periodic potential,
be

as

shown

Fig.

energy JJ less thaii^&jg^^jvitl

between

minima,

while
right.

electrons

with energies

greater

thani-\342\200\224^^.travel

forever

to the left

or to the
Suppose

we

are given
eipmiv.

distribution/^.//)
/,,(//),

a completely arbitrary of ions (both trapped and

Then

periodic

potential

y(x),

a given

untrapped),
the

and a
that

given

distribution

H >

\342\200\224

it turns out
always

that

distribution

of trapped
Poisson's

electrons
equation

< H fe{H), \342\200\224e<p

<

can \342\200\224eipmin,

be chosen Note

so

is

satisfied and the given potential <p(x) calculation be found on p. 436 of Ref. can

is indeed

produced.

Details of

this

[13].

that/,

can be different

for

v <

and

>

0.
many

There are

practical

applications
wave

of BGK
(Section

stage of a Landau dampedLangmuir

modes, including the nonlinear 6.8), and the theories of shock

Fig. particles.

6.38

Periodic

potential

of a BGK mode that

contains

trapped

and untrapped

120

Vlasov

Equation
contrast,

waves and
be

double layers.By
in the next

the

theory
little

of Case-Van structure

Kampen modes,to
nevertheless,

presented

section, has very

about

practical

application;

this theory

teaches us much
KAMPEN

the

analytic

of the Vlasov equation.

6.14

CASE-VAN

MODES

waves and Landau damping by studied Langmuir Poisson Vlasov equations, eliminating the perturbed distribution linearizing the led us This for the electric field \302\243T. value and the initial problem solving function/,, function the dielectric of E, which were found by setting modes to look for normal e(ai,k) equal to zero. In this way we found one normal mode for every value of k, *\302\273 with + Vi k2Ke2) + iy where damping rate. 7 is the Landau m(k) a)e(l and is to eliminate \302\243 and that this to There* is another problem, approach way the Case-Van Kampen modes we find look for normal modes of/,. In this way In Sections and

6.1 to 6.5 we

[17, 18].
The

Vlasov-Poisson

system

is

a,/+
and

vajr/--^d\342\200\236/=o

(6.214)

d^

= Aire

[\302\253\342\200\236;-dvf(v)] \302\243

(6.215)

dimensiona/ electron distribution.

ions

where one-dimensional
being

variations are considered,v

Equation

-1.
^.

vx, and

f(v) is the one-

(6.2/4/

refers

to e/ectrons

fixed (mi

\342\200\224 \302\273). Linearizing

(6.214)

and (6.215)

we find

exactly as in

oa/y,

t/re

Section

6.3

a./. +
and

^/i^^-^X

tn

ov

(6.216)
(6.217)

$J!(x,i)
where/0(v)

= ~

4ne f

dvMx,v,t)

= = 1. We can now look for normal modes i$g(v), /_\" dvg(v) of/, that have the spatial and time dependence is not ikx). Note that this exp(\342\200\224icot + the same procedure as usedpreviously in Section 6.4 for the electric field E. There,
we

assumed

techniques the only looking

an

normal modes in space and time. We are not considering the connection between the normal modes found here and an initial value must be established separately. problem for + ikx),E = \302\243()exp(-/w/ + Looking solutions/(x,i>,/) =/(u) exp(-rW and ikx), (6.216) (6.217) become
initial

only the spatial dependence exp(j'fcr),and used Laplace transform to consider the complete time evolution. At late times, we found that normal modes given by the zeros of e(<u,k) were important. Herewe are

for immediately value problem;

(-i\302\273

ikv)Jx

=^f~ tn

ov

(6.218)

Case-Van

Kampen Modes

121

and

^47re
E\302\260=

r\302\260

from

which

we can

L eliminate E0 to obtain
-ir

dvfM

(6.219)

(-f)*-\302\243\302\243i>'.<'>
Defining

(6.220)

rj{v)

(oi//*2)

dg/dv,

this

is

(6.221)
Equation
coefficients

(the

(6.221) is a linear integral v on the left and the rj(v)

equation on

for/,(u),

with

nonconstant

the

right).
guess

One good

approach

to

solving

such

equations

is to guess the

solution. We

>\342\226\240<\302\273>

='[A]+

\302\253--'\302\253['-'\302\243;*?&]
\342\200\224 exp(\342\200\224i<ot

(6.222)

with

which
In

18].

fi(x,v,t) /i(d) P stands for (6.222),

ikx)

is the

principal value, and is defined

1

Case-Van Kampen mode[17,

by

x
\\x

\342\200\224

x #

-aI

(6.223)
-

lim
x x-.a\302\261

x = a

so
the

that

this

expression

is either

+<*>

or has

\342\200\224 \302\260o at x

\342\200\224

a,

depending

on from
that

which

side

limit

is taken.

This definition
(x

the

important

consequence

a) P
at x

(rb)
\342\200\224 a no

= '
matter

(6.224)

since

the left

side of (6.224)is unity

from

which

side

the limit

is

taken.
number (6.222) says that for any wave number k, there are an infinite to the initial modes, one for each value of real w. This is in contrast value problem for E(x,t), where one normal mode was found for each value only of k (if negative frequencies are counted,then normal modes were found for two each value of k). Note further that the normal modes are not damped, but exist for all time with real w. frequency Let us verify that (6.222) is indeed a solution of (6.221). The left side is simplified one of its terms is of the form because which is zero. Thus, in (6.221), u8(u),

Note that

of normal

left

side

= 77(1;)
principal

(6.225)
values

On the

right

other when

of (6.221), the two terms involving integrated over v, and we are left with
side

cancel

each

only

the term

122

Vlasov

Equation

right

side

= t)(v)
equal

(6.226)
and

so that

the

left

normal mode solution.Since is a (6.221)

multiplied
EXERCISE
What find by

and right

are indeed sides of (6.221)

linear

(6.222)
in

is indeed a
can

equation,

/(u)

(6.222)

be

any

constant.

Verify
the

(6.225) and

(6.226).
with

is

electric

field associated
=

this

normal

mode?

Using (6.219), we

Ea

~nr

Ldvfi{v)
=
\342\200\22447re \342\200\224\342\200\224

(6227)

or
E, (6.228)

so that
\342\200\2244ne

E(xyt)

ik

(6.229)

electric field associated with the normal mode (6.222). These normal modesare peculiar,both mathematically and physically. \342\200\224 \342\200\224 oo the we of in (6.222). because But it 6-function (d (u/k) have/, Mathematically, = is not consistent to linearizethe Vlasov + then and equation with/ find/ /\342\200\236 / infinite! number of particles (6.222) says that we must have a finite Physically, per unit volume with velocity exactly equal to w/k, is impossible to do. which spatial We conclude that the individual Case-Van Kampen modesas given by (6.222) are is the importance of the modes in (6.222)? not physically relevant. What then The importance of the modes in (6.222) lies in the possibility of creating a and disturbance such by adding physically mathematically acceptable up many modes. Consider a fixed wave number k. Since the basic linearized Vlasov-Poisson system is indeed linear, we may construct a solution by taking any linear combination of the solutions in (6.222). The general solution is
is the

f,(x,v,r) =
where

eikx

da>e-\"\302\273'J'](v,w)c{aj) by their
will

(6.230)
w,

\342\200\242/-co

we label
weighting will

the normal
function. be

modes of
For

(6.222)

arbitrary
in/(v,a>)
physically nice must

smoothed

sufficiently out, and/|(x,u,f)

initial

frequency well behaved c(<w),

be

and

c(oj)

is an

the

singularities

a mathematically

and

function. chosen

For a given such that

into

condition correct

be

(6.230) yields the

(6.230),

= 0), the function ft(x,v,t at / = 0. solution

c(w)

Inserting (6.222) for/(u)

we find
d\302\273 _\342\200\236

{Jk)

eikxk

e-ikv'

= kv) c(u> kv) P

- k eikx->kvl

c(w

r
J.^

, v

\" \342\200\224

(6.231)

Case-Van

Kampen Modes the middle

rather

123 term
in

where we
(6.231).

have

used

6{v

\342\200\224

<o/k)

kd(m

\342\200\224

kv).

Consider
but

This

term
free

does not damp away at

with

late times,

velocity faster

and faster
electrons
when

is due to the charge of the

equation

streaming

(6.216)

time, as shown in Fig. 6.39. increasing occur of particles, and would foifx(x,v,t) linearized were zero. For example, consider the the charge is zero;

in This behavior even if the

oscillates Vlasov

3,/i +
where spatial

ikvf,

(6.232)

dependence eikx

is assumed.

The solution

of (6.232) is
(6-233)

= 0)e~\"\"\" 7i(w.') =/\342\226\240(\302\253.'

a time. which becomes more and more pathological with Physically, increasing out this behavior at late time. would small number of collisions wipe we can ask: Does the a nonzero case with to the general charge, Returning field behave more reasonably? Yes it does. From Poisson's equation, electric
E(x,t)

\342\200\224Awe

ik

dvf,(v, x,t)

(6.234)

or

E(x,t)
where the
first

\342\200\224 4nei

e'ikx

f\"

dv e~'k\"'c(w
of

\342\200\224

kv)

(6.235)

and

last

terms

on the

right

(6.231)

cancel

upon integration.

/\",(x

= 0, v, t>0)

6.39 A portion different times.

Fig.

of

the

distribution

function of a Case-Van Kampen

mode

at two

124
EXERCISE

Vlatov

Equation

Verify
side

this. is
in

The

right

of (6.235)

the

form

of a Fourier
initial/,(x,v,l)

transform. It
through

turns

out

that

when c(w) is

the correctly chosento represent

(6.230),

then

to the expression (6.235) is exactly equivalent (6.35) together with (6.34). Thus, the the correct as before, together with would transients, right side of (6.235) produce between the Landau damped normal modes. Thus, there is complete agreement norma) mode picture for E{x,t) of Sections 6.4 and 6.5, and the normal mode is somewhat more complete, of the present section. The latter picture for f(x,v,t) its own future determines at all since/[(x,^,?) determines E(x,t) and therefore different and times, while E(x,t) could be produced functions/](x,v,r) by many therefore does not determine its own future at all times. In practice, either the be used because E{x,t) does pick out Landau slowly damped approach may have died away. normal modes of the system at late times, after the transients This brings us to the end of our discussion of the Vlasov equation. We recall that the Vlasov equation is obtained as an approximate from the Klimontheory of tovich and Liouville of Chapters 3 to 5 by neglecting the physics approaches Vlasov In the collisions. the next two chapters, we take moments of equation to even these are the fluid obtain simpler and more approximate theories of a plasma;
theory

and

magnetohydrodynamics.

REFERENCES

[1]

A. A. Vlasov, J.

Phys.

(U.S.S.R.),

9, 25

(1945).

[2] L.
,

D. Landau,

J.

Phys.
Nifcl.

[3]

J. D.

Jackson, /.
and

[4] L, D. Landau
Pergamon,

E.

(1946). C, 1, 171 (1960). Energy, M. Lifshitz, Electrodynamics of

(U.S.S.RJ,
Pari 4, 869

10, 25

Continuous

Media,

Oxford,

1960.
Fluids,

[5] J. [6] I. [7] T.

Dawson,Phys. B. Bernstein,

(1961). and M.

J.

M.

Greene,

D. Kruskal,Phys.

Rev.,

108,

546

(1957).

M. O'Neil, J. H. Winfrey,
Morales

and

J.

H. Malmberg,

Phys. Fluids, 14,

1204

(1971). [8] G.J. [9] T. O'Neil,

and

J. H.
Fluids,

Malmberg,
8, 2255

Phys. Fluids,

17, 609 (1974).

Phys.

(1965).

6, 839 (1963). Fluids, [10] C. S. Gardner, Phys. 3,25% Fluids, [11] R. Penrose, (1960). Phys. 879 (1960). 118, [12] P. Noerdlinger, Phys. Rev., A. Krall and A. W. Trivelpiece, [13] N. Principles

of Plasma

Physics, McGraw-

Hill, New
[14] [15]

York,

1973.
Theory

T. H.

Stix, The
and

of Plasma

Waves, McGraw-Hill, New

Plasmas,

York, 1962,
1966.

Chs. 8

9.

G. Bekefi, Radiation

Processes in

Wiley,

New York,

Problems

125

[16]

I. B.
M.

[17] K.
[1\302\273]

Bernstein, Phys. Rev., 109, 10(1958). Ann. Phys. (N. Y.), 7, 349 (1959). Case,
Van Kampen,

N.

G.

Physica, 21, 949 (1955).-

PROBLEMS

6.1
The

Resistive
type

vs. Reactive

Instabilities
in

of instability instability; and (6.43)

found
these are

(6.52)

when

dug{u)\\u^w^ii
(6.42)

> 0 is often
and e(cu)

called a

\"resistive\"
why

(6.42)

instabilities to which do not apply to the dielectric

function

(6.43) apply. Show = 1 + <o0Voj\\

which

yields

a \"reactive\" instability.

6.2 Ion-AcousticWaves
describing (6.21) has a branch Langmuir waves. We consider g(u) describing with T; \302\253 T^ and look for a wave with (6.24), The

dispersion

relation

one

waves as well as as in two Maxwellians given by that such phase speed

ion-acoustic
ve

v,

\302\253

oi/k

\302\253

For the ion contribution, expand the electron contribution, approximate denominator. Then solve the dispersion Waves. ion-acoustic

denominator
the

in (6.21) by

as

in

(6.26).
\302\253

For
u

integral

relation

co/k ignoring e(k,(o) = 0 to find

in

the the
for

<o \342\200\224 w(k)

6.3 Electrostatic Waves

must be solved using the relation dispersion (6.21) for electrostatic waves can be evaluated for the Landau contour of Section 6.4; alternatively, integral Evaluate find and the result < 0. and > 0 continued to <o, analytically o>, (6.21) modes w(k) for the following distribution functions the normal g(u). Cold plasma, g(u) \342\200\224 (a) S(u). Cold (b) beam, g(u) = 8(u - w0). distribution, Square (c) g(u) = (2c)\"1for |w| < c, g(u) = 0 for |w| > c; c is a real positive constant. can there never be a distribution, g(u) = (c/n){ul + c2)'\\ (d) (Why Cauchy true Cauchy distribution?) The

6.4
Apply derived

Ion-Acoustic
the in

Wave Energy energy formula (6.72) to 6.2. Is most of the energy

the

wave

ion-acoustic

dielectric

function

Problem

in electric

energy? 7).

Explain

physically and

in

detail

why

this is

in so (see discussion

field energy

or

in

particle Chapter

6.5

Two

Drifting

Cauchy

Distributions
massive

Consider

a Vlasov

equilibrium consistingof infinitely

distributions

ions
that

and two

coun-

terstreaming Cauchy

(see

Problem

6.3) such

126

Via so v Equation

g{u) (a)

In

[ (u

- af +
to show
that

+
A2

(u

+ a)2

A2

Sketch
Apply Apply

g(u).
Gardner's the

(b)

theorem

stability this

is guaranteed equilibrium

for a

< A/\\/3.

(c)
6.6

Penrose

criterion

to show

that

is stable

for a

<

A,

and

unstable

for a

>

A.

Isotropic

Stability

(a)

function

Consider a plasma with infinitely ions and an electron distribution massive that is the surface of a spherein three-dimensional velocity space, = C + + v2Y<2 \342\200\236\342\200\236] d[(vx2 /c(v) = C8(vuo-)

v/

Calculate
distribution

g(u), is stable

(b)

Considerany

sketch it, and use Gardner'stheoremto show to electrostatic perturbations. function distribution isotropic

that

this

/,(*)

=fM a distribution is stable to

Use Gardner'stheorem
electrostatic perturbations.

to

show

that such

CHAPTER

Fluid

Equations

7.1

INTRODUCTION

There

are many

the plasma
approach,

of that can be studied by thinking physics phenomena in plasma as two interpenetrating fluids, an electron fluid and an ion fluid. In this fact that it is not necessary to considerthe each species consists of different

particleswith
it

velocities.

The advantage

of

this

approach
time

is its
rather

leads

to

seven-dimensional phase spaceof Vlasov 6). The disadvantage of theory (Chapter this is that it misses velocity-dependent effectssuch as Landau damping. approach for the benefit of In this section, we introduce the fluid equations heuristically, those readerswho have not yet studied Chapter 6 on Vlasov In the next theory. a we of the fluid equations from the section, present more rigorousderivation Vlasov equation.
the of fluid theory is the continuity which expresses equation-, is not being created or destroyed, so that the only way that the fluid of fluid species s can change at a point x = (x,y,z) is by having density ns(\\,t) a net amount of fluid or leave a small spatial volume enter that point. including
equation

equations

in three

spatial dimensions and

than

simplicity; in the

The first
that

fact

the

fluid

s per unit volume. The density ns is the number of particles of species a velocity vector \\s(x,t) that element of fluid there corresponds gives of the fluid at the point x at time t. Mathematically, the element for fluid species s is equation
a,\302\273,(x,0

To every the

velocity

continuity

\342\200\242 (\302\273,V.)

0
three-dimensional

(7.1)
configu-

where V

(dx,dyydi)

is the usual

gradient operatorin

128
ration

Fluid

Equation*

space.

A derivation
mechanics

of the
fluid

fluid

continuity is the

equation
[1]).

can be found
is

in

most

undergraduate The second

books (see,

Ref. for example,

Newton's

equation second law of

of

theory

motion

for a fluid.

force equation, which for fluid This can be written

simply

species
(7.2)

as
wheTe

n,m,\\t(x,Q = F,(x,0
Fs(x,f)
and

is the

force per unit

derivative

volume

acting

on the
law

fluid

element

at position

at time t. The time

on the left

of Newton's

refers

to the fluid

x element

as an

entity

therefore

must be
vj(X),)

taken along the

orbit

of the
\342\200\242

fluid element.

Thus,

=
=

a,vs +
d,\\s

I dt J|o ^)|orb;t
V)VS

vv5

+ (V, forces A fluid

(7.3)

On the Tight

Ps{x,t)=
B(x,/).

force is the

side of (7.2)areall of the force. pressure gradient

and

element. One such that act on a fluid of charged particles has a pressure
unit

ns(x,t)T,(x,t)

an associated
volume,

force per
qsns(x,t)E(x,t)

volume

\342\200\224

VP3.

Another
X

force is the Lorentz

With
nsms

force perunit
forces,
nsm,Vs

+ (qs/c)ns(x,t)V.Ax,t)

these
d,\\,

Eq. (7.2) becomes

\342\200\242

VV,

VP, + qsnsE +

^-

ns\\s

(7.4)

or
\342\200\242

d,V5

Vs

VV,

\342\200\224-

nsms

V?,

-^ E + -^ m.c m,
particle.

Vs

(7.5)
and

which

can

be thought
macroscopic in

of as the
fields

force equation peT

(those
the

The

fields E(x,t)

B(x,f) are the

discussed

which would be
total

measured by a probe),as
by

Chapter
fluid

3.
quantities, tfxj)

With the given

charge density p is defined Wsi*,*)

by

(7.6)

while the total current density

J(x.O
When

is defined

= X

fc\302\253,(*.OV,(x,0

(7.7)

combined

with Maxwell's
V

equations
\342\200\242

E(x,0

= =

Anp 0

(7.8) (7.9)
d,B

\342\200\242

B(x,/)

E(x,/)

(7.10)

VxB(x,/)
the

^J
but

+ -|-a,E
approximate,
fluid

(7.11)
description from

fluid

equations
A

provide
careful

a complete,
development

physics.

more

of the

equations

of plasma the Vlasov

Derivation

of the

Fluid Equations

from

the

Via so v Equation

129 studied

is provided in the equation Vlasov equation (Chapter

7.2

next

section.

The reader who

to

has not
7.3.

yet

the

6) can proceeddirectly
THE
EQUATION

Section

\342\200\242

DERIVATION

OF

FLUID EQUATIONS

FROM THE VLASOV

Except

for the neglect of collisions, Vlasov the equation 6) is an exact (Chapter description of a plasma. By taking velocity moments of the Vlasov equation in
seven-dimensional
four-dimensional (x,t)

(x,v,0 space

space,

an

infinite

hierarchy

of equations

in

an appropriate truncation of this infinite derived. When of plasma is carried out, the standard two-fluid hierarchy theory physics is This obtained. is reminiscent of the truncation of the BBGKY in procedure hierarchy to the led to the plasma Vlasov kinetic equation and thence Chapter 4 that

can be

equation.

The Vlasov equation (6.5)is

\302\251 \302\251 \302\251 \302\251 X \342\200\242

d,f,

(x,v,*)

+ v

\342\200\242

Vxfs

-\302\243-

(E

B)

Vv/,

(6.5)

We use the

normalization

\302\253,(M)

dy

/s(x,v,r)

(7.12)

and note

that

the

fluid

velocity
V,(M)

\\s

is

-J- f rfvv/,O,v,0
integrating

(7.13)
(6.5) first

The first
over

fluid equation (the continuity equation) is obtained by all velocity space (i.e., we first multiply The by \"unity\.") is B,ns{\\,t). The second term

term

yields

\302\251

dx
terms

\342\200\242

Vx /,

Vx

\342\226\240

dy yfs =

VK

\342\200\242 (\302\273,V,)

(7.14)

The

third

and

fourth

vanish

upon

performing

the velocity

integration.

EXERCISE

Show

the

above.
continuity d,\302\273,(M)

The result is the

exact

equation + this

Vx

\342\200\242 (\302\253,VJ

0
V in

(7.15)
this chapter.) integrating

which

agrees

with

(7.1). (Except

in

section,

Vx is

The force equation is obtained velocity space. This yields

\302\251 \302\251 \342\200\242 -\302\243Jdvvfs

by multiplying

denoted by (6.5) by v and

\302\251

over all

\302\251

+/rfvvv

Vxfs

j^jdyy

[(e

\342\200\242

B)

Vv/S]

(7.16)

130
In term fs

Fluid

Equations we perform the manipulation w d,(ns\\s) by (7.13). In \302\251, \342\200\242 = is a probability distribution, Vx (vv/s). Since/5(x,v,/) of any quantity is
\342\200\242

we \302\251, \342\200\224 v \342\200\242

have

Vx

Vx(v/S)

the

ensemble average

<*> = Thus,
term

^-JW.

(7.17)

(f)

is
V, -fdyyif, evaluated by an integration

Vx

\342\200\242 (\302\273,<*\302\273\302\273

(7.18)
\342\200\224

Term EXERCISE
vE

is \302\256

easily

by

parts,

yielding

(gs/ms)Ens.

Verify
VT.

this result

for
Vy

at

least

one

component

of the combination
\342\200\242 X

\342\200\242

In term

it \302\251,
by

is useful then
=

to move
yields ^Trf msc J
each

to

the

left, obtaining

Vv

[(v

B) /J;

an

integration

parts

\302\256

dy

(V

B>->\"'

^T mfi

W'<V'

B)

(7J9)

where we have
terms,

evaluated

component

in (7.19) using

(7.13). Combining all

(7.16)

becomes

+ a\302\253(\302\273.v,)

\342\200\242 (\302\273,<Tv\302\273

^\302\273,|e

-|-v,xb)

(7.20)

which is the fluidforce by the mass ms, equation for speciess. Multiplying through is also called we see that each term has units of (force/volume). Equation (7.20) the time rate of change of momentum the momentum equation, sinceit determines

per

unit

volume.
that

involves the function (7.15) for \302\253, VS)andthe the function (v (7.20) v). It is clear that every a term with n + 1 factors of v. Thus, to for n factors of v will involve equation of moment obtain a complete of a plasma, we need an infinite number description the Vlasov This is equivalent to replacing the equation. equations as derived from Vlasov of four-dimensional seven-dimensional number by an infinite equation fluid equations. In practice, we seek to truncate this series of equations a by using + 1 factors of v, rather than using physical argument to evaluate the term with \302\253 the fluid equation for that we shall use physical For example, term. to arguments evaluate the (v v) term in (7.20), so that the force equation (7.20), the continuity and Maxwell's equations become a completedescription of the equation (7.15), for example, in magnetic found, plasma. In detailed descriptions of plasmas confinement devices and in the solar wind, the fluid for (v v) is used and equation of velocity are used to evaluate terms with three components physical arguments [2], The equation for the time derivative of (v v) is known as the energy equation. it is easy to evaluate (v v). For example, There are various where circumstances have the same macroscopicvelocity suppose the species is cold, so that all particles - V.,); thus = V5. Then/S(x,v,r) flj(x,r)5(v

Note

the

continuity

equation

force equation

for

\\3

involves

Derivation

of

the

Fluid Equations

from the

Vlasov

Equation

131

(w)=7
EXERCISE

dvnsvv8(v

V,) =

V,V,

(7.21)

Verify

(7.21), recalling
distribution
/

that

<5(v

V,) =

~
8{vx

Vsx)

8{vy

Kv)

Another
in

case is where the

Then

function/,(x,v,0 vxvy

is isotropic vxvz
vyvt

at each

point

space.

with
\342\226\274>/

livxvx
<v

i^u*

i^.

| )

(7.22)

we have
(7.22)

Vs

0, and

upon

taking

the

average,

all of the

off-diagonal terms

in

vanish.

EXERCISE
The

Prove

this

case.
(vx2)

diagonal

terms are
(7.22)

(v/) (v v)

\342\200\224

(v22)

\342\200\224 where

vs2

vs(x) is the

thermal
(7.23)

speed. Equation
where

becomes

- ^2(x)T
account the possibility that

I is

the

unit

tensor,

and

we take into
takes

the

temperature
The

(Ts =
term

m^vj) is spatially dependent.

in (7.20)
(ns(y
than

second

the

form
=

\342\200\242

= V \342\200\242 \342\226\274\302\273 (\302\253,v,2T)

V{n,v*)

VP,/mt

(7.24)

where the
certain
with

pressure

Ps
we

More generally,
direction,
velocity
\342\200\224

nsmsvs2 = nsTs.
have
isotropic
<(Ujr

might

a distribution
velocity

and has an
therefore
Then

V,;

VJl)

a net velocity Vs in a that has distribution in the frame moving = = {{vz - V\342\200\236Y) Viy)2) <(u>.

v2

Ps/msns.

(y y) = and
V
-

VSV,

-\302\243-T

(7.25)

(\302\273,(\302\273v\302\273

\342\200\242 (\302\253,VSV5)

-\302\261-

VPs

(V

\342\200\242 V,X\302\273,V.)

(V,

\342\200\242 V)(\302\253SVJ

-\302\261-

VPs

(7.26)

EXERCISE
manipulations

By

writing

out

components,

or by any

other method,

justify

the

in (7.26).
(7.20)

The force equation

becomes,
(V

multiplying
\342\200\242 V,X\302\253,\302\253,V.) +

by mS)
(V,
-

d,(msns\\s) +
=

V)(msnsVs)

-V/*,

+ q,n,

(e

+ y

V/X

(7.27)
b)

132
Equation
multiplied

Fluid

Equations

(7.27)
by

from V\342\200\236

can be simplified by subtracting the left side. We find

msfts(Vs (7.5).
with \342\200\242

the continuity

equation

(7.15),
(7.28)

m,nsd,Vs
in

+ with

V)VS

-VPS

qsns

(e4v,Xb)

agreement

When combined

Maxwell's Eqs. P\342\200\236

equations, (7.15)
find

the pressure describing fluid \"behavior. plasma

and when and (7.28) provide

several

some means is found for a complete description of

means

We shall
in one

pressure. For variations

of species

where we evaluate (u2) along a wave for example, which motion,

equilibration time

direction only, the pressure is P, = nsTs = nsms(v2) of variation. If we are dealing with a the direction
is slowly have =

different

for describing the

j, we

might

isothermal V{n,TM)

varying compared so behavior

to the

VPS

TsVns
may TsVns

On the so

other

hand,

a rapidly
=

varying

compression

involve

adiabatic

(7.29) motion, (7.30)

VPS

V(nsTs)
is
that

nsVTs

ysTsVns

where ys = (2 +
from

D)/D

the
share

numbeT of dimensions that the motion in (7.30)

temperature motions

involves

their

in

fluid

unperturbed plasma, we shall

Verify

and only small departures of the density values ns, Ts. In succeeding sectionson wave

\"ratio of specific heats.\" so-called in the increased temperature, and

Here,
it

is the

is assumed

apply these ideas.

the basic

EXERCISE

(7.30)

using

ideas of

adiabatic

compressions.

7.3

LANGMUIR
that

WAVES

Now
two-fluid

a complete developed can we do with what equations,

we

have

descriptionof
it?

a plasma,

The

first thing

in the form of the we can do is to study

are very kinds of waves that can propagate through a plasma. Waves a another. one of to from important. They propagate energy They plasma part information observer to know send enables an external out of the plasma that what is occurring as they propagate, to inside. They can become unstable, growing a such large amplitudes confinement of that the they disrupt plasma. Our first of a wave is a very one, the electron plasma wave, or example simple the are infinitely wave ions (also called a space-charge wave). Suppose Langmuir a so that have fixed not the but do contribute to massive, motion, particle they and a fixed charge density en0. Then we need density \302\2530 only three equations to describe the electron motion: the electron the electron force continuity equation, = Poisson's These are one and with dimension, 0) (in B0 equation, equation.

the various

d,nt +

Bx{neVc)

0 -

(7.31) enfi

mene(d,Y*+

KW

^xPe

(7.32)

Lang

ml ur

Waves

133

and

dj? =
We seek
the

\342\200\224 4Tre(nu

ne)

(7,33)

electric

amplitude

solutions to (7,31) in the to (7.33) of small amplitude waves, where form field has a sinusoidal spatial variation. to look for such small In order we With first linearize to waves, (7.31) (7.33).
nt =
n0

n{

(7.34)

E = E{
and

(7.35)
(7.36)
the electrons

Ve

U|
that

we

first

neglect

the

pressure

PE> from

assuming (7.31)
d,n0

are cold. Then

the

only

zeroth

order contribution

to

(7.33)
=

is
(7.37)

which is

trivially

satisfied.

The

first order
+ d/\302\253i

terms are
=
en0Ex

\302\253o d*vi

(7.38)
(7.39)

mjiQ d,vi
and

\342\200\224

Theseequations
variable has the

are form

now cos

linear, (kx

dxE) = -4nent and we may look for

\342\200\224

(7.40)
wave

solutions

in which

each
(7.41)

out

8),
(kx

E,(x,t)
\302\253,(x,f)

cos \302\243}

ait

a>i)

fl, cos

(kx
(kx
6n,

6\342\200\236)

(7.42)

and

uj(x,r)

\342\200\224 cos

Si

\342\200\224

ait

8V)

(7.43)

where Sx,
out

that

it is very

S,, and 5, are real constantsand awkward to use sin's and

6V are possible phase shifts. It turns and it is very convenient to use cos's,

+ ikx). We may do this that if (7.41) to solutions that vary as exp(\342\200\224 imt by noting to the expression is then a solution of the linearized (7.40), (7.38) (7.43) equations obtained by giving each of (7.41) to (7.43) a phase shift of n/2 will also be a of these solution, where sin replaces cos in (7.41) to (7.43). Any linear combination + i[sin two sets of solutionswill also be a solution; in particular, [cos solution] is a of form the solution, solution] E,(x,t)
\302\273i(x,f) \342\200\224 \302\243} exp

+ (\342\200\224uof

ikx)

(7.44) ikx)

#i exp

(iO\342\200\236) exp

+ (\342\200\224ia>t

(7.45)
(7,46)
new

and

t/|(x,?)
If we next
constants \302\253!

\342\200\224 v\\ exp

(idv)
exp

exp

+ (\342\200\224iwl

ikx) complex

absorb the phase factors

=

(idn)

and exp

(i8v) into

Hi exp

(id\342\200\236), u,

u, exp

(;0 ), we have

134

Fluid

Equations

Ei(x,t)
\302\253i(x,r)

=
=

\302\243, exp

{-io\302\273t

+ +

ikx) ikx)

(7.47) (7.48) (7.49)

them if

\302\253, exp

icot (\342\200\224

and

ui(x,r) =
complex

Vi

exp

+ (\342\200\224icxtt

ikx)
to desired.

After we have obtained the solutions (7.47) conjugate to obtain the physically
Why is the
assumed

relevant

to (7.49), we can add real solutions,

(7.47)

their

EXERCISE

complex conjugate of
wave

to (7.49)

also a

solution?

Inserting the
equations

solution

(7.47) to (7.49) into the

\342\200\224 0

linearized
(7.50)
(7.51)

(7.38)

to (7.40),

one obtains
+ ikn^i \342\200\224uu\302\253i
\342\200\224ioim^QVi

\342\200\224ew,^!

and

ikE,
where

~ -47reK,
ikx).

we

have

divided

terms

of nl9and

+ each side by exp (\342\200\224ioit solving (7.52) for n] in terms offhand

(7.52) Solving (7.50) for v, in

in

inserting

(7.51),

we find

rt,

Upon dividing

by

the

constant
at

4nn0e2 Eu we see

E} = ,
that

\302\243,

(7.53)

47r\302\2530e \342\200\224

<oc2

(7.54)

or

\342\200\224 \302\261 (tie

(7.55)

for our
electron

cold plasma oscillations; thus

plasma

the

wave

frequency

is just our

old friend

the

frequency.
ion

EXERCISE If we had kept the the wave frequency would be?

we have shown that any of (7.38) to (7.40),provided the wave k. for arbitrary number
Thus,

component

with mass

m,-,

can

you

guess what

expression
frequency

of the

is given

form (7.44) to (7.46) by (7,55). Note that

is a solution
this

is true

EXERCISE
and obtain

U|. Choosing real

shifts between Eu \302\253,, the Using (7.50) to (7.52),determine phase a value of k, add (7.47) to (7.49) to its complex conjugate to and sketch these solutions with their appropriate solutions, phase

shifts.
it is supposed The expression(7.55) for to is called a dispersion relation, because to represent the relation between frequency case the w and wave number k. In this it on relation is because does not k. The trivial, dispersion depend group velocity

Langmlur

Waves

135

^ does not depend on wave

wave
will

dot

~dk

(7.56)
initial
\342\200\224

An k, so these waves are dispersionless. forever at a> but oscillates packet merely frequency propagate, is as simple as the physics of the the physics of these waves Thus, oscillating used to derive the plasma frequency in Chapter 1.

number

not

at,,.

slabs

of the cold plasma waves is the derivation in (7.32). Let us repeat the derivation, including the neglect of the pressure term = = n0VT, + + n,)(T\342\200\236 + pressure Pe. We have VPe = V(neTe) V[(nn T,)] order first order terms. Now in order to relate the first TBVn,, keeping only order temperature change Tt in the wave to the first density change nu we must go outsidethe fluid theory. We consider long wavelength waves, such that a typical travels only a fraction of a wavelength X in one wave period; then the electron of the wave will be an adiabatic one. Thus, the assumption tya\"1 \302\253 compression
in

It is always useful to sketch dispersion relations. In this is simple, consisting of two straight lines at <u \342\200\224 \302\261 wf,

case,

the sketch

of (7.55)

as shown

The most seriousassumption

in Fig.

7.1.

our

X, or

w/k leads us to

\302\273

ve further

(7.57) assume

frequency is small,
then
wave

If we consider adiabatic compressions.

vc \302\253

that the

collision
(7.58)

the change
propagation

in

temperature

during
one-dimensional

the compression
adiabatic

along the direction of

directions.

will not

be transmitted to the other two

that our
that

compression is a
VPe

compression,

We conclude which means

n0VTl

T0Vn,

3roV\302\253,

(7.59)

by the expression
With

below (7.30).
(7.59)

the

expression

the addition

of one term; thus

for VPe, our previous derivation to (7.52) are replaced by (7.50)

goes

through

with

;\\

-\"*
Fig.

7.1

Dispersion

relation for electron plasma waves

when

the pressure

is ignored.

136

Fluid

Equations

<<*

-1

-*\\,

Fig. 7.2

Langmuir

wave

dispersion

diagram.

+ \342\200\224icon,
\342\200\224iwm/i^v,

ikn0v,

= 0

(7.60)

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\243\302\253(>\302\243, ikiT^n,

(7.61)

Solving (7.60) for

or

vu

solving
(w2

(7.62)
-

for w,, and

inserting

in =

(7.61),

(7.62) one finds

(7.63)

<o2

3k2T^/me)\302\243^

a>1

at.1

+ 3k2T</me
wave

<u2

+.3*V

(7.64)

which is the famous

Langmuir

dispersion to

Sincewe

have

used

the assumption
restricted

limited range

of validity,

relation (see Eq. 6.28). the (7.57), (7.64) dispersion relation

has

(7.65)
or k\\e
Thus,
\302\253

(7.66)
+
(l

another

useful form
=

of (7.64)is
3*V)W

+ \302\261{<1>2

\302\261 We

graph

of the
have

dispersion
dispersion,

is seen to

in Fig. relation (7.67) is shown since the group velocity is

(7.67) Y *2X'2) 7.2. The Langmuir wave (7.68)

dk
and

this

depends

on wave

number.
and
regain

EXERCISE Returning to (7.60) to (7.62), find the perturbation density with the wave. Show that for k \342\200\224 0 we velocity perturbation associated the cold plasma wave, while for A: > 0 the pressure acts as an additional which force restoring gives the wave a higher frequency.
7.4

DIELECTRIC

FUNCTION
analogy

It is often useful
Recall
for

to draw an

between
are

that
charges

in ordinary dielectric in a vacuum,

theory, we

a plasma and a able to replace

medium. dielectric

Poisson's equation

DielectricFunction
V
by \342\200\242 =

137

4rrp 0

(7.69) (7.70)

\342\200\242 =

where

D = 7- E (7.71) been medium have of the HereTis the dielectric tensor, the properties incorporated This into the displacement D, and we assume there are no additional free charges. well a as as for dielectric for a same operation can of coursebe performed plasma In one dimension, and assuming plane wave medium. fields, Eq. (7.69) is = ikE (7.72) 4rrp

so that

if

we

can write p

in

terms

of E it

will

be

easy

to identify

the dielectric

function:
ik ( E

^~\\ =
been

iktE

0 to

(7.73) (7.52),

For cold
written

plasma
the

waves

this

has

done

in

(7.50)

which are

easily
(7.74)

in

form

ik(\\
so

^-)

E= 0

that

the dielectric

function

is

e(a>)

-^V

(a

(7-75)

and we notice
e(w)

that

the

dispersion

relation

(7.55) is precisely
w

equivalent to equating
(7.76)
from

to zero,

e(w) =
Thus,
dielectric

0 =>

\302\261 we

we see that
function

the

normal

modes

of a plasma are obtained

the zeros

of

the

(see Chapter
(7.74).

6).

EXERCISE
In a
in

Verify

similar fashion,
form

because (7.60)to (7.62) for

* f1

Langmuir

waves

can be

written

the

\"Li

i]

E = 0

(7-77)

we identify

the

dielectric

function

<\">k)
the

=j

^ -ikw
=>

(7-78)

zeros

of which yield the

normal modes (7.67):

4a,k) = 0
studied
in

w(k)

(7.79)

w(k)

\302\253,(1+

3kV)1''2
more

(7.80)
in Chapter

The dielectric function

has

been

detail

6.

138
7.5

Fluid

Equations

ION

PLASMA
studied

WAVES
high

In Section 7.3 we
frequency

frequency
we

electron plasma
For

oscillations, with
waves,

w near

the electron
irrelevant.

plasma frequency we.

Here,

these

the ion motion

is negligible and
where

consider
w

low frequency

waves, u ^
plasma,

\302\253,-,

the

ion motion
\"low

dominates the wave physics. (In an

refer

unmagnetized

the words
to

frequency\"

to

^
often

ajt while
have

5:

wf.

In a

we

<

|fle|.

are calledlow or To include both

and ion
from continuity,

magnetized plasma, we (Why?) Then \"low frequency\"

high

the

\"high frequency\" refers to H, \302\253 w, \302\253 ordering

means
they

w <
are

depending
and and

on

what

being

fl,, and other frequencies compared to.)

electron electron

ion physics, we need five fluid equations: electron ion force, and Poisson's equation.Theseare,
dx(ncVe)

(7.1)

and

(7.5),

d,ne +

= -

(7.81)

mened,Ve +

meneVedxVe a,/>,.

~dxPe = 0

- eneE

(7.82)
(7.83)

dAny,)

..
and

>ma

d,Vi

m^Vi
=

dxV, = -dxPi
47re(\302\253,

+ enfi

(7.84)
(7.85)

dxE

ne) because

This set of
all

equations

is not

as bad

as it

looks.

First,

we intend to
written

linearize,
\342\200\224

V 8X V

dxneJ,
ns

terms disappear. where temporarily

Second, all pressure terms can be the coefficients we do not specify

linearizing

dxPei
Ttii

ye.jTei

unperturbed = nQ +

ion temperatures. Then all other and first order, nsl, quantities
electron and
meit0

yeh and
(7.81)

are

the
with

to (7,85)

we obtain 0 -

d,Ve

3,/if, + = + d,n\342\200\236

n0

dxVe

(7.86) en^E
enJE

yeTe dxne{
nQ dxVj
ytTi

(7.87)

= 0
+

(7.88)
(7.89) (7.90)

m,w0

d,Vt

3xnn

and

d.E =

4we(nn

nt])

let the properties of the wave we are Before solving (7.86)to (7.90), us guess in Fig. looking for. The ions will have a sinusoidal density perturbation as shown ion density the electrons see an almost static 7.3. Since the frequency is very low,

perturbation,

and

they

will

try

to obtain the
electrons

same density
are

in

order

to prevent

huge

electric fields. However, since the

flying about very

fast, the

attempt

Fig.

7.3

Electron

and

ion

density

perturbations

in an ion

plasma wave.

Ion

Plasma

Waves

139

to exactly cancel the electrons try to smear

ion

charge

distribution

will

not

totally

succeed;
electron

rather, the
density
resulting

themselves

is slightly smaller than perturbation the difference electric density produces

EXERCISE
We

out more smoothly. Thus, the the ion density perturbation,

and the
in Fig.

field of the

waves.

Draw
seen
Problem

the electric field

produced by
cancellation

the

densities of

7.3.

have
in

before,
is called
behavior.

the tendency 1.4, \"Plasma

for
it

this

electron

and ion charge

in a
is

quasineutrality,
discussion

and

found

gravitational field.\"This important property in almost all low frequency plasma

This nn *\"

(7.88)

of (7.86) to (7.90) with us to look for a solution encourages from we find We therefore Poisson's and (7.86) and ignore ne\\equation; have Ve <== V,. We eliminate the electric field by adding that we must (7.87)

and (7.89)

to obtain

(m, +
Next,

m,)\302\2530

= ~
jf
Vc

(yJc

+ 7,7-,) ^~
the time

(7.91)
(7.86)and
(7-92)

we

eliminate the

inserting

result

the velocity in the spatial

(m.

by

taking

derivative of
obtain

derivative of
= iyJ,

(7,91),to
+
ViT,)

\302\253,)

^yf

^f

or, neglectingm\342\202\254 compared

to mt,

dt2
where

'\" c?

^f dx

(7.93)

we have

defined the sound

speed

Assuming a plane wave solution ion-acoustic 'ispersionrelation

of the

form exp

+ (\342\200\224iwt

ikx),

(7.93)

yields the

k2c,2

(7.95)

The name

ion-acoustic arises from

the

the

similarity

between
traveling

the dispersion
through

relation

(7.95)and
It is

from the foregoing of (7.95) regime of validity \342\200\224 discussion. We do know, however, that we have neglected the difference (\302\253,, ~ kE. We thus expect which \302\253eI), by Poisson's equation is proportional to dxE that (7.95) is limited to small that this is so. k; we shall see in a moment What we take for ye, y,? In practice, shall on the region of density, this depends and wave number It may be the case that in which we are working. temperature, the ion motions are adiabatic in one dimension, so y,- \342\200\224 3, It may also be that collisions in are important energy enough to redistribute the wave compressional three so that y, = (Z> + 2)/D = 5/3 for adiabatic compressions in dimensions, three dimensions. As for the electrons, it is the case that a typical electron travels
difficult

relation equivalent to determine the

for sound waves

a gas.

140

Fluid Equation* wave since

many wavelengths in one \302\273 k~l, ve/w \342\200\224 vt/kcs a

period;

that is, the

distance traveled

in

one

period

Thus, the
period

electron's
that

so

they

When Te \302\273 Th

+ y,Ti I yeTe -a_^ are communicating over many wavelengths during remain we therefore choose the iosthermal isothermal; we then have the very simple and easy to remember
cs

(i \\me

\302\273

one

wave

ye formula

1.

cs =

(T/m,)\"2 thermal speed that

the

(7.96)
ions

In other words,the
they

sound

speed a more

is the

would
that

have if not

had

the

electron

temperature. exact solution

electron
left

Let us now return to assume quasineutrality.

electron

Becausethe
side

of (7.86)to
mass

(7.90)

does

is very
which

small, we ignore the

(7.87)

\"inertia\"

term

on the

of (7.87),

upon

yields

dn.

-enn

<797)
(7,89)

For the

ions,

we eliminate

derivative of (7.88),to

J^-from the spatial

derivative of

by using

the time

obtain d2nit \342\200\236 '

d2n, i _ ~f\302\273i^T=dt2

dE

yfi \"

dx (7.97),

(7.98)
and (7,98)

Looking
forming,

for plane wave if you like), we

solutions to
find

(7.90),

(or Fourier trans

ikE

4ne(nn
=

\302\253el)

(7.99)
(7.100)

ikneX

\342\200\224\342\200\224

yJc

and
(7.101)

Inserting

(7.100) and
itt

(7,101)into
OJ;

(7,99)

we find (7.102)
J

[l from

k2ytT/m,

k*y eT/me

which

we identify the
\302\253(a>,k)

dielectric function
at1

1 the

tfyJi/m-,

the zeros

of which

yield

dispersion
=

k2ytT/me relation <o(k). Solving (7.103), we

+
for

0>e

= 0

(7.103)
find

OJ

w,

k2yeTe/mj 1 + y<k2K2
ion

(7.104)

which

is the

general dispersion relation

plasma

waves.

EXERCISE

Solve (7.103)to

obtain

(7.104).

Electromagnetic

Waves

141

Langmuir wauaa

'/s(ope

^V

-\"

12

'

' 3

*~k\\. waves

Fig.

7.4

Dispersion

diagrams for electron plasma

and

ion plasma waves

(T, =

0).

In the

small We relation Jc\\s limit, we regain the ion-acoustic dispersion (7.95). is is valid when term on further expect that second the the only larger (7.104) right ~ \342\200\224 which than the first. If this were not so, we would have <t>/k v\342\200\236 (T/m,)1'2 would mean that many ions would of the same order as the wave have speeds

phase

speed.
we

rather,

must

When this is the case, we do not expect use the Vlasov equation to properly treat
the

fluid
those

theory
particles
0 and

to be valid; which can

\302\273

interact resonantly with

Another then find

wave.

interesting

limit of

(7.104)is reached when

w2

r,

\342\200\224

kXe

1; we

to,2
the

(7.105)
ion

which

are

ion

plasma

wavelength is short

comparedto
and
is quite

waves oscillating
the

at

plasma Debye

electron

incapable shielding, negative charge. This

of a> \342\200\224 <t>e,

we have

which

are

electrons

ions oscillating in of at to our cold oscillations electron plasma analogous in a uniform of oscillating positive background

frequency. the electrons length, a uniform background

Because the

are

charge.
We

can

now

draw

plasma waves on the in Fig. 7.4. Note that

same diagram;
the

the dispersion
dispersive larger
the

diagrams of electron plasma waves and we do this schematically for the case Tt
(k2K2) term k, leading to
at
cu in

ion
\342\200\224 0

the
transition to<

denominator
from

becomes more important at behavior at small k (7.95) to 7.6

The

a
=

the

of (7.104) acoustic

oscillations

(7.105)

at laTge

k.

ELECTROMAGNETIC
only

WAVES

other
shall motion.

waves
find

in

unmagnetized

homogeneous

plasma
co >

waves. We ignoreion
and k equation.

that these waves We shall further find

that

are high
that

frequency,

are electromagnetic coe, so that we can

*

these

waves are

\342\200\242 B =

0, so
fluid

we

can

The

equations

ignore Poisson's that we then need

transverse, k equation and the V

E B

\342\200\242 =

0 0

are

142

Fluid

Equations

X E
B

=
An
c

\342\200\224

d,B '

(7.106)

J +
eneVe

\342\200\224

3,E

(7.107)

3 =
mened,\\e

\342\200\224

(7.108)

mjnj(\\,

\342\226\240

V)V,

- VP.
\342\200\242 (\302\273,Vr)

eneE

ene
-f
Ve

(7.109) (7.110)

d,ne + We have

is transverse, k \342\200\242 E = 0. If k is in the x-direction, we have B choose E the ^-direction; then by Faraday's law (7.106), t is of Ve, W e there next assume that no zero order component along (Fig. and that we can neglect the V, X B force; this assumption be must checked at the \342\200\242 = end of the calculation. for solutions that k We look have 0; then (7.110) Ve \342\200\224 = we so and can ignore VPe in (7.109). na predicts dne/dt 0, ne everywhere \342\200\242 With no further assumption, the (Ve in V)V/,term (7.109) also vanishes. We have left the equations
the

assumed that
in

wave

we may

7.5).

- 4-

d,B

(7.1U)
\342\200\236 -1 d,E

X B

=
men0d,\\e

, \342\200\224 + \302\2530Ve

Ane

(7.112)
(7.113) 3,Vcand
(7.114)

en0E
curl

Taking

the (7.112)

time

B in

derivative to obtain

of (7.112) and the

Ann0e2

of (7.111),

we eliminate
32E dr

or taking

cV

(V

X E)
V

I c k*,

*\302\273jc

a plane wave

solution,

X V

\342\200\224

we get

-x. k

i.B

Fig. 7.5

Vector

relationships

in an

electromagnetic

wave

in unmagnetized

plasma.

Electromagnetic Waves
(w2

143
(7.115)

k2c2

u>2)E

which yields the

electromagneticdispersionrelation
w2

k2c2

(7.116)

w =

Letting the
kc.
the

plasma

density

approach

zero we regain the

free spacelight

waves

with

the electromagnetic dispersion relation and the c2 is where 3 relation, dispersion replacedby v2. On the same dispersion Langmuir two in 7.6. the look as shown branches Fig. diagram, it is useful to define an Recall that in the theory of optical media (air, water, etc.)
similarity

Note

between

index of refraction
>^
ft)

(7.117)

for

light traveling

through

the

medium.

From

(7.116) we see that

in

a plasma

the

index of refraction

is

2 CO

We2/*1

(7.118)

m < we. According to (7.118), the index of refraction becomes imaginary when to evanescence. The Thus, for real w one obtains k, imaginary corresponding result of this evanescence is that an electromagnetic when wave impinges on an ~ it reflects at the point where w plasma, inhomogeneous aie, called the position of critical density. This effect is important in laser fusion and in the interaction of radio waves with the ionosphere (Fig. 7.7). We can now reconsider our neglect of the (q/c) \\e X B force in this derivation. ~ \342\200\224 so B < E. but n < 1 always By Faraday's law, \302\243 nE, by (7.118), (ck/<o)E X B| < q\\Ve/c\\\\E\\ so that the magnetic force will be Thus, always (q/c)\\V,,

Fig. 7.6

Dispersion diagram

for

electromagnetic

waves and

Langmuir

waves

in unmag-

netized plasma.

144

Fluid

Equations

| ue
I

(x)- <il
densitv

Critical

\\EMf

/ I

\\i\\r\\f\\li
Fig.

i l

7.7

Sketch of
from

the

standing

incident

the

left on an

wave Airy function pattern inhomogeneous plasma.

for

an electromagnetic

wave

negligible comparedto
electric

the

electric

force

as long as the motion

produced by

the

field,

is always V\342\200\236

nonrelativistic.
and

EXERCISE
for

Sketch the group speeddca/dk

waves.

the

phase

speed ca/k, both vs. k,

electromagnetic

This completes

our discussion of
found

linear

fluid

waves for uniform

plasma.
will

We

have

only three different waves

the

for a given
plasma

unmagnetized

wave

ion plasma wave

or ion-acoustic wave,
wave.

electron

wave,and the
field

electromagnetic

The addition

greatly

multiply the number

WAVES

of linear
^

of inhomogeneityor a magnetic as we shall see shortly. modes,

number k: the wave or Langmuir

7.7 UPPER HYBRID

Up to
this

considered waves in unmagnetized We now wish plasma. waves in magnetized In general, there will be two plasma. directions for any wave motion, the direction of the external magnetic important field tc. Since we are looking for linear number 6G, and the direction of the wave there will be two important wave quantities, the first order electric field Eu waves, and the first order magnetic field to describe are used B,. There are six terms that
point

we have

to

consider

linear

= relations among the four quantities and B,. If k~ is along k \342\200\242 \302\243v, S{), \302\243, ^0 E,, ~ \342\226\240 \342\200\242 = If k E{ 1 1, we call the waveparallel;if k\" \302\2430 0 the wave is perpendicular. \342\200\242 \342\200\224 = 0, the wave is longitudinal, while if \302\243 E} 0, the wave is transverse. When B, the wave is electrostatic, while if B, ^ 0 the wave is electromagnetic. Of course, not all waves deserveone or another of these terms; that is, a wave with k at a 45\302\260 to B0 is neither parallel nor perpendicular. We can often relate the last two angle
terms

using

Faraday's

law

E,

- (l/c)dlBuoi\\i

Ej

(oj/c)B,.

Since

Upper

Hybrid

Waves

145

= 0, thus the wave is electrostatic, and viceversa. electromagnetic (but not vice versa; why not?). Similarly, across the magnetic Let us first look for high frequency waves traveling field, ~ \342\200\242 electrostatic waves are known k these I; with^i perpendicular longitudinal as upper hybrid We take Te = T,, = 0 and m, \342\200\224 therefore the ions do waves. \302\260o; not move, but form a fixed background of positive charge.The relevant equations
for
longitudinal

waves,

X Ej

all

transverse

waves are

are then

8,ne +
m/ied,Ve

\342\200\242

(nt\\t)

(7.119)

mensVe

\342\200\242 = VV\342\200\236 \342\200\242 =

enfE,

- en. V,

(7.120)

E,

4jre(n0

- n.) relevant?

(7.121)

EXERCISE
With

Why

aren't

the

other

Maxwell equations

E!

\302\243,*,k y\"

kit, B0

both

the

Jt and

directions,

= B0z, (7.120)will produce components so We = (vx,\\)y$) (Fig. 7.8). Then linearizing

wave

of V,
(7.119)

in

to (7.121)

and looking for

plane

solutions iknuvx
\342\200\224

yields
\342\200\224 0

+ \342\200\224iwnel
\342\200\224ia>mevx

(7.122)

eE]

\342\200\224

vyBa

(7.123)

vxB0

(7.124)

and ikE, =
Equations
\342\200\224

47ren,

(7.125) (7.124)

7.122 and
the

7.125yield
into

uxin

terms

of

and \302\243,,

yields

in terms vy

of

vx;

substituting

result

(7.123) yields

-*-y

Fig.

7.8

Vector

orientations

in

an

upper

hybrid wave.

146

Fluid

Equations

(-A-

1 +

% ) ^i = 0
obtains

(7.126)
relation
(7.127)

from

which,

upon

dividing

out

one \302\243,,

the dispersion
a>c

a)1 =
for upper

w? + ft/ =
of cold
0]
\342\200\224\342\226\240 this

hybrid waves. As
(7.127)

in

the

case

[to

which

reduces

when B0

plasma waveswith no magnetic is independent of the frequency

field
wave

number,

EXERCISE

Obtain (7.126)

as indicated.

waves these have a density variation similar to the cold Physically, plasma \342\200\224 a sort of gyromotion in the are performing but now the electrons 0) waves, (B0 but the Vf X B0 wave; the electric field tries to make them move in the Jf-direction, force produces a velocity in the j>-direction. we take vx \342\200\224 Suppose vx0 exp + {\342\200\224icut ikx); then by (7.124) we have
ft,, \342\200\224 \342\200\224 i

vy

vx

ftf \342\200\224 i
vx0exp(\342\200\224iwt

+ solution

ikx) to its

(7.128)

With

vx0

real,

we can
multiplying

obtain a
by

real solution by adding this

1/2;

complex

conjugate and

we find
\342\200\224

vx

\342\200\224

vx0cos(kx

mt)

(7.129)

and
vy

-^

vM

sin

(kx

- o*0

(7.130)

< (v,)nux always. Because the Lorentz < 1 always, so (v^max extra restoring force for the wave, the frequency is higher than the 0 we regain cold plasma As the field BQ \342\200\224 the cold (B0 = 0) wave. magnetic 0) we have a wave consisting plasma wave, while as the density goes to zero (we \342\200\224 ~ of in the magnetic field, (vy)m^ (vx)mi*. particles gyrating
By

(7.127), acts

force

ns/oi as an

7.8
We

ELECTROSTATIC
next

ION WAVES

whose is dominated by for low frequency electrostatic waves physics the of Maxwell's Because we are looking for electrostatic one waves, only we if is assume needed Poisson's equations equation. However, quasineutrality, \"\" we have we can avoid using Poisson's equation, and nei only the four w(i-> trien fluid electron and ion force and ion (electron equations, equations continuity \302\253* because we assume here with a that low nn nei equation). (Note frequency wave, in the previous section, the the electrons have time to adjust to the ions; whereas motions are dominated by ncU and the massive ions do not have high frequency to follow; time we need only the four fluid \302\245\" Thus, therefore, nn.) m,| \302\273 Qandnel

look

the

ions.

equations,

which

we

linearize

immediately,

obtaining

Electrostatic

Ion

Waves

147

m/t0

flrV,

yeTeVnel

en0E
\342\200\242 =

0
+

V,

B0

(7.131)

d,ne[ +
WiKc

w0V

Vf

(7.132) ^
V,

a,V,

y?(Vntl + d,ne, +

<?/>0E

B0

(7.133)
(7.134)

\342\200\242 = \302\273\342\200\236V V,\342\226\240

where ne], Ve,

traveling can take
%Adding

V-t, and

E are all

first

order

quantities.

at any angle to the magnetic field, which we the wave vector k to lie in the x-z plane (Fig.
(7.131)

We are interested in waves take in the f-direction. We

to (7.133)
-ia>n0(me\\e

to eliminate
+

E, one obtains
~ik(yeTe
V.)

7.9).

my,)
(V.

+ y-^ntX (7.135)
of

+
Looking for
with

=\302\273

X B0

plane

wave

solutions,

taking the dot

<uwpl/\302\2530

product
(7.132) + B0]

the

wave

number

(7.135),

and

inserting

\342\200\242 =

V,>;

from ik2(yeTe X

and (7.134), ytT,)neX

yields

\342\200\224iwnQ(me +

m^(oney/n0

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

+ The last term is

k \342\200\242

^T
-

\342\200\242

[(V,

Vf)

(7.136)

[(V,-

V,)
terms

Bfl]

kx{Viy

Vey)B0
(7.131)

to expressVey, product with the wave

In order

Viym

number
X

of nrU we go k, obtaining
V.)

back to
X

and

(7.137) take its cross

-iumM*

^
k

(V,

X B0)

(7.138)

V,

\342\200\224^

X (Vf

z)

(7.139)

\302\273.4\302\273

Fig.

7.9

Vector orientations

in

an

electrostatic

ion wave.

148
which

Fluid

Equations

gives three

equations

'

eyKz

..

a
'ex^z (7.140)

*x\"\302\253 '

\"ex*z

'

ft.
\"ey^i

(7.141)

and (7.142)

These can be solved

for

Vn,

in terms V\342\200\236 V

of

Vey,

^V

n,

ey

(7.143) wave, and

(7.144)

which

is just

what we

had

for

the

upper

hybrid

By

the

continuity

equation

(7.132),
kxVt*

k2Vez

~
cuWfl/\302\2530

(7.145)

or

invert (7.146) Finally, and using (7.137)]

for

Veyt

insert

in (7.136),

and obtain
+

[ignoring me
* \" kfi^
1 ll0

\302\253

mh

-iw2mine{ =
1
X
S

/
V

ik\\yeT,

yjT,)nel

\342\200\224

*'

_ _f\302\253_

/ft/
a>

*/
kx

_ar_

\\

ft,

ftf

**

_/fu_

/ft,
a,

fc/
A:,

/
I1

w2

\\

ft,

ft,2 j

(7-147)

where we have
EXERCISE
We can
^2

obtained

Viy by
the

replacing

ft,,

with

ft, everywhere

in (7.146).

Justify

last

step. term in (7.147) to

iyJe

divide \302\253fl from every + 7,F;)/ro,as

obtain the dispersion relation

[with

usual]

(7.148)

Electrostatic

Ion Waves

149

which

Let
Then

is the dispersion us look at this

relation for
monster

electrostatic ion
becomes
infinite,

waves.
k

in various

limits. First, let

be

kx

\342\200\224\342\200\242

0, and

each denominator

provided

along to ^

k \302\2430,

k2&.

\302\261 \302\261 fl\342\200\236, fl;.

Then

1 or

K2 Cs

m1

~ 0

(7.149)

Co

\302\261 ktcs

(7.150)
would

which

is our

old friend the

we

wave

for

parallel

ion-acoustic propagation, since then

should

wave;,

we

the

magnetic

have hoped to recover this field does not influence the

wave properties, and

field

recover

all unmagnetized

waves. (The magnetic

affect the values of ye, y\342\200\236 are now hidden in cs.) which however, may, We assumed <o 5^ \302\261 that \302\261 return to Let us consider fl,-. First, fic, possibility. \342\200\224 The first and take the limit 0. denominator we let <t> \342\200\224 fl, in (7.148), kx becomes while the remainder of (7.148)yields infinite,

1we

kW

= 0
such
be

a2

fl/

(7.151)
this

Then

can

allow
w

satisfied;

that is,

kx

\342\200\224\342\226\240 0 and to \342\200\224 in

a way
called

that

equation

is

fl, is

a solution,
that

and

can

an ion-cyclotron

wave.
0; this

EXERCISE Let us
k
now

Convince

yourself

\342\200\224

flfis

also

a solution

as

kx

-*

is

an electron-cyclotron wave.
look
limit

in
k,

the

other direction, at
in

kj.

The

perpendicular propagation
(U

with

(7.148)
I

yields
\342\226\240)

(7.152)

Ignoring

fl,2

\302\253

|ftr-ftj,

we find

*,v
which

I an.

(7.153)
the

are
kx,

lower
we

hybrid

waves propagating

perpendicular to
\342\200\224 (U

magnetic

field. For

small

have to =

\\f\\iliCle[

LH

(7.154)

where
B0, we

a>LH

is

the

lower hybrid

of lower hybrid waves is quite simple. SinceE || k _L might suppose that the massive ions move along E, while the light electrons out that the X displacement of perform an E X B0 drift in the ^-direction. It turns the ions is equal to the X displacement of the electrons (becauseof the polarization drift) only if a> = <uLH \342\200\224 vTfVU\342\200\242 EXERCISE

The physical interpretation

frequency.

Show

that

co

- 0 is alsoa solution

of

(7.148)

as kz

- 0.

150
Let

Fluid

Equations

us now

ask

what

happens

if we
\302\273

to B0, so that kx perpendicular \302\253 waves, a) ~ Q\342\200\236 io/\\ile\\ becomes (7.148) , _

kz.

l,

we

aie propagating almost, but since we look for very low discard all terms of order <o/\\ile\\.
Then,

not

quite,

frequency
Equation

*V

_ IW
n,2
A:,2

1
I1

=0
n2)
third

\342\200\236 155)

then Suppose kx/kz \302\253 (wi/wi,)\"'2; unity. Likewise, we can discardthe denominator. We find
1

we can
term

discard the

term

compared
\302\253 1 in

to the

proportional

to {kz/kx)2

' \",2\342\200\236 i 2 + {k2c2 \342\200\2242

CI,2)

f\\l\\

\342\200\224 =

(7.156)

or
w2

A:2c,2 +

fV

(7.157)

which

is

the

dispersion
from

relation
that

for electrostatic ion

cyclotron waves,

valid

for

k2/kx than

\302\273 (wi,,/\302\273i,)1'2; 2\302\260 away

is,

for an

perpendicular
our

Let us summarize as
in

results.

electron-proton plasma, at angles to the magnetic field. between Define an angle 0 as the angle
=

greater

k and

B0,

Fig.

7.9.

Then

we have

found: 0 = 0, kx

0 :

oj2 <u2

/tV a2
Cle2

o? =

(7.158)

6 < tt/2,

\302\273

Jfe,/*,

\302\273

(m/m,)1/2:
k2

u>2

=
= =

k2cs2 + a2
k2c.2 0 at

(7.159)

0 =

tt/2,

0 ;

w2 w2

iaai

(7.160)
the basic

We

may

suppose
there

from
are

(7.148),that

(7.158) to (7.160), or by looking three branches of solutions.

IN

equation

7.9 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

MAGNETIZED

PLASMAS

We wish to extend the treatment of electromagneticwaves in a uniform unmagnetized plasma (Section7.6)to the case of a magnetized plasma. Because we again a cold consider expect high frequency waves, we ignore ion motion. For simplicity, 0. The relevant plasma, Te \342\200\224 together equations are then Maxwell's equations with the electron force equation, used to calculate the current. We have,
linearizing immediately, \342\200\224 -

av

men0

e/j0E,

\342\200\224

w0V

X B0

(7.161)

r)B

VXE,--)

-^

(7.162)

Electromagnetic

Waves

in Magnetized

Plasmas

151
(7.163)
(7.164)

VXB,

4vr \342\200\224J +

3E, \342\200\224

dt

J =
where
avoid

as

en0\\

V = \\e. Since
using

we already have
equation

many

equations
7.10,

as unknowns,
equation.

we shall
waves

Poisson's

or the electron continuity

Fig. there

system shown in traveling perpendicular to S0, k = kx.Then

With

the

coordinate

field can be along6a (the plane, perpendicular to fi0 field E( = \302\243\\f induces an
force
an

look let us first are two possibilities:

for

the electric
be

ordinary (the

wave), extraordinary

and the wave).

in

electric field can

In the
2-direction,
first

in the the

x-y
B0

case,

electric
X

electron

velocity
(7.164)

the

and

the V,
write

vanishes.

Thus, Eqs.
plasma,

(7.161)to

reduce

to the

equivalent equations for

immediately

unmagnetized

(7.111) to (7.113),
is

and we can

down

the dispersion

relation (7.116),which
*>' =

<V
wave

(7.165)
propagates

which magnetic

describes field.

the

ordinary

wave;

this

as if there

were no

the electric field is in the x-y plane. Then the electric field will the another create component x-y plane, and the V X B0 force will produce of velocity in the x-y plane; note, however, that no of velocity is component that we can consider the produced in the 2-direction (Fig. 7.11). It is for this reason mode the mode and ordinary (7.165) extraordinary (currently being derived)
Next

suppose

a V in

separately.

-B,

Fig.

7.10

Vector

orientations

for

the

\"ordinary\"

electromagnetic

wave

in

magnetized

plasma.

152

Fluid

Equation!

\342\226\240*-y

Fig.

7.11

Vector orientations for

the

\"extraordinary\"

electromagnetic

wave

in

magne

tized

plasma.

The relevant

to (7.164) with components of (7.161) become,

-i<omeVx

E!

\342\200\224

EXX

Eyj>,

- -

e\302\243x

\342\200\224

VyB0

(7.166)

-iwmeVy

eEy

\342\200\224

VXB0

(7.167)

ikEv.y

^B, c
>

(7.168)
J\302\273

_ikB

zllL^o
c

E y

(7.169)

c
Reconvince

c
\342\200\242 =

*
\342\200\242

(7.170)
A,

EXERCISE

yourself

that

iV.

d,A

X A =

/k

A if

A =

+ A\342\200\236 exp (\342\200\224iwt

ik

\342\200\242

x) where

A0 is a

- iodA, constant

and

vector.

(7.168),Bi =

Equations

(7.166)

to (7.170)

constitute
(7.169)

five

(kc/a>)Ey;

therefore,

in five unknowns. equations and (7.170) yield for Vx, Vy,

From

vr =

-ho

x 4nn0e

(7.171)

Vy

/ ik2c
\\47!-nueo>

i<o \\

4nn0e)

\342\226\240\"

(7.172)

Electromagnetic WevesIn

Magnetized

Plasmas

153

Inserting (7.171),

(7.172) into

(7.166).

(7.167),

we obtain
+

ifcV
47rtivea)

Ann,
4nn

-eB0 I ~im
C

\\

ik2c2

\\ 47T\302\253()<? /

\\ 4nnaew

The

determinant

of the coefficients 1 +

must

vanish.

Dividing

each term

by

e, we

find

k2c2
(x)2

(-\302\243)(

4) \302\253V/

+
(-!\302\273,) I \\ Me

JJ^.^U, \\

\302\253VW

to//

(7.174)

or

(,
which

K)
rather

(i +

-*\302\243-

4)

ne2k2c2

w2n2

= 0

(o<

0)e
the

(7.175)
mode.

is the

imposing dispersion
k2c2/aie2

relation for
yields _

extraordinary

Separating

a factor

from

(7.175) /,

w2ile >!\302\243l _

k2c2

^LV

(7.176)

Multiplying

(7.176)

by aie2/ai2
k2c

and recalling
\" (Oe

u)VH1

w2 +

fl2 yields

i^

*),.,*,..

2w2we2 or(w2

wi
u>VH2)

(u2Cl2

\\i*

\342\200\224 Cl)2(Oe2

w2(w2
\342\200\224

\342\200\224

wB/,2)

w2(<o2 or

(7.177)

w^2)

n> =

*!\302\243l =

(7.178)
of refraction. for the extraordinary
longitudinal.
that

for

the

extraordinary

mode,
the

where

is the

index

is Equation (7.178)

dispersion

relation
and

mode, which
It could

is

a perpendicular

mode, partially
(7.178)

transverse and partially

w

be
Ex

shown,
and
in Ey

by

solving

for
with

inserting other,

in (7.173), so that at

are

out

of phase
performs

each

given

components in space, point

of

the

electric field vector

Fig.

an elliptical

rotation

as a function

time,

the as shown

7.12.

154

Fluid

Equations

->-y

Frequency u

Fig. 7.12
elliptically.

At

a fixed

spatial

point,

the

electric

field

of an

extraordinary

wave

rotates

It is useful
<9-mode

to define two
ordinary
oj

properties

of the

Z-mode
cutoffs

(short for

extraordinary; A

means

mode). These are the

which

and

the resonances.

cutoff

the cutoff frequencies are given by the frequency 0; thus, which the zeros of the index of refraction A resonance is for frequency any (7.178). the wave number k \342\200\224 have a whenever denominator of we resonance \302\261\302\260\302\260; thus, \342\200\224 vanishes. between remember the difference cutoff (k (7.178) 0) [Some people \342\200\224\342\200\242 in the and resonance before r(k \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260) =\302\260) 0) comes (k \342\200\224\342\226\240 by the fact that c(k
is any
at

\342\200\224

alphabet.] cutoffs

The resonances are easy;by are obtained by setting

o)

(7.178)

they

happen
2 ~

(7.178)

equal

at (a to zero. We
1
W<

= 0 and w
find

\342\200\224

<aUH.

The

2 \342\200\224 we

<\302\260

<o2

\342\200\224 cov\342\200\2362

(7.179)

or
\342\200\224 a>2a)VH2

coe2<o2

ot* =

0
1/2

(7.180)

or

+
-I1
Recalling a^2
\342\200\224 w2

<\302\273? \302\261

\\/(\302\253W

<o2)2
4\302\253/]

(7.181)
+ is 4<u/\342\202\254le2

CI2, we

see that

the

inner

radical +

fl/;

thus,

m2 +

-f-

\302\261 ne

Vw,2

aV4j

(7.182)

or

a
\302\261

+ W

+ n. V4

(7.183)

Electromagnetic

Waves
that

In

Magnetized

Plasmas

155 in Section

where L, R refer to /eft 7.10. (Recall that Cle < EXERCISE We see
for that

and

right,

for reasons

will

become

clear

0.)
(7.182)

Demonstrate the equivalence of

ojl

and

(7.183).

is somewhat

below

we,

and are

knowledge
the or

of cutoffs

and resonances, we

this cdr is somewhat above a>t. With able to draw the dispersion diagram

extraordinary

k2

\342\200\224\342\200\242 if 'and \342\200\224\302\260o,

diagram can

is for k2 mode, using (7.178) to tell us if a resonance a cutoff is for k2 \342\200\224\342\200\242 0* or k2 \342\200\224 0\". For completeness, include the ordinary which by (7.165) is mode,
k2c2
n7 \342\200\224

~*

+\302\260\302\260

our

2~ <x)2

\342\200\224 1

a>2

0)
\342\200\224 and

for the ordinary

Both
square

mode,which
diagrams are
are

has

a cutoff

at

<o

cut

dispersion
of the

sketchedin
oj

Fig.

7,13.

a resonance Unlike previous

at

a>

0.

diagrams, which

frequency

vs. n2

index of refraction

wave number = c2k2/<o2 vs. low

7.13 is a sketchof frequency oj.

k, Fig. co
\302\253

dispersion
the

accurate EXERCISE Is Fig.7.13 We could also solve (7.178) and

for

frequencies
for

co/?

Why
function

not?
to

(7.184)

the usual
shown n2

dispersion
in Fig,
\342\200\224

A <\302\273(k).

sketch

We note that 7.14 there are regionsof because in certain regions,

of this function 7.13 shows Fig.

frequency

for both
where

modesis
for every
there

7.14.
while
is

a frequency

k2c2/<o2,

are no waves. Why

for

in Fig. this? It is

These waves are therefore is a sketch of real oj vs. (0 < co < (oe for the O-mode; 0 < co < are called stop bands from radio engineering,
bands.

k2c2/u)2 < and they evanescent, real k. The bands where

n2 =

real

to; thus are

k is imaginary.

do

not
there

ce>zand wVH while the

appear in Fig. 7.14, which no propagating waves < w < a)R for the Z-mode)

other bands are called pass

Fig.

7.13

Dispersion

diagram for

the

extraordinary

(X) mode

and

the

ordinary

(O) mode.

156

Fluid

Equations

j/* = c
GJ\342\200\236

.Y-mode

u>,

Fig. the

7.14 ordinary

Sketch of

the

dispersion

relation

<d

&>(&) for

the extraordinary

(X) mode and

(O) mode.

7.10

ELECTROMAGNETIC
our discussion
for

WAVES

ALONG waves
We

B0 in magnetized

Continuing

of

electromagnetic

next look
equations:

parallel

waves,

traveling

Ampere's

law,

Faraday's

need along B0. only law, and the electron force equation

plasma, we three basic

(ignoring
and

electron
linearizing

temperature

and ion motion). ik

ft

These are, Fourier transforming

= 10) ~ ' c B,
V

immediately,
X

E,

(7.185)
El -\302\243\342\226\240

Bl

=^S.

(7.186)

and
-ioiim.V
where

-\302\253E,-7VXB0

(7.187)

is (7.187)
When

\\e. Referring to Fig. 7.15,we see that a consistent solution to (7.185)has V, E,, and B, all in the x-y plane with that k = k2 along \302\243c. = V we take E, = (-E^-E^O), and B, (Bx,Byy0), (-vx,vy,0), Eqs. (7.185)to
V

one

(7.187) yield
~ikEy

\"T\" B*

(7.188)

ikEx =

i2L B
vx
ia> \342\200\224

(7.189)

-4nn0e
-ikBy.
^\342\200\224 \342\200\2244 7r\302\2530e \342\226\240

Ex

(7.190)

>'kBx =

ion

\342\200\224

vy

E,

(7.191)

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 eEx \342\200\224iwmevx

\342\200\224

B0vy

(7.192)

Electromagnetic

Waves

along

B0

157

and

-mmevy
Inserting

= -eEy +
in /_/^2,

\342\200\224

Bnvx

(7.193)

(7.188) and (7.189)

for Bx,By,

(7.190)
Uu_ c I
\\

and

(7.191), we

find

<\342\226\240> (\342\200\224ik2c

Vx
\342\200\2244wn0e/c

(7.194)

and
,

/'w

\\

0) (\342\200\224iklc

j
(7.195)

*
Inserting equation

\342\200\22447r\302\253o<?/C

(7.194), (7.195)

in

(7.192),

(7.193),

we obtain

for Ex,

Ey,

the

matrix

ico ~~a> (\342\200\224ik2c \342\200\224i(omt \342\200\224Ann0e/c

,

\\

io>
\" e + '

\\

a) (\342\200\224ik2c c

~J

\342\200\2244nn0e/c

-eB0

(\342\200\224ik2c o> \\

Jw_ c

\\

I \342\200\224ik2c,

im

\\

\\
\342\200\224uame-

a>

\342\200\2244 nn0e/c

-4nn0e/c

Setting the determinant

/
,

of the

coefficients

equal

to zero, we
2

find

>2\342\200\2362 ,.,2 \\2 k2c2 w1 y

n,2

/ I

\\2 \302\2432^2 k2c* V \342\200\224

(1+-=7--7)-\342\226\240=/(\342\200\242-

(7197)

*-^

Fig.

7.15 Vector

orientations

for

parallel

(along Ba)

electromagneticwaves.

156

Fluid Equations

We take the

square root i -

of

(7.197),

retaining
=

both
Sk

signs, to
(w

obtain
(7.198)

jl L

*!\302\243l)

\302\261

- klc2\\

or
\\0\302\273Qie

\\

0)/

(7.199)

or
klcl

= 1

\302\253,Vfti2

\302\261 a/a

(7.200)
waves

which

is

the

index

of refraction

for

electromagnetic

traveling

along

the

magnetic field.

EXERCISE
circularly
circularly

Verify

all

steps

leading
in

to (7.200).
(7.200)

< Recalling \302\243le

0, the

top sign

is called

the R-wave, meaning

L-wave,

right

of the as the wave propagates (the right-hand rule the thumb along k and the fingers places in the direction of the E rotation for the left wave; see for the i?-wave; and opposite is cylindrically this vector situation Fig. 7.16). Because symmetric about \302\2430, theE! describes a circle, rather than as in the A'-mode case. an ellipse to the direction of Note that the direction of rotation of the/?-wave corresponds of electrons. Further note that has 1 + when co = \\ile\\, the .R-wave gyration \342\200\224 \302\253>. we see a physical Thus 0, which (,ile/ou) \342\200\224 by (7.200) is a resonance, k

while the bottom sign is called the polarized, These terms come from the rotation polarized.

meaning left electric field vector

%*

Fig.

7.16

\"Rotation

of

in \302\243i

a right circularly

polarized

wave

(R)

and

in a

left

circularly

polarized

wave (L).

Electromagnetic

Waves

along

B0

159

connection
the

electrons;
co

between a resonance and (k \342\200\224 \302\260c), the electric field of the/?-wave will
\342\200\224

a resonance
continuously

between the wave and

accelerate

electrons
physical

when
From

Clt.

(7.200)

sense

because

we see that the i-wave

cutoffs

the

L-wave
in

has no
the

resonances;
opposite
in

this

makes

rotates
obtained
=

direction

electrons. The

are

by

setting k = 0

to the gyration
we find
(7-201)

of

(7.200);

co R
as

4^- + y/co2 +

(<V/4)

'

the cutoffs found the cutoffs for the/?-wave and theL-wave. Theseare precisely for the extraordinary mode, Eq. (7.183), and we now understand we called why them the left and right cutoffs. We note from (7.201) that has coR > one always for ioL and |fte|, there are two |ftj and (oR > coL. However, coL > possibilities:

ia|,andWi

< |nj.'
Show

EXERCISE
The

that

wL

\\Clt\\

when
in

to,

2Vi\\Cle\\.

dispersion >

diagrams
that

are different
co

p. 195.
cuL

The dispersion relation

the

the two cases. These are found in Ref. 7.17 for the co(k) is shown in Fig.

[3],

case
and

co >
high

|HJ. Note con, separated

frequency

/?-wave

has

by a

branches

\"stop band.\"TheL-wave to co ** kc at asymptote

can

two \"pass

bands,\" 0 <
exists

co

<

\\Cle\\,

high

for co > col. Both The locations frequencies.

only
n2

of the pass and stop bands co, as shown in Fig. 7.18 i?-wave is often calledthe

be seen

more clearly by drawing

(see Ref.

[3], p.

194).The low
wave.

frequency

branch

fc2c2/w2 vs. of the

electron-cyclotron

Once
n2

occurwhere
theory

n2

<

0 and the

\"pass bands\" occur when

again, the \"stop bands\" this > 0. (Do we trust

for low frequencies co < fl,?) For the low density plasma, coL < \\Cle\\, the character of the dispersion relation \342\200\224 The low frequency co as shown in Fig. 7.19 (see Ref. [3], p. 195). co{k) changes, of the /?-wave is again called the electron-cyclotron wave. branch

Fig. 7.17

Dispersion diagram

for

parallel

electromagnetic

waves for

the

case

ioL >

|Of|.

160

Fluid

Equations

tf'

Fig. 7.18

Dispersion diagram
can

for

parallel

electromagnetic

waves for

the

case

uL >

|fl,|.

the electron-cyclotron wave has a portion where This is called the whistler because the wave, high frequency components of a wave packet travel faster than its low frequency some distance stroke, components. An observer away from a source(a lightning for example) will to then hear a whistle starting at high and descending frequencies
see that
co

From Fig. 7.19we

=

Vg

dw/dk

increases as

increases.

lower frequencies.

In both of
to have a higher

our

dispersion
phase

speed

the .R-wave at very high frequencies is seen diagrams, than theL-wave. Thus, if a plane wave is incident on

Fig. 7.19

Dispersion

diagram

for parallel

electromagnetic waves for

the

case

a>t

<

|ft,|

Alfv6n Waves

161
different This

a plasma along B0,

speeds,

its

two

normal

and the plane

of polarization

mode components, R and L, travel at of the plane wave rotates as it travels.

in

is

known as Faraday rotation, is useful and and in interstellar space. laboratoryplasma

measuring

plasma

densities

in

This completes our discussion

motion)

of

high

frequency

electromagnetic

waves
only waves Of L-wave). be two modes

ion (ignoring

traveling

in a
any

traveling across \302\2430 (0-mode at course, waves can travel for any angle of propagation,

magnetized plasma. We have discussed and A'-mode) and along S0 (7?-wave and
they
will

properties of the

O,

X,

When angle to \302\2430. and their properties R, and L waves.

do, there
be

will

some

combination

of the

7.11
Up

ALFVEN

WAVES

ion this point, we have considered waves electromagnetic ignoring waves that electrostatic and ion were thus motion, ignored electromagnetic Let us next combine ion motion with effects. we shall find effects; electromagnetic Alfven and waves waves (k || fi0) perpendicular (k jS0). parallel magnetosonic we take First we look for low frequency waves traveling along Sa. For simplicity \342\200\224\342\200\242 a cold plasma, T{ = Te = 0. We can also ignore electron inertia 0). Just as (mc in the case of/?-waves and L-waves, we for waves with k = ki, B0 \342\200\224 look 2?0\302\243, and case, we do V,, V,, E1,Bl all in the x-y plane (Fig. 7.20). Unlike the R-, L-wave not look for a rotating EI; B,; rather, we take E[ = EJcand B, = Byj>. As we shall see,this form for E, and Bj is not entirely self-consistent.The relevant fluid are then and Fourier equations (linearizing transforming immediately): until
and

\342\226\240Bq.*

Fig.

7.2D

Vector orientations

in

an

Alfven

wave.

162

Fluid

Equation*

ik

X E,

/k

XB,=^
0

f B, - V.) n0e(\\i
\342\200\224-

(7.202)

^ E,

(7.203)

en0El -

\\e

X B0

(7.204)
B0

-iwHVtoV, = e/j0E, +
Considering
B0 drift

V,-

(7.205)

the motions

of individual
while

electrons,

^-direction, ignoring from Chapter 2 that the polarization for the ions, we have an E( X B0 drift Thus, the electron drift and prevents any approximately equals also have foT the ions a component of velocity in
the

in the

We recall

keeping the electron E] X drift in the ^-direction. polarization drift speed is proportional to mass. in the ^-direction, which
we are
current

the

in the ^-direction. We Jc-direction (a polarization

the current n0e(\\j \342\200\224 \\e) in (7.203) to drive the magnetic field in is to ignoiethat portion of Vey due to the this derivation B,. approximation X % force. V\342\200\236 i?0 With we write the relevant components of (7.202) this to (7.205) as introduction,
drift)

that

provides

The

=*!\302\243

Ez

iw c
=

v'
+

__*\302\253E

(7

206)

\342\226\240i\302\273,^

eEx

ViyB0

(7.207)

and

-uuifi,^
Solving

-j

VJiv

(7.208)

(7.208)

for

V,y,

we

find V,y

\342\200\224

Vu

(7.209)

We insert

(7.209) in

(7.207)

to

obtain

v* =
Combining

U/+7n,vJ
yields

\302\243*

(7'210)

(7.210)

and (7.206)
1

then

the
fli?

dispersion
a

relation (7.211)
ignore

k2c* ^4\" +

n2

'

Enforcing the assumption w \302\253 ft,, implicit to2 \302\253 ft,2 in the second denominator, finding
k2c2

in the

above discussion, we

k2c2

1 + where pm =
is \302\2530m,(7.212)

<o,Vft,2

1 +

(7.212)
47rp\342\200\236cVB02

the is

ion

mass density.

If we define

the

Al/ven

speed

VA

(B0V4\302\273rpjtt

AJtvGn Waves

163

a/ =
Multiplying

k2c2

(cVlV)
finally

(7.213)
obtain

top and

bottom

by

VA2/c2

we

]SVl_

i +

(y//c2)
that

(7.214)
for VA
\302\253

as the
kVA;

dispersion

relation

for Alfven

waves. Note
where

c,

this

therefore

we have an
which

(B02/4Trpm)l/2, pressure.
that electrons
\342\200\224{EK/BB)c.

in air = VA

have an

acousticspeed(P/pmy2
is of of
X

acoustic dispersion relation.Recall

P is

that

acoustic

is m \342\200\224 waves

pressure; here

we have
to

the same
Alfven
B0 drifting

form if we relate B02/4tt

a speed a magnetic

The physical interpretation and ions are Ei

waves

together

is very interesting. We have in the J>-direction, with

seen
speed

both plasma fluids move together in the ^-direction. Now what Thus, is happening to magnetic field of lines? They are being distorted by the addition \342\200\224 as shown in Fig. 7.21. The field B, = Byf to the background magnetic B<\302\243, B0 of a magnetic field line can be defined as position function ''B,{z',t)
\342\200\242(*>*) =\342\226\240/'

dz'

(7.215)

*o

By

Then the ~

$ velocity VB
+ (\342\200\224itut

of

a magnetic

field line is the time

derivative of

Yt

or

[with

exp

ikz)]

Vb~

twi

x
have

-~ik~ X

(7.216)

Now from

(7.202)and Fig. 7.20we

By

=
=

~^r E*
~{EX/B0)c
flow.

(7.217)

or
VB

which
the

is precisely the ^-velocity of fluid are frozen to the field particles

Thus,

in the_J)-direction,
prove

lines. This concept will

(7.218) we say that

useful

later

Fig.

7.21

Total

magnetic

field

in

an

Alfv6n

wave.

164
(Chapter concept. Thus,

Fluid

Equations

we can take the

other low frequency plasma motions.Note that in the f-direction, this fluid satisfying speed and the field line speed both to be zero, \302\273 \302\245^ in 0 while 0. the ^-direction, we have seen that However, Vex Vix we cannot have both kinds of particles frozen to the field lines in the
8) for

^-direction.

One
cT

may recall
\\JT/pn,

that

the

wave

equation

of a
the

stretched string
and
pm

is is

w =

kcT

with unit

\342\200\224

where

T is the

tension on

string

the

unit length. identify B2/4tt as a tension per unit area and pm as (u = kVA can be thought of as then the Alfven wave dispersion relation volume, when a field line, loaded with the wave that propagates plasma,,is representing in the transverse direction. plucked

If we

mass per a mass per

7.12 FAST MAGNETOSONIC WAVE

The

Alfven

wave of the

previous sectionis a low

Let

frequency

parallel
frequency

electromagnetic
perpendicular

wave, traveling
electromagnetic

along fia.

us

now

look for

low

For
inertia, in

me

simplicity, \342\200\224

0.

We

this is the fast magnetosonic wave. wave, traveling across \302\2430; consider a cold plasma, Te = 7\", = 0, and ignore electron \342\200\242 \342\200\242 = 0, as \342\200\224 = look for a wave with k \342\200\242 B0 0, k \302\243( 0, and E, B0

Fig.

7.22.

EXERCISE
Have

we

ever

Why don't we look for looked for a wave with

k$,Ex

low Ej

frequency along

waves with E, B0? What did we find?

along B0?

We
fluid

choose

\342\200\224

equations,

linearized

E{%, andB, and Fourier

= BtS; thus B, is alongB0, transformed, are

=

and the relevant

/k

E,

B,

(7.219)

,1

-y k

Fig.

7.22

Vector orientations

in

a fast

magnetosonic

wave.

Fast Magnetosonlc

Wave

165

ik

XB,-^

n0e(V,

V,)

_^fX

E,

(7.220)
(7.221)

0=
-*w/h,./j0V(

e\302\2530E,

^
+

V,

B\342\200\236

= ^n0E,
electrons

\342\200\224

V;.

X B0

(7.222)

From (7.221) we
\302\243-direction,

see that
the

the

while

ions,

for very small

E, X B0 of velocity

drift
in

in the
the

^-direction.

will have only an E( X B0 drift in the have will the same m, approximately will have an extra component The ions,however,

produces a current
the f-direction.

i-direction, along Ej, in the ^-direction that

because of
(7.219)

the

polarization

drift,
then

which
field

produces the perturbed magnetic

to (7.222)

in

The relevant components pf

-ikE,

are

-^
V-a

B,
\342\200\224

(7.223)
E,

ikB, =

\342\200\224^-

(7.224)

\"/\302\253;^

+ \302\253E,

-f-

ViyB0

(7.225)
(7.226)

-iwm,Viy =
These
can

^r

VixB0

equations
immediately

write

for the Alfven waves, are identical to (7.206) to (7.209) for small the dispersion relation (7.214) frequencies;

and

we

this is

k'VA2 1 + V//c2

(7.227) BQ.
equations
in

for

the

fast

This completesour discussion We have often looked at plasma.

waves

magnetosonic

wave traveling across

of

linear

wave
and

infinite

uniform

parallel

at any angle to the magnetic of the properties of the angle usually have some combination of the Because wave and the corresponding perpendicular wave. corresponding parallel not derive all of their properties here. we shall complexity of these waves, device exists for thinking about these waves. This is called However, a useful qualitative the CMA diagram, after its inventors Clemmow, Mullaly, and Allis [4, 5]. The \342\200\224 = all of the waves 0. It shows diagram is valid only for cold plasmas, Tt Te field for any combination can of that at a given angle to the magnetic propagate in Refs. field This useful diagram is discussed [6] density and magnetic intensity.
can propagate

waves; in practice, perpendicular field. Waves propagating at an

arbitrary

and [7].

In the next section, we turn and a real wave frequency and a real frequency complex
real

our

attention

from
to linear

number,
wave

linear waves characterized by instabilities characterized by

a a

number,

166

Fluid Equations

7.13
Previous

TWO-STREAM INSTABILITY
sections

of this

chapter

of plasma. from the fluid theory a real wave and and number, plasma

These waves are characterized by would all be excited if a magnetized

of have treated examples

linear

waves
a real

that
Maxwelhan

arise

frequency

were perturbed- When a plasma doesnot consist of Maxwelliati electrons andMaxwellian ions, someof the waves (normal modes) of the system can become is treated within the unstable. This the Vlasov theory in Section 6.9. Within subject the zero ordeT electron fluid theory, unstable normal modes can arise whenever and ion velocities aie different, or whenever one species consists of two or more each with order velocities. Such instabilitiesare called different zero components
streaming

instabilities.

As

an example
are

of a

streaming

instability,

consider
with

are stationary, while the

equations

electronsare traveling
d,nel +
\302\2530 d,V,i

a plasma in speed V0. The

which

the

ions
fluid

linearized

then
+

^o

3a,
=

= 0

men0

d,Vei

+ d,nn

= m.n0V0 dxVei
+ n0
Va
dxVn

(7.228)
(7.229)

en0E

(7.230)
(7.231)

d, m,\302\273o

en0\302\243

and

dxE =
where

4ire{nn

nel) Te

(7.232)
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 and

we have
no

assumed one-dimensional motions and

contributes

Tf

0,

the

zeroth order

to suspect that the oscillations found here will be low In Poisson's quasi neutrality. equation (7.232) and we do not assume \302\260o we would simply obtain the drifting cold in (7.231), fact, if we allow m, \342\200\224 waves that waves discussed in Problem 7.4; these are high frequency plasma we keep m, become Langmuir wavesin the limit that the drift speed V0 \342\200\224 0. Here, cold waves are unstable; that large but finite and show that the drifting is, plasma when the frequency w is obtained from (7.228) to (7.232), one finds > 0; Im(aj) ~ thus exp (\342\200\224imi) with time. Since no exp [Im(aj)f], which grows exponentially \342\200\224 \342\200\224 o\302\260 is found in Problem 7.4, it must be the case that Im(w) instability Oasw,\342\226\240
reason
we frequency,

we have

speed V0

an extra

term

in

(7.228)

and

in (7.229).

Because

keep

Fourier

transforming

(7.228)
(-i\302\253u

to (7.232),
+

ikV0)Vti

Eq. (7.229)-yields ~ eE/me

(7.233)
(7.234)

which

when

inserted

in (7.228)

yields
-

i-m
while

,kV0)ne,

_-w

fkVo

(7.231)

in (7.230)

yields
\342\200\224 \342\200\224ia>n,,

_ -iknoeE/m, >:
~I(1D

(7.235) (7.232),

Then

using

(7.234)

and (7.235)

in

Poisson's

equation

we

find

the

dispersion relation

Two-Stream

Inttablllly

167

ik

, _ = 4ne

ikthe

ifcn0e H ;\342\200\224 ,

\\

tjr.,

(7.236)

or
=

\302\253(*,<\302\273) 1

to,

{w

kv0y

= o

(7.237)
the

where

we

have

identified

the dielectric function

find
w

e(k,ai) (see Section7.4).In

limit

w,

\342\200\224 0, we \302\253>,\302\253*),\342\200\224\342\226\240

A:K0

\302\261 we

(7.238)

in agreement with With \302\253ij finite,

Thi^s,

Problem

7.4.

Eq.

(7.237)
the

is a
roots,
will

is a real equation, (7.237)

if we have look
kV0 |

quartic
an

equation

in

w, with
root

complex
be

find any complex Im(co) > 0, and there

for

conjuate either that instability.

of

any

is also

four roots. Since a root. (Why?)

will

root or its complex conjugate

Let us

to |

that for a solution (possiblycomplex)to (7.237)

we (7.237), Since the ions are important, in is frame low the laboratory [e.g., frequency ** low frequency means only However, we and the lower sign in (7.238)]. \302\253 me; a vigorous instability could well lead to | w | \302\273 co,-. Let us then look

use enlightened a wave such

guessing

to solve

that

the

satisfies

ojj

\302\253

|co|

\302\253

we.

the second term in (7.237) is much less than unity, Then, the first term we must have the third term close to unity; this wave numbers k such that kVv = we. Then (7.237)yields
because

in order
leads

us

to cancel to look at

0 =

1(O)

wef
1

(1

w/wt)2

2a)

(7.239)

or
a)j

we

(7.240)

or

we

I
one the
and

2 /
of the
w

\\TTli

(7.241)

which represents instability z(31/2/2). In the frame moving

w' =
\342\200\224 <\302\273 kVa\\

since with

electrons,

since

kV0

we

is (1/2) + three values of (\342\200\224l)l/3 is the Doppler shifted frequency \342\200\224 =* <o' so \302\253 coe this is roughly we,

that

the electrons see an

oscillation

at nearly

their

natural

frequency

of oscillation.

168
There (7,237)

Fluid

Equations

is another we define

useful

way

to

determine

that (7.237)

yields

instability.

From

F{k,a>) =
We can
in sketched

-~ +
\302\253\342\200\242

*>/

(1242)

<\302\253-W

<o at fixed wave number k, as plot this function versus real frequency From 7.23. and we see that when the line at the illustration Fig. (7.242) intersects the of four at different unity graph F(k,<u) points, there are four real roots and no instability for the chosen value of k. However, supposethe centTal minimum of F(k,w) occurs at a value than two greater unity; then there are only real roots, as shown in Fig. 7.24. To determine when this we determine happens,

when

Fmia(k,a)) > 1
where

(7.243)
find

/w

is determined

by

dF/dw

0 from (7.242). We

m
*>.* k?V02

kV0

(7.244)

and

=* F mm \342\200\224 *

+ '
k2V02
whenever

(7.245)

(m,/*,)\342\204\242

which

satisfies (7.243)

and predictsinstability
\\kV0\\

<
k

cuc

(7.246)

Thus,

there
one

is a broad
fairly

range

\342\200\224u>f/Va< very

<

<ae/V0 of
in

Two-stream instabilities are

whenever

common

plasma

unstable wave numbers. physics. They happen

velocity

cold plasma

component has a relative

components

with

respect

to

another plasma component. These

need

not be

its on an existing electron-ion plasma will produce impinging These instabilitiesare nature'sway of saying that Maxwellians are is too far from Maxwellian will not last that desirable, and any configuration

coldelectronbeam
own instability.

of different species;a

forever,
theory)

even
and

in

the

absence

of collisions.
instabilities

The linear theoriesof

warm

streaming

for both
very

components

(Vlasov theory) are

cold components (fluid

well

understood.

The

0 Fig. 7.23 Graphical solution

kv,
of (7.237),

for wave numbers k

that

yield

four

real roots.

Drift

WaveB

169

F<k, u)

A
4nln

/a
h'
i

\\

y\"
\"ml><V0

v
Graphical
for solution of (7.237),

Fig.

7.24

wave

numbers

k that

yield

only

two real

roots.

nonlinear saturation of theseinstabilities,

modification,

involving

such

Concepts

nonlinear

wave-wave

interactions,
fluid

well

and understood, to this point in Up

in

are the subject of considerable current

our

and strong
the

as particle orbit turbulence, are not so

research.

study

of the

theory,

waves and

instabilities have

propagated
waves

a spatially

that

propagate

homogeneous in a spatially inhomogeneous

plasma. In the next section, we

consider

plasma.

7.14
Spatial

DRIFT

WAVES

inhomogeneities

can give
frequency

rise to
high
X

their

own

wave

motions.

Consider

an
low

electrostatic wave, with

enough
wave allow

enough
B0

that
number

electrons

perform an E

drift

Eyp

in the is predominantly ^-direction, lines. electrons to flow freely along the field in the ^-direction, causing a charge is Btt2 drift

but that ions are unperturbed, The in the wave field (Fig. 7.25). but has a small 2 component to

With

E[ =

Eyf

separation.

+ E:2, the The continuity

equation is
&,n

\342\200\242 = (\302\253V)

(7.247)

or
+ -/<\302\273\302\253,

d^nQVlx

= 0

(7.248)

J~

^.k,

E
*-y

\342\200\224

Fig.

7.25

Vector orientations for

an

electrostatic

drift

wave.

170
where small,

Fluid

Equations

we assume Vlx and we ignore

is not
kyVly V,x

a function
term results

of x, we

polarization

the drift. Since

because primarily
=

the ktV^z term because kz is of a a result is small, being mostly Vly from the E X B drift, we have
ignore

Vlx

(7.249)

sinceEy

E^

thus (7.248)

yields
\302\253i

j<u

dx

i\302\2730

5-

c
\342\200\224i(omen0Vlz

(7.250)
because

Now

the

force

equation

in

the

^-direction,

ignoring

of the

smallness of oj, is

\302\273

r^n,

en0E,

~ or

r,iM,

enoEt(k/ky)

(7.251)

\"> and or equating (7.250)

(7>252)
T*T

(7.252)

and

eliminating\302\243,,

d\302\2530 \342\200\224 7^ *\342\226\240 \342\200\224

V m
\\Cle\\Ln

,r
A:,, >

-7

en0
where

dx

B0

(7.253)

the

density

scale

length

(\"54)
*---(v*f>0

Defining the electron diamagnetic

drift

speed

(see Chapter

2)
(7,255)

\"* we

v}

jruC

can

write

(7.253)

in

the

form

= k.vo.
which

(7.256)
waves.

is the

dispersion
magnetized

relation for
drift

electrostatic drift
matching

There
homogeneous

is a

whole zoo of

waves,

in diversity

all of the
in

waves in
magnetic

plasma.

Drift waves

are

very

important

devices for controlledfusion as the tokomak such and mirror and in the of and are machine, They study magnetospheres. planetary ionospheres discussed in greater detail in Refs, [3], [6], and [8] to [19]. This brings us to the end of our study of linear fluid waves in magnetized and In the and next two unmagnetized, homogeneous inhomogeneous plasma. we introduce the important subject of nonlinear fluid waves sections, by adding one nonlinear term to two of the most important wavesin plasma physics: ion-acoustic waves and Langmuir waves.
confinement

Nonlinear

Ion-Acoustic

Waves

171

7.15

NONLINEAR
in the

ION-ACOUSTIC
EQUATION

WAVES\342\200\224

KORTEWEG-DeVRIES

fluid theory we have considered We must linear waves. only the theory of linear waves restricts us to very small amplitudes. A wave with a finite will be susceptible to nonlinear effects, amplitude which show as products of first order terms. This section and up mathematically the next section are intended to introduce the concept of nonlinear wave equations and their corresponding which often take the form of solitons and shock solutions,
Up to
this

point

always remember that

waves.

Here we consideran
deVries

example

of one

nonlinear

wave equation, the

Korteweg-

equation
equation

This

is it is

vd,v + ad/v obtained by adding one nonlinear

d,v +
equation. a rigorous

[20]:

=0
term

(7.257)

in the

derivation
here

of the
only of

ion-acoustic wave
Although

a the terms
ion-acoustic

possible to give heuristic derivation that indicates

in

how

derivation one might

of (7.257), we give arrive at (7.257).The

terms
term

origin

(7.257)

is fairly

easy to
ion

see. The first

velocity.
which

two
third

might
can

total time derivative of the

dispersion

fluid

The
upon

arise from the be seen in the

relation (7.104),

taking

Tt =

0, ye

\342\200\224 is

1,

1 +

*'A,'
2 \\

(7.258)

The square root of (7.258) is,for

kc.

small

kke,

(1 + *V)1/2

(k2\\ ^_j
the ion

(7.259)
v,

If

we

now

multiply

(7.259)
dxt

on the

right

by

fluid velocity
d3v

and

identify

\342\200\224r'co

with

d, and

ik

with

we obtain

dv _
-J7--C\302\260^-

dv

cs\\e2 \342\200\224

J7

(7260)
defining

In a

frame x' = x

\342\200\224

cj

moving

with the

velocity cs, and

\342\200\224

cske2/2y

we obtain

d,v +
which

ad^v = 0

(7.261)

are

the

the

partial
We

begin

The nonlinear linear terms in (7.257). term is obtained by replacing time derivative d, with the convective time derivative d, + vdxour heuristic derivation with 0 the five fluid equations. Taking Tx \342\200\224

so that so

we can that we can

neglect ion pressurein neglect electron inertia

d,ne

the in

ion the

force equation, electron force

and taking me equation, we find

\342\200\224 0

0 m^.a/i
and

= +

dx{neVe)
Te

= 0
-

(7.262)
(7.263) (7.264)
en\302\243

dxne

enfi
= 0
=

d,nt

dx(ny,)
mjiijVidxVi

(7.265)

dfE

= 47tc(m; -

ne)

(7.266)

172

Fluid Equations

where we have chosen ye ~ 1. We next linearize (7.262) to (7.266) everywhere one place: we keep one nonlinear on the leftside the w,n0P'id;tP'iterm term, except

of (7.265). We

have

then + e),\302\253\342\200\236 d\342\200\236V. 0

0 =
d,nn

n0

(7.267)

Te

dxntl dxV, \302\2530

enoE
0
=

(7.268)
(7.269) (7.270) (7.271)
going

+ d,Vi /\302\273<\302\253(,

m^Vi
47re(\302\253;i

dxV{

en0E

dj: = EXERCISE
(7.262)-(7.266)
A

nel)

Can you

find

seven

other

nonlinear

terms neglected in

from

to (7.267)-(7.271)?\"
derivation

more

rigorous
out next

neglect of sevenother nonlinear

turns We

would show us the regime of validity terms while retaining only one

implied

by our

nonlinear term. It

that

in (7.270). [What except ~ would happen if we tried to assumea plane wave solution + ikx) in exp {\342\200\224imt means that (7.267) and (7.269) have which (7.270)?] We also take v = Ve \302\253 V-\342\200\236 the same we retain the difference between neX and nn so that (7.271) information; can be used. Solving for nel, we find (7.268) assume
en0E

this regime is reasonably large. a plane wave solution, everywhere

(7.272) ikTe which

inserted

in Poisson's

equation i

(7.271)
477-eMj!

yields (7-273)

E=ik
is \302\253,,

(\302\253>/fltre)

from

(7.269)

^
ai

(7.274)

Both (7.274)

in

(7.273)

and

the resul t in (7.270)

vdxv

yield
(7.275)

d,v +
Here,

- ^-^side

(1 + k^Y'v

we are

still treating
<d

the

right

meanings as differential
convenient

operators, on

to

eliminate and

the

right
which

dispersion relation
nonlinear term

(7.258),

as linear; therefore a> and k have their the left side is nonlinear. It proves side; we do this by using the linear ion-acoustic is obtained from (7.275)by ignoring the while
with \342\200\224iwv. Solving

replacing

the left side

have

for

w and

substituting

in

the

right

side of

(7.275), we
d,v

v dxv =

- lkct(l +
side

Jt2\\,z)-,/2w

(7.276)

For

small

kke, we can

expand the
vdxv

right =

of (7.276) to

obtain

d,v +

ikcs(l

y/t2\\e2)i)

(7.277)

Nonlinear

Ion-Acoustic

Waves

173

Reinterpreting

ik as

3^, this
d,v

becomes

+ (cs

v)

dxv

a dx3v
this

\342\200\224

(7.278)

where
equation

<x

A/cs/2.

In the frame z

= x

\342\200\224

cj,

is the

Korteweg-deVries

(7.257).

EXERCISE
Recall identification

Show
that

the above

relationship.

v(x,t)
the

of

v(xj)

physics do
themselves,

fluid velocity in the laboratory frame; this represents frame. What remains true even if we transform to a moving terms various terms in (7.278) represent? The first two by
3,v

cs dxv

= 0
in

(7.279)
limit

merely

represent

our

old ion-acoustic
=

waves

the

k\\e

\342\200\224-

0. The
V'

a dispersionless (7.279) is simply dw/dk cs> and group velocity the nonlinear term to obtain

wave, w c, a

\342\200\224

Arc,,

with

phase velocity

solution = ai/k

of =

constant independent of A:.

Suppose

we add

d,v +

The effect of
shown
in

as so that v moves faster, larger Fig. part it overtakes the part with smaller at t = r2, there is an infinite v. Eventually, slope, and at t = ?3, the wave has broken.Now we had included the dispersive suppose a term k1 term in (7.278); the term a d^v is calleddispersive because it contributes
the

nonlinear

term

= 0 (cs + v)dxv is as follows. Consideran with

(7.280)
initial

waveform

7.26.

As the

wave moves, the

to the linear
3ak2,

dispersionrelation

kcs

\342\200\224

ak*;

then

Vg
We as

= dw/dk
know

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

c,

which

depends

dispersion on a wave; opposite to the steepening observedin the figure. ~ = t2. Here, the slope is becoming t very ly and t
corresponds

on &, making this a dispersive wave. it makes a wave packet spread out

the effect

of

it travels. A large
in

This is just

Consider
large.

the time
(7.278)

between
become

slope out the wave,

to

a large

x-derivative,
that

which

makes

the

a dx3v
term

term

large.

Since we know

the

effect

of this

that there could be a balance between the nonlinear expect steepening linear dispersion. Indeedthis is the case. One can obtain nonlinear wave The travel without known as solitons, which packets, change of shape (Fig. 7.27). and nonbetween basis for these solitons involves a balance physical dispersion linearity.

we might

a d/v

is to

spread

and the

Fig. 7.26

Effect

of

the nonlinear

term

in

(7.282).

174

Fluid Equations

Fig. 7.27

Sketch

of

a soliton

solution.
a soliton

Let us proceed
We (7.278).

to

find

look

for

stationary

solution solutions in x' = x

/'

to the Korteweg-deVries
a moving
v0t

equation
(7.281)

frame,

= t

(7.282)

so
and

that

dx

(dx'/dx)dx,

+ (dt'/dx)dl.

=
-

dx,

(7.283)

d,

{dx'/dt)dx, +
cs +

(dt'/dt)dr = df
dx,v

Vudf, equation

(7.284) (7.278)

Since stationary

implies d,. = 0, the (v0

Korteweg-deVries

becomes

v)

a d,?v

Remember

that
in

fluid velocity
to give immediately,

is still that function u(x',/') the lab frame. Equation

(7.285) can be integrated

-~the

of space

= 0 and time

(7.285)
which

represents once

the

(c,
where Equation

v0)v

+ taken

av\"

= 0 constant to vanish.

(7.286)

)' = dx,( is in the (7.286)

(

) and we have form

av\"

integration

(u0

c,)v

-yof

(7.287)

which

has

the same

mathematical form as
mx

Newton'slaw
dxV(x)

motion,
(7.288)

= F(x)

= -

where

V(x) is the

potential energy. Thus,

av\" =

(7.287)has
v0)
+
-\302\243-

the

form

du

[(c,

(7.28.9)
-\302\243-]

particleof

Equation (7.289) has mass a moving

the same
quantity

mathematical form
in brackets =

as

a force

equation for a
by

under the influence of

a potential

field given

the

quantity

in brackets.

We call the

the pseudopotential,
-j-

*(v>

(c,

v0

w0)

-5r
A

<7'290>
similar

graph

of 4>(v) is

shown for
for

cs

\342\200\224

pseudopotential <i>(u) form is suitablefor our

v(x'
v \342\200\224 0 when

(cs

\342\200\224

u0)

<

0 in Fig. 7.28. 0 is shown in Fig.

>

7.29.

of the second the Only

graph
form,

purposes.

\342\200\224\342\226\240 \342\200\224 0. This \302\261\302\260\302\260)

This is because we desire a localized wave will occur in Fig. 7.29 when the pseudoparticle

leaves
v\342\204\242*

the pseudotime

x'

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260, falling

once

through

the well to reach

Nonlinear

Ion-Acoustic

Waves

175

Fig. 7.28
at x' 0,

Sketch

of pseudopotential

when c,

>

vK.

\342\200\224 and

taking
v

well
in

to reach

0 as

an infinite amount the pseudotime

of pseudotime

x' to fall
thus

back through

the

x'

\342\200\224 We -H\302\273.

obtain

the shape shown

Fig.

Let

how integrate, to obtain,

in Fig. 7.28 7.30. The pseudopotential us now solve (7.287)exactly, with cs to solve force equations of the form

\342\200\224 0. not allow v(x' \342\200\224 \302\261<\302\273) 0 or v0 > cs. We all know (7.287). Multiply (7.287) by i/ and

would

\342\200\224

v0 <

(v

\342\200\224 \342\200\224

(v0

cs)

-z

t-

(7.291)
want

where we have
v'

chosen v

the

constant

of integration
[{v\302\260

to be zero becausewe
-

= 0

when

0 (Fig.

7.30). Then

17

-v

It]
c,)
2

\342\200\224

xj

(7.292)

flx

r
Each

(vo

f3

r2

Uj
left

(7.293)

side of

(7.293) can be integrated.

dV I = f , J s/v1 pv1

The

side is

of the form Pv (7.294)

(1

=[
V1

vVl

/V u

where 0 =
(-/5

l/[3(v0

dv/iyyj\\

cs)]. Let
We

/3u, then

and w2)/\302\243

</w

pv.

find

Fig.

7.29

Sketch of

pseudopotential

when

c, <

u\342\200\236.

176

Fluid Equations

Fig. 7.30

Sketch

of

soliton

solution

to

the

Korteweg-deVries

equation.

' =
Then

-2/r^-

-/*<(7^

T^H\302\273(m)

(7.295)

from

(7.293).

With y

\342\200\224

[{v0

\342\200\224

cs)/a]'z,
1 \"\"

and
U
u

exponentiating
*\"'

both sides, we get

(7.297)

1 +
Then 1
\342\200\224 =

(1 +

u)e~*x\\

implying =

that 1
1

ey*'
ev*

(7.298)

and

(1
w

u2)/0 is
1

T(i

+eyy

-d -**<\342\226\240)*] J (J + ^*')2

i
/?

r
Id

4^
+ eyy\\

(7299)

or
(e^V2 \302\243
which

4.

e-yxY2)2

sech2(-yx'/2)
jg

(7.300)

is

v =

3(v0

- O

\"\" sech2

Cj 4a,

x'
)

[(

(7.30J)

In fact, this solution branch in (7.292); x' > 0 by choosing x' and is the soliton

been derived for x' < 0 since we chose the v' > 0 it would be easy to obtain the part of (7.301) for the v' < 0 branch in (7.292); therefore, (7.301) applies to all solution. Note that the larger amplitude solitonsare more a smaller scale length. This behavior is in accordance with sharply peaked, having v dxv which balances dispersion dx3v (Fig. our picture of nonlinearity 7.31). Back is solution x = x' + v0t, this in the lab frame, where
has only
nevertheless,

v(x,()

= 3(i,0 -

cj

\"\302\260 sech^

C'-

[(

4a

(x

V)]

(7.302)

Nonlinear

Langmlur

WaveB

177

v(x')
II

^
1

^\"\"-^Smaii

and wicie
\302\273-x'

Fig.

7.31

Soliton solutions

exhibit

the

balance

between dispersion

and

nonlinearity.

EXERCISE reproduces

Write out the sotition

sech2 (x') in terms behavior shown in LANGMUIR

of
Fig.

exponentials,
7.31.

and show

that

it

7.16

NONLINEAR

WAVES\342\200\224

ZAKHAROV

EQUATIONS

for term to the equation of one nonlinear previous section, the addition with soliton solutions. In this waves led to a nonlinear wave equation the ponderomotive of a different nonlinear term, the addition section, representing nonlinear waves leads to a set of coupled force, to the equation for ion-acoustic interaction between high frequency wave equations that the nonlinear describe waves and low frequency ion-acoustic waves. Langmuir a collection of linear Langmuir waves in one spatial Consider dimension whose can be written electric field (the subscript h stands for /ligh frequency)

In the

ion-acoustic

Eh(x,t) = The amplitude E(x,t) contains

Langmuir

y
the

\302\243(*,/)

exp(-/<V)

ex.

(7.303)

V4Ar2\\f2w,

frequency exp

waves.

Since

k2\\e2

\302\253 1 for

Langmuir
varying

dependence waves, the function

Thus, (\342\200\224icoj). can

of the
\302\243{x,t)

varies

slowly

in time
force amplitude

compared to the
equation

rapidly

in the

ponderomotive varying

(2.76)

\302\243{x,t) so

the constant field E0 that the low frequency

be replaced

by the slowly
force

ponderomotive

acting

on

electrons

is

F, p
where the plasma
components

= t-^7 Amewe
appears
Eh

~
ax
in the

|\302\243|2

(7.304)

frequency we
the

of

the

wave equation including the low waves ion-acoustic to the the (7.304). couples frequency the waves.If We then rederive high frequency Langmuir high frequency Langmuirwave the change in the background equation density due to the presence including of ion-acoustic we will have two coupled nonlinear equations in the two waves, unknowns electric field and wave ion-acoustic representing Langmuir-wave
ion-acoustic
ponderomotive

Our goal is to rederive

force

Langmuir

wave field
This

have

denominator because near the plasma frequency

all frequency.

density perturbation.

178

Fluid Equations makes

often

The derivation of these equations has two time scales. Thus, we shall
a(t)

encounter

explicit use of the equations

d(l) time

fact

that

the problem (7.305)

of the general form

w,\"1, that

b(t)

exp (-itvet)
slowly

= c(t) +
to the

exp scale

(-ia>et)

where a,

b, c, and

d vary

compared
j\302\243.

is,
(7.306)

JL
a

\342\200\224 \302\253

dt

W,

and likewise for b, c, and

d. Then

d constant
to

over

the

short

to a good approximation we can time interval 2n/cue and integrate (7.305)

hold from

a, b,

c, and
t

any time

t +

27r/cu,; the exponential

called

terms vanish
a(t)

leaving

= c(/)
time

(7.307)
scale.

This procedureis
multiply

averaging

over the fast

*(/)

Similarly,
then

one can
yields

first

(7.305)

by exp

(iwet); averaging over

= d(t)

the

fast

time scale

(7.308)
in

In

this

manner, or

one a slow

can pick out all

of the terms

a given

equation
to

that have
terms

either a fast
With

time dependence.
let us physics,
and

Similar considerations apply

unified

with
that

different wave
these describes

numbers.
preliminaries,

derive a

set

of

fluid
only

equations
the

Langmuir-wave

ion-acoustic
away

coupling
justification. All frequency

between
quantities
(subscript

them. The

discussion is heuristic;we
many others
frequency

wave physics, and

keep
without

nonlinear

the nonlinear h) and low

terms we are looking for

throw

rigorous

are separated
/) components,

into
n0

high

(subscript

n,{x,t)

+
=

M*.0
K0 +

+
*i/(*.0
+

\302\253*(*.*)

(7.309)

\302\273,(x,0

(7-310) (7.3H) (7.312)

(7.313) their
much

y.(x,t) =
VAx,i)

Vd{x,t)

Veh{x,t)

V^x,t)
+
E\342\200\236(x,t)

E(x,t) =
where large
smaller

\302\243;(x,0

we ignore the high of ion quantities because of frequency portions to be mass. The density perturbations neh neh, and \302\253,y are all considered
than

n0.

First, we repeat the

density

derivation

of

the

Langmuir-wave continuity

equation

including
high

the

perturbation
force

nc((x,f) due to the low frequency

waves. The
equation,

frequency

components
electron

of Poisson's
equation

equation, the
dxEh

electron

and the
(7.314)

are

= -

47reneh

+ + nel)Veh\\ \302\253,[(\302\253o \302\253,\302\273.*

= 0 enQEh

(7.315)
(7.316)

w,n0
where
is

d,Veh

3Tt

dxneh

we note

that

the

product

of a
total

high

frequency

term

a high

frequency

term. The

low

frequency

and a low frequency term electron density n0 + net has

term
high

been replaced by \302\2530 in several places in (7.315) and (7.316),and the has been of only the ignored in (7.315). Taking the time derivative

dx(neh Vtl)
frequency

Nonlinear

Lang

in I ur

Waves

179
(7.314)

terms
yield

in

(7.315),

eliminating

d,

Veh

using

(7.316),

and eliminating

neh

using

b?Eh + where
we2 \342\226\240=

m*Eh

3ve2 dx2Eh

2 n*!_
\"o
linear

(7.317)
Lang-

47r/toe2/we.

The

left side is
right

easily recognizable as the

gives

muir-wave
than

equation,

while the
fact

side

the change

in

the

effective
is n0

plasma
net

frequency due
nB.

to the

that

the low
(7.317)

frequency electron density

and

+
time

rather

.Inserting the form

dependence

(7.303)into
find

keeping

only terms

with

exp

we {\342\200\224iwet),

id,\302\243

4r

^d2\302\243 =
a>.

^I

^\302\243

na

(7.318)

discarded. Equation (7.318) is now a evolution of the equation describing slowly varying of the electric field envelope \302\243(x,t) rapidly varying Eh(xj). the Next, we repeat the derivation of the ion-acoustic wave equation including force equation. Assuming quasineuforce (7.304) in the electron ponderomotive \302\253= = ntt and trality na Vet Vih the low frequency continuity part of the electron

where the term

\\d2E\\

\302\253 \\wed,\302\243\\

has

been

low frequency

the time

equation

is
d,nel

fl0 dxVel

= 0
low

(7.319)
frequency

where

the

term

dx(nelV,.j) has

force equation, ignoring

been ignored; the

because

part of the

electron

med,Vel

of the

small electron mass,is

d,|\302\243|2

eE, \342\200\224
and

4mt<

(7.320)

the

ion force

equation yields
Tiy,

dxnel

+ eE,

(7.321)

Here, yc
and
Solving derivative,and na

the usual factors relating to density change, pressure change has been nel replaced by m0 in several places in (7.320) and (7.321). for if,, substituting the result in (7.320), the spatial (7.321) taking eliminating Vel using (7.319), yield
and

y, are

d,2He/

c/ dx2nel

1 1 67TW,

a. 2l\302\243l2

(7.322)

\342\200\242d is defined

by
c,2 yje
+
m,

y,Tt(7.323) were

as usual. The coupled equations (7.318) and (7.322) [21] and are known as the Zakharov equations.

first derived

by

Zakharov

180
We
(7.322),

Fluid

Equations

wish

to

study

the

consequences

including

soliton

define

dimensionless

solutions variables as
r\\

of the nonlinear equations (7.318)and and parametric instabilities.It is convenient to

*e

(7.324)

*E

(f-)

fe)

<\"\342\200\242\"

<7 325\302\273

'

(I) (ff
\342\200\242-(&)(t)

(7J27)
(\302\253S;f

whereupon

(7.318) and

(7.322) become

i dTE
-

d22E

\302\253\302\243

(7.329)

3> = d^lfl2 (7.330) dT2n Let us look for soliton solutions to (7.329)and The simplest soliton (7.330). solution [22] is one that is stationary in the laboratory frame; it is a bump of electric field intensity that exists self-consistently with the hole in ion density dug out by the ponderomotive force. The first term on the left of (7.330) vanishes; and twice constants the of to zero yield integrating setting integration equal
n

\\E\\2

(7.331)

so that

(7.329) becomes

i 8tE
which quantum

dS-E

\\E\\2E

= 0
resembles

(7.332)
the

is called mechanical

the nonlinear
Schrodinger

Schrbdinger equation becauseit

equation. the form

Looking for

a solution

of

E(z,t)
we

= exp(mr)/(z)
[with

(7.333)
)/dz]
(7.334)

find

that

Eq. (7.332)

becomes

)' =

d{

f\" = fi/
This

- p
~
yield

can

section

be solved to solve the

by

the

same

pseudopotential
equation.

method
We write

Korteweg-deVries

used in (7.334) in

the the

previous form

r'
Multiplying

~-jf
and
W')2

[t/4
= ft/2

tn/2]

(7335)

both

sides by/'

integrating

y/4

(7-336)

Parametric

Instabilities

181

or (7.337)

or

df
JTT

\342\200\224 dz

(7.338)

f (n-1/.)
or df
/

it =
substitution

(7.339)

/(n-y/2)'
This

integral

can be

performed
can

with

the

/ > 0 everywhere,

(1 -/2/2ft)\"2.

With

(7.339)

be integrated
'\302\273

to yield
\"
\302\273\"'

T
Solving

(ITT)

(7.340)

for

w and

converting
/

back to/, one finds

= (2ft)1''2sech (ft''2z)
by

(7.341)

so that

the

total

field,

as given

(7.333),

is

E(z,t)
which

= (2ft)1''2exp (iftr)
soliton.

sech(ft1/2z)

(7.342)

can be

called a
Sketch

Langmuir

EXERCISE
\"bump.\"

the solution
density

(7.342) and show that

(7.331).

it

is indeed

a localized

Sketch

the

perturbation

more class of solitons exists [23],moving at any speed the absolute value general of which is less than the sound speed. In the next section, we turn our attention to another that can important subject be studied within the context of the Zakharov equations:parametric instabilities. The of solitons and parametric instabilities is one of the most active areasof study

research

in plasma

physics [24-26],

7.17
Consider

PARAMETRIC INSTABILITIES
a plasma

contains a single plane wave of finite Within amplitude. of be of as a can timewave system thought plasma plus Is state. We such an can then ask the question: dependentequilibrium equilibrium stable or unstable? This is the same we asked about time-independent question 6 on Vlasov theory and in Section 7.13 on the two-stream equilibria in Chapter
that

the

fluid

theory,

the

instability. The answer to the

instabilities

question

often

are

called

parametric

instabilities,

indicates instability, and such the \"parameter\" being the amplitude

of

the single

wave.

182

Fluid

Equations

One can look for such instabilities with of the waves studied in this book. any For example, we shall use Langmuir waves, the stability of which can be studied the context within of the Zakharov equations of the previous section. It turns out that the most general instability in this case involves the single finite-amplitude two other Langmuir wave. The wave, waves, and one low frequency Langmuir that the of the two other stability analysis proceeds by assuming amplitudes wave are infinitesimal. We choose Langmuir waves and the low frequency E(z,r)
\342\200\224

E0

exp

+ (\342\200\224ico0T

ik0z)

\302\243+ exp

+ [\342\200\224/(co()

o>)r
k)z]

+ i(k0
and

+ k)z] + E. exp[-/(\302\253\342\200\236 m*)r + /(*0

\342\200\224 h

(7.343)

n
where

exp

+ (\342\200\224iwr

ikz)

+ complex
E0.

conjugate
The

(7.344)
solution
Zakharov
the

n,

E-,
E0

and
exp

are E\302\261

all

much
ik0z),

E(z,t)
equations

\342\200\224

+ (\342\200\224iu>0T

smaller than = 0, is n(z,r)

equilibrium
satisfy

chosen to

with E0 real.
this

EXERCISE Show that

Inserting

solution

implies
the

oj0 =
first

k02.

the

forms

(7.343) and
terms (o>0 +

(7.344) into

Zakharov

and keeping only

those

with spatial

dependence ~
kf ~
-

equation

(7.329),
find

exp[i(*u+ *)zj,we
HE0 \342\200\224

o>)E+

+ (*\342\200\236

E, = exp[/(*0
=

(7.345) k)z]

Likewise,

the terms

with

spatial

dependence

yield

(w0

<u*)E-

(*\342\200\236*)2\302\243_

n*E0

(7.346)

Solving (7.345) and (7.346)for equation (7.330), only keeping

eliminating

ZT+ and\302\243_, inserting

terms

with spatial

variation ~

these

into the

second Zakharov

n from

each term yield the kl =

dispersion relation

exp(ikz),and
(734?)

\"2

(.V-2*0*

-,-fc'+2M)
for is larger n and

There
with

are
k

<

first, so
electric
known

several types of solutions. With look *0 > 0, we first 0. If |w| is small, the second denominator on the right we ignore the second. to ignoring This is equivalent
is

an instability

than the
in

the term E-

the
thus

field (7.343), so this instability involves only E0, as a three-wave interaction. The dispersion relation (w2

and \302\243+,

is

now

with

k2) co

(co

- *') ~ k2E2= 2**n

dwhere
Eq.
|<5| \302\253 | * |,

0
(w2

(7.348) \342\200\224 \342\200\224

Looking (a>'+

for a k)(a>

- k) =

solution

* +

we write

k2)

2*6; (2k + 8)8 \302\253

(7.348)

then yields
2

81
At

8(k

- 2kk0 -

kE
k2)

jsatisfies

= 0
*
\342\200\224

(7.349)
2kkn
\342\200\224=

the

* =

particular
\342\200\224

negative

wave number

that

k1

0 or

2*0

-H I,

this is

Parametric

Instabilities

183

2 Vl,'2

=
which

\302\261

(7.350)
fc0 \302\273

(*\302\243)

indicates

instability

since k <

0. If
units

1, this

becomes
\"'

6 =
EXERCISE

/A:0\"2^o

(7.351)
a

Show

that

in

physical

denoted

by

tilde,

k0

\302\273

1 means

k0Ke \302\273-(me/m,y/i.

EXERCISE

What does

\\6\\

\302\253 \\k\\

mean

in physical
A:0

units?
\342\200\224 k\342\200\236 2k0

Since the electricfield

has 1,\302\243+
known

\302\243+has a

wave

number

k =

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 +

k0

a negative wave as a backscatter

in the opposite number and travels direction to E0. It is and is one of instability, decay example a parametric rate

instability.

The physical growth

\342\200\224 =

y is
<*\302\260x')1/2

w,
where

(^f V T?m,

/
by

<x>

(327r\302\2530i,)1\"'

fVv*

(7352)

physical

quantities

are denoted

a tilde.

EXERCISE
The

Demonstrate
relation
is

(7.352) from (7.351).

(7.347) also yields an instability as a four-wave interaction. The
that

dispersion
thus

involves case

terms and
wo

known

simplest

all of the is when

at

the

^o plasma

Looking

relation

= 0; that is, the physical field represented by E0 is oscillating exactly and has zero wave number (a so-called frequency oj\302\243 dipole field). for a purely growing instability w = iy, we see that the dispersion (7.347) becomes

(y2 + k2)(y2 +
the

A:4)

2k4 E02

= 0

(7.353)
(7.354)

solution

of which
y2

is

(k2

k4)
1 the

+
A:6

T [(k2
term
yield

k4)2

Sk*E02y2

With and

both the

k square

\302\253

Iand.Zs0

\302\253

within

the bracket

can be discarded,
(7.355)

root

can be

expanded to
y

k(2E02

k2)\"2

which

is the growth two-stream instability 7.32. The maximum

Show

rate [27].
growth

of the The

growth

rate

as the oscillating four-wave interaction known rate versus wave number is sketched in Fig. = Eu} occurs at k = \302\261\302\2430. y

EXERCISE

that

in physical

units

these

are

*'\302\273\342\200\242

12^7

(7-356)

and
&K

/
L0

\302\2432 \"

\\1/2 (7.357)

184

Fluid Equations

Fig. 7.32 The

study

Growth

rate

versus

wave number for

the

oscillating

two-stream

instability.

such fields as laser and of of the fusion, fusion, radio-frequency heating ionosphere particle radio confinement and solar devices, magnetic physics. of plasma physics. This brings us to the end of our study of the fluid equations In the next chapter, the fluid equations for each species are combined to yield the
of

parametric

instabilities

is very important for

beam

equations

of magneiohydrodynamics.

REFERENCES

[1] K. R. Symon, Mechanics,Addison-Wesley, in Plasma Physics [2] A. N. Kaufman,

W.

Reading,
in

Mass.,

i960.

Theory

and

B. Kunkel,
A.

[3] N.
Hill,

Krall

New

McGraw-Hill, and A. W. Trivelpiece, York, 1973.

and

New York,

1966,p. 91.

Application,

edited

by

McGrawPrinciplesof Plasma Physics,

[4]

P. C. Clemmow Phys. Soc. Conf

R.

Cavendish

F. Mullaly, in Physics of the Ionosphere: Report of Lab., Physical Society, London, 1955,p. 340.
Gatlinburg,

[5]

[6] F. F. [7] T. H.
[8]
maks,
Virginia,

W. P. Allis, in Sherwood Conf. Conn. Fusion, 27-28, 1959, TID-7582, p. 32. Chen, Stix,

Tennessee,

April

Introduction The

to Plasma

Physics, Plenum, New

to Trapped-Particle

York, 1974.
York,
in

Theory

of Plasma
Introduction

Waves, McGraw-Hill, New

1962.
Toka-

W. M.

Manheimer, An
1977.

Instability

TID-27157,

National Technical
in Plasma

Information Service, Springfield, 1, edited by

1968,
Phys.
A.

[9]

N. A.

Krall,
B.

in

Advances

Physics, Vol.
New

Simon

and

W. B.

Thompson, Wiley-Interscience,
Coppi,

York,

p. 153.
Fluids,

[10] T. K.Chu, (1969).

H. W.
del Nuovo

Hendel, and F. W.
Cimento, 1,

Perkins,

12, 203

[11] B. Coppi,

357 (1969). E. Frieman, and [12] P. Rutherford Phys. Fluids, 1U 569 (1965). A. A. V. Rukhadze and P. Silin, Sov. Phys. Uspekhi, 11,659 (1969). [13] [14] J. D. Jukes, Rep. Prog. Phys., 31, 305 (1968).
Revista

[15] P. H. Rebut,

Plasma

Phys.,

9, 671

(1967).

Problems

165

[16]

A.

B.

Mikhailovskii,
Kadomtsev

Rev. Plasma
and

[17] B.B.
A. B.

O.

P. Pogutse,

Phys., 3, 159(1967). Rev. Plasma Phys.,5, 249

(1970). of an

Vol.2:Instabilities Mikhailovskii, Theoryof Plasma Instabilities, [18] 1974. Consultant New Plasma, Bureau, York, Inhomogeneous F. F. Chen, Sci. Am., 76 (1967). 217, [19] and G. deVries, Phil. Mag., 39, 422 (1895). [20] D. J. Korteweg V. E. Zh. Zakharov, [Sov. [21] Eksp. Teor. Fiz., 62, 1745(1972) Phys.-JETP,
908 (1972)].

'
35,

[22] P. J.
[23]

Hansen

and

D.

R. Nicholson,
724

Am. J.
(1975).

Phys., 47, 769

(1979).

G. Schmidt,

Phys. Rev. Lett., 34,

F.

[24]

A. C.
(1973).

Scott, F. Y.

Chu,

and

D. W.

McLaughlin, Proc. IEEE,

61,

1443

[25]

G. B. Whitham,
Lonngren

Linear

and

Nonlinear

Waves, Wiley, New York,

Action,

1974.
New

[26] K. E,

and

A. C.

Scott, eds., Solitonsin

Academic,

York, 1978.

[27] K. Nishikawa,

Phys. Soc.

(1968). Jpn., 24, 916, 1152

PROBLEMS

7.1
the
your

Energy

Transport

Equation
fluid V2msv2

Obtain an Vlasov
result

equation for the

equation
by

of particle kinetic energy by multiplying transport and integrating over all velocity space. Simplify

in any convenient
Conservation

fashion.

7.2

Fluid

Properties

we have an Suppose dimensions. Suppose

that

electron-proton plasma
there is no magnetic
field.

that

is finite Using

in extent in all the fluid equations,

three

prove

(a)

For

(b) (c)
7.3
One

Momentum Total

each species, total particles are conserved. is not necessarily conserved for each species. summed over species, is conserved. momentum,
Waves individual

Langmuir

does not need to look for equations. Considerthe electron

(7.40).

sinusoidal

fluid

equations

wave solutions in the differential

to solve wave form (7.38) to

partial

(a)

Combine
differential

these equations,
equation (a,2

and linearize, to obtain

u>?

the

linear

wave

3ve> d/)E(x,t)

= 0

186
(b)

Fluid

Equations

Suppose

the

initial

conditions

for

E(x,t)
=

are
=/\342\226\240(*).

E(x,l = 0)
E(x,t

where an
transform evolution

overdot techniques,

indicates find

0 a time derivative. Using Fourier and Laplace an exact explicit solution for the time
a sinusoidal

0) =

of

E(x,t).

(c)

Suppose/(x)
with

space

represents a standard wave packet, by a Gaussian envelope accompanied

variation

E(x,t =
k0

0)

f(x) By

= E0e-\"V2L2sin

k0x

where we
necessary,
with

assume

\302\273

L~x.

using an appropriate

approximation, if
wave

in the group

exact solution from

speed
1^1
]

(b), show that

=
t

the

packet

travels

the

d<u t

|A as

|3C*oA>,|
and
.

Show also
spreading (dispersion)

that

the

packet spreads is proportional to

it

propagates,

the rate
the

of
move to

\\dVg/dk\\k=k

Does

packet

the

right,

to

the

left, or

does

it

split

into

right-

and left-going

pieces?

7.4

Negative

Energy

Waves

a plasma has coldelectrons to cold with with velocity u\342\200\236 drifting respect ions. Derive the wave dispersion relation to high frequency corresponding electron plasma waves. Show that in the frame moving with the electrons, these are waves. Plot the two branches of w(k)vs. k. Use the wave just our old coldplasma the wave energy. Indicate the regions of your energy formula (6.72) to evaluate where the energy is negative. dispersion diagram
Suppose

7.5

Upper

Hybrid the

vs. Right

Cutoff Frequency

Prove that

right

cutoff
<oK

frequency
=

^+
= mvB

[^

(a2/4)]\"2
frequency

is

always

greater

than

or equal to the

upper hybrid w + ryy\302\253

7.6

Upper

Hybrid

Wave
upper

Compare the derivations of the

wave)

hybrid

wave (a

perpendicular, electrostatic
electromagnetic

and

the

extraordinary

wave (a

form of the upper hybrid wave electrostatic wave). Does the assumed partially not? In which does it Maxwell's satisfy equations? Why parameter regime In this parameter is there any Maxwell's approximately satisfy equations? regime, difference between the upper hybrid wave and the extraordinary wave? In the X-mode be same as would show that law contains the information derivation, Faraday's electron contained Poisson's the by continuity equation. Reproduce equation plus

perpendicular, partially

and

Problems

187

the graph
diagram

of n
the

for

the
hybrid

derivation?
wave?

for the extraordinary wave and draw the dispersion of each diagram do we trust portion upper hybrid wave. For which to the upper Which portion of the A'-modediagram corresponds
=

ck/w

7.7
We

Model
wish

of Collisions a simple model of suffers collisions at

wave

to derive

collisional

effects

typical

particle
first

a rate

v. Then

in a plasma. the particle when

Suppose that
oscillating

in

the electric and to the

electron where

field of a
element

will

approximation

suffer a collision (assuming v \302\253 at) occasionally can be thought to lose all of its directed energy. An
v

fluid we have

with velocity
that

will

thus

assumed
term

each

colliding
\342\200\242 =

lose momentum at a rate \342\200\224vnavme, electron loses momentum \342\200\224 me\\. Thus,

we can

add a
neme

in d,\\e

the +

electron neme\\e

force equation
VVe
\342\200\224

to representcollisions,
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

VPe

eneE

vnemeVe

With
v

this extra term, rederive the Langmuir \302\253 w. At what rate does the electric field
energy

wave
damp

relation, assuming dispersion At what rate does the away?

wave

damp

away?
Dielectric

7.8
Recall

Low Frequency
that
in

Constant

the

theory

of dielectrics,

one likes to
c +

include

the

currents

in

VXB
in

4tt = \342\200\224 J

\342\200\224

3,E '

the

dielectric

function

t;

thus

B =

\342\200\224

d,D '

where

Fig. 7.33

Configuration

for

Problem

7.9.

188

Fluid

Equations

eE

Suppose
field.
by

Derive
the

a slowly varying sinusoidal electric field is appliedacrossa magnetic an expression for e by considering the polarization current produced electric field. What do you suppose \"slowly means? varying\"
that

7.9
A

Kunkel's Problem
plasma

density p \342\200\224 \302\2530(/w;+ me) is bounded by two parallel a distance L. A acceleration by gravitational g is applied at separated plates conducting to a field and of these are uniform both B, angles right magnetic parallel to the as shown in Show of drift 7.33. means a careful by analysis that plates Fig. particle if downward is if the low the plasma can accelerate switch 5 and freely only open, is function from the t What is the dielectric \302\273 1. frequency previous problem is two in that case? 5 what the between the If is current closed, plates voltage density between the two plates?
of mass 7.10

Laser

Fusion
obtain

fusion using deuterium and tritium, thermonuclear the Lawson criterion nr > 1014 (c.g.s.) at a temperature T ~ 10 keV, where t is the confinement n is the number of particles per cm3, and for time in sec. Use the Lawson criterion to derive the corresponding requirement laser pellet fusion, pr > 1(c.g.s.) where pellet p is the density of the compressed in g/cm3 and r is the radius of the compressed pellet in cm. {Hint: How doesone this define time\" for inertial \"confinement\"? How can one estimate \"confinement

In order

to

controlled

one

needs

to satisfy

physically?)

CHAPTER

Magnetohydrodynamics

8.1 INTRODUCTION
which were 7 is concerned with a set of equations,the fluid equations, Chapter in turn derived from the Vlasov equation, which was derived\"from the Klimontovich all collision effects. Thus, all of the phenomena equation by neglecting in Chapter discussed 7 will occur only collisions are not important. A rough when is obtained criterion the collision for the importance of collisions by comparing <a of the phenomenon under consideration; the fluid frequency i/wto the frequency we have seen (Section 1.6) that the treatment is valid when vei \302\253 <w. Since *= the collision vei <ue/A, there is a huge range of frequencies where frequency fluid treatment of frequencies, 0 < range applies. However, there is a significant treatment does not apply. In particular, one often wants co < vel, where the fluid for in tokamaks, mirror to find an equilibrium plasma configuration; example, and stellar winds. machines, planetary magnetospheres, pulsar magnetospheres, to w \342\200\224 must be included An is equivalent 0 (d, \342\200\224 0), and collisions equilibrium
in

such

considerations.

that are valid for low frequencies. develop a set of equations not studied Chapters 3 and 6 can skip directly to (8.3) and (8.7) of collisions.] with the that the extra terms representthe physics understanding the Recall plasma kinetic equation (3.26),

Let us then
who

[Students

have

*,/. +

*\342\226\240*,/,+

+
(^E
\342\200\224 X

^vXB).VT/f
-VvcWj

= -

\"Jh(sE +

<5B]

(8.1)

190
Here,/S(x,v,/) JVs(x,v,/) density

Magnetohydrodynamics

is a over

smooth function obtained by

an appropriate
represents
a symbol

averagingthe
8NS

Klimontovich

volume, while
is the

is the

difference

between the

smooth function/, and Ns, which

that the right side argued We can therefore invent
(8.1)

sum of delta functions. In Chapter3 we collisions. discrete particle effects, including side for the right of (8.1), (df/dt)c, and write

as

BJ.

+ Wx/s

^(e

+ ^b).Vv/j=

(8.2)
[*\302\243\\

we are thinking a small of fs as the number of particles in volume of Thus, volume. (See the discussion in six-dimensional phase space(x,v),divided by that or lost by that Section is the rate that particles are gained 6.1.) Then (dfs/dl)c that are also averaged small volume because of collisions. Recall E and B in (8.2) This particles. quantities, so that they do not include the fields due to individual identification of (d fs/dt)c is admittedly but we shall not attempt to do crude, better here. There that starts from does exist a large bodyof more exact literature the formally exact expression use we (8.2) to try to obtain the most (8.1).Here, significant effects of collisions. we expect identified Having (dfs/dt)c as the change infs(x,v,t)due to collisions, it to have a much stronger influenceon the velocity dependence of/s than on the in a of fs. This is because a collision can causea huge change spatial dependence position. particle's velocity, but does not cause much change at all in a particle's the Vlasov In Section 7.2 we obtained the fluid equations by integrating equation (6.5) over velocity space after multiplying by an appropriate power of Let that procedure with (8.2). Multiplying us repeat velocity. by unity and integrating all velocity over space, we obtain

B,n,{x,t)+
where the
number
left

\342\200\242<\302\245,\302\273,)

=fdy

[^-)t

(8-3)

side

is as
in

in

of particles

a small

argued
positions;

that

this

is very

small
this

side represents the change in the have we just space dueto collisions; since collisions do not cause large changes in particle
(7.15).

The

right

volume
to (x,0

of real

therefore

we set

zero +

and obtain V
\342\200\242

d,ns which

(h.V,)

0
obtain

(8.4)
the

is just
multiply

the continuity
(8.2)

Next,
force

by
with

v and

equation
msnM

(7.28)
d,\\s

equation (7.15). integrate over all velocity space;we of one term. This is addition the
\342\200\242

M,\302\253,<V,

V)V,

VP, +

q,ns(E ljvfXB)
(85)

+
The term

\"\342\200\242\342\200\242/'\" (-iB

*-=\"

\342\200\242/<*\"

(iH

(8-6)

Introduction

191

the change in the momentum of species s at position x due to collisions. with itself; the center of cannot change its own momentum by colliding mass of two electrons, for example, is not accelerated during a collisionof the two in a certain of electrons momentum electrons (see Section 2.9). However, the For example, the ions. be changed volume of space can certainly by collisions with the incident on a plasma will slow down due to collisions with a beam of electrons of the electron beam because direction ions; the ions begin to move in the initial It we expect Ke(x) = \342\200\224 taken have Thus, K,(x). they up the electron momentum. for K^x), but here we shall models would be possible to developsimple but crude as is written Our force equation then leave Ks in general form.
represents A species

m,n,d,Y,

m,nt(VrV)\\t

+ W\302\273,

*,\302\253,(E

yV,XB)
fluid

+ Ks(x)
equations

(8.7)

The fluid
7,
without

equations the

(8.4)

and (8.7)

are the same as the

for
wish

in Chapter

this set is
equations equations

with of

Ks(x) in (8.7). When written called the two-fluid model. We now the ion equations to obtain a one-fluid
term magnetohydrodynamics by a

(MHD).

We

thus

and for ions, electrons the electron to combine also known as the model, wish to think of a single fluid
both

characterized

mass density
pM(\\)

mene(x)

w,\302\253,(x)

\"\"

mM*)

(8.8)

a charge density

PM
a center

+ q,nfjL) \302\253\302\253\302\273,<x)

= e(n,

nt)

(8.9)

of mass

fluid

flow

velocity

V =

\342\200\224

Pm

(m^W,

mene\\e)

(8.10)

a current density J =
and
qini\\i

qenc\\e

(8.11)

a total

pressure

p =
We

pe + pi
quantities: a mass conservation
equation,

(8.12)
and

wish

to

derive

equation,

a charge
we mh

four equations relating these conservation equation, a momentum

a mass

a generalized

Ohm's law.

First
(8.4) by

derive the

conservation
continuity

law.

Multiply

the
by

ion and

electron

equation

(8.4)
=

me>

continuity equation add to obtain

^f~+
which

V.(PjMV)

(8.13)

is

the
multiply

mass conservation
the
by

law.

Next,
equation

ion and

(8.4)

qe,

continuity equation add to obtain

(8.4) by

qh

the

electron

continuity

192

Magnetohydrodynamlcs

+
dt

VJ

= 0
law.

(8.14)
small
\342\200\224

which

is the

Consider
quantities, neglecting

charge continuity equation or charge conservation next the force equation (8.7).Regarding Vs and
the products
ions

d,ns as
=

of small
to obtain

quantities, and recalling K^

~ J
c

K/,

we add

(8.7) for electrons and

Pm

3l

VP

pcE

(8.J 5)

which

is the

Finally,
generalized

one-fluid force equation, or momentum equation. we desire an equation for the time derivative of the current, called a Ohm's law. Multiplying the force equation (8.7)by q/ms, adding the

ion version
quantities d,ns

to the

electron

and

Vs, and using

Z\302\243

version, ~
q>

neglecting
qe e,

quadratic
find
\302\243^\\

terms

in

the

small

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 we

w dt

m,

VP|

J_
me

VPr +

(\302\243!* \\ m,

\302\243!*

m,-

mec

v.

x b

+ i!5Lv,XB+
We

(\342\200\224

(8.16)

notice

that

nee'

mec

V, =

\342\200\224

{n.e\\,

mcc
\342\200\224e

w,eV,) +
(m.WyVj

\342\200\224e\342\200\224 (\302\273\302\273,-M,-Vf)

memfi +

J +

mec

memiC
m^niiC

meneWe)

~e

mec

..

, \342\200\236 and

(8.17) the

where the first line adds the

already
that

line
tiny

merely
quantity

adds

{me/m)\\et

and subtracts the same quantity, which is negligible

m[l
\302\253

second
V,

compared to

as

incorporated
(8.16),
\302\253

into J.
neglecting
\302\253,

Using (8.17)in
Pe Pt

m~]

wherever

possible,

and assuming

*\302\273 ViP

and
e2o

*=

ne, wc find
1

at

VP
2m\342\200\236

\342\200\224^m,m;

(EH

V
c

X B)
ion

\342\200\224

m,c
momentum

X B

\342\200\224

mr

K,

(8.18)

Recall
electrons.

that

K,

represents
Vf between

It

is reasonable
K;,

velocity

V,

\342\200\224 of

due to collisions with is a of the relative function K, the two species; keeping only the first term in a Taylor the change
then in

to

assume

that

expansion

we find

K,-

- C,(V( =

V,)

c2j

Introduction

193

pMe
rrijO

(8.19)

where
conductivity,

the constant
as

we shall

C2 has been put in see. The minus

current

a form
sign

such
has

that

a can

been chosen

collisionsto decrease the

multiply

be identified as a because we expect

we

caused

by relative

species velocity. When

J
JXB-

by
tnetn,

m,m,/pMe2, (8.18) becomes

83
dt
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\236

m,

*
V vl P
1 IT li 1 1

1 c

V V

V *

1* 15

*\"'

Pi^e2

2pMe

pMeC

(8.20)
which

is the

generalized

Ohm's law.
second

The name
the
fifth

comes terms

from on

the fact

that

if the

only

important
which

terms are the

and

is Ohm'slaw

This
equations,

completes
we

J = aE and in which a is clearly the conductivity. our derivation of the MHD equations.
*Pu
dt

the right

side, we have

(8.21)
Collecting

these

have

'(P*V) = V- J
+
= =

(8.13)

dPc
dt

(8.14)
c

Pm

S-\"
pMe2

PcE

x
+
E

(8.15)

VP
dt

IpAte

+
When

\342\200\224 V X

m<

x B -

P^ec

(8.20)

coupled to

Maxwell's equations
V

=
dt

(8.22)
dt
(8.23)

and
VxB
we

= iZLJ
c

\302\261^ c

pM, pc, V, J, E, and B; this assumes that mass density pM. in the generalized Ohm's For very low frequencies, one can ignore the d,J term In addition, when the VP term can be ignored. law, whereas for low temperatures the current is small we can neglect the J x B term as the Hall term) (known compared to the V X B term; under all these assumptions,Ohm's law (8.20)
have
the

14 equations in the 14 unknowns P can be expressed in terms pressure

of the

becomes

0 = E

+ -!-VXB

(8.24)

194
or

Magn\302\253lohydrodynamlcs

= a

(e

+ y

b)

(8.25)

When collisions currents, only finite

vanish, the
we must

conductivity

becomes

infinite

and,

in

order

to

have

have

E +
or E =

\342\200\224

VXB

= 0

(8.26)

\342\200\224 X

(8.27)

Under this infinite are allowedand

equations

we

conductivity, have pc

low frequency condition, no charge imbalances our basic 6. Under these ideal MHDconditions,
(8.23)

(8.13), (8.14),

and (8.15), (8.20),(8.22), \342\200\242 (p\342\200\236V)

become

3,Pm
Pm a,v
V

- x
(V

VP

\342\200\224 x

=0 J

(8.28) B

(8.29)

B)

d,B

(8.30)

B =

(8.31)
right

where

the

low

frequency

assumption

is used to

ignore (l/c)(dE/dt) on the

of

(8.31).

We shall not attempt to further justify (8.28) to (8.31); instead, we shall take for in useful be that these can physical situations. In the granted justified equations consider next section, we shall use these to the equilibrium and stability equations of various plasma configurations. 8.2

MHD EQUILIBRIUM
cases

In many
the

one

is interested

in then

the

equilibrium

is found,
problem

one

equilibrium whether asks

configurations or not the

For example,the
the

of the

earth's

solar

wind can be approachedby

first

with magnetosphere and its interaction for MHD looking equilibria. (Since

equilibrium is stable.

of a plasma. Once

we that all sgroth order quantities have implies no_time^derivatives, look for feel confidence the ideal MHD to can some in using equilibria.) equations thus P\302\260) Once we find the zeroth order quantities and V\302\260, J\302\260, B\302\260, (and pM\302\260 satisfying \342\200\224\342\226\240 the ideal MHD equations (8.28)-(8.31) with 0, we can then linearize about d, the to determine whether it is stable. In other words, we let pM \342\200\224 equilibrium \342\200\224 \342\200\224 and and we solve for all + ieu, d, Pm Pm\\ etc., possible values of cu. If one and any tiny of m has Im(aj) > 0, we have of these values perturbation instability is destroyed. If as of the equilibrium will until the equilibrium grow exp [Im(aj)r] but this does not no unstable values of co are found, then we have MHD stability,
equilibrium

imply overall stability.

Much of

the

high

frequency

physics has

been lost

in

first

MHD Equilibrium

195

and in next adding the going from the Vlasov equation to the two-fluid equations, A system that is MHD stable two-fluid equations to obtain the MHD equations. effects or Vlasov effects are considered. two-fluid Thus, may well be unstable when is MHD condition for overall stability. a not a sufficient but stability necessary

Before proceeding to of questions a measure of intuition gain regarding

(8.25)

MHD our

equilibrium and stability, MHD equations. From

let

Ohm's law
<8'32)

us try

to

and

Maxwell's

equations

(neglecting the displacement current)

V

B =

4rc J

and
V
we

x E

\342\200\224

d,B

(8.33)

obtain

V x

(V x

B) = -^
d,B

[- y
V
a
X

d,B

\302\261

X (V

B)]

(8.34)

or
=
(V

X B)

c2

V2B -r\342\200\224 the

(8.35)
by

Thus, the convection,

magnetic field
the
on
first

term

second

term

the

right

plasma can be changed side of (8.35),or by diffusion side of (8.35). When V = 0, (8.35) is
at

point

in a

fluid

on

the right

due

to the

d'B = 4^\" V'B

which

(8J6)
the

is the

standard
with

form of

a diffusion
time

equation;

constant

c2/4wa is known
that

as the magneticdiffusivity.
diffuse away
a diffusion

Dimensional

analysis

of (8.36)

shows

the

field

can

td given
TD~*-?f-

by

(8.37)

a is inversely proportional to the conductivity diffusion must involve the disruption of particle rise to the orbits due to collisions, which in turn disrupts the current that gives to diffuse. of the current allows the magnetic field magnetic fields; the disruption We consider next a very important that of frozen-infield lines. concept, Consider the a surface that AS drawn perpendicular to the field lines, and suppose this surface is moving with some specified velocity field 8.1). boundary of (Fig. What is the time rate of change of the total flux magnetic

where L is the

collision rate,

scale length. Sincethe

the

physics

of the

dk
AS

\342\200\242

(8.38)

through

the surface

A5? It is

6 = f JAS

dk'B + J&S f

dk

(8.39)

196

Magnetohydrodynamlcs

A5>

Fig.

8.1

Surface AS

perpendicular

to

the magnetic from from

field

lines.

where the first term gives the contribution the second term gives the contribution surface

the time rate the movement of

of AS,
d\\.

of change of

B.

and
the

the boundary of

AS. At
by

every point on the

boundary

boundary

enclosed
that

the

point,

and therefore

is proportional it is given by V

of change of the to the perpendicular component of

the rate
X

area
Vat

Thus,

($.39)
X

is
(8.40)
to

* =
In ideal

J( AS

dk- ~61

+<i>B-(V

d\\)

MHD (a -*

we define \302\260\302\260) 4>. We

we evaluate

(8.40)

for

the surface AS first integrate (8.30)

fl,B

to be attached

the AS,

fluid,

and

over the

surface

obtaining

If we

J AS as recall Stoke's theorem rem,

J
AS

dk

\342\226\240 =

J^s

\342\200\242> AS

dk

\342\226\240 TV x

(VX B)]

(8.41)

(V x

Q-dA

C
=<\302\243

\342\200\242

d\\

(8.42)

(8.41)

becomes

Jf AS
Next

dk - d,B

=6
J

d\\

\342\226\240 X

(V

B)

(8.43)

recalling

the vector

identity

\342\200\242 X

(B

C) = (A

B)

- C

(8.44)

we

find

Jf AS

dk

\342\200\242

d,E

6 B

\342\200\242 X

(V

d\\)

(8.45)

But by (8.40), the left side of (8.45) the surface AS, therefore through

is just the total time

rate of change of
(8.46)

* = 0
the

as

long

as the

surface AS moves with

t

fluid.

0 we draw two surfaces ASt and AS2, and we then sweep the surfaces along the instantaneous field lines to form two flux as shown in tubes, intersect is one 8.2. If the two surfaces AS, and AS2 at one point, then there Fig. Suppose

that at

MHO

Equilibrium

197

Fig.

8.2

Two

flux

tubes.

special

fluid
two

field line that is the line at which in one flux tube red and the fluid flux tubes forever. For any reasonable

the in

the

flux tubes touch. By coloring other tube blue, we can follow flow, the tubes will touch, always
two

the
the

and

the line of
ideal the

touching

identifies

that

particular

magnetic
field

MHD, plasma

we can similarly is frozen to the field

label each and every

lines.

field line forever. Thus, in line, and we can say that

MHD (a \302\245= much more difficult it becomes to label field lines. \302\253>), This is true partially because lines can disappear because of resistivity. to consider the requirements Let us now return for an MHD equilibrium. solutions to (8.28)\342\200\224(8.31), with no fluid flow, we require Lookingfor equilibrium
In nonideal
that

0=
and
V

VP

\342\200\224X

(8.47)

XB

^-i c

(8.48)

which yield
VP

-j-

47T

(V x

B) x B = 0

(8.49)

Recalling
(V

B) x

B =

(B \342\200\242 V)B

VB2
\342\226\240y

(8.50)

we have
VP

-J-

VB2 =

87T

(B \342\200\242 ^ \342\200\242V)B 4~ 47T

(8.51)

When

(B

\342\200\242

V)B

0, this is
(8.52)

which
equilibrium,

leads us to define the

magnetic

pressure

must

and to state that B2/Sw, magneticpressure balance plasma pressure (Fig. 8.3),
B2

in

+
in

-r-

= constant

(8.53)

Returning

to

(8.47),

we see

that

equilibrium,

198

Magneto

hydrodynamics

P+B*ltor

\"-^

X
Fig.

8.3

Magnetic

field pressure

balances plasma

pressure

in ideal

magnetohydrodynamic

equilibrium.

VP

(8.54)

so that
constant

\342\200\242\342\200\224 = VP VP J \342\200\242

0; in other

words, B and

J lie along surfaces

of

pressure.

the theia pinch and the equilibria, are pinch, discharged about a cylindrical capacitor plates as shown in Fig. 8.4. The azimuthal J makes a B into the paper; the B conductor, in turn into induces an azimuthal E in the direction the paper opposite to J, which A an internal current in the in direction to'/.\" the produces plasma opposite final be as shown in 8.5 central state could where the Fig. hypothetical plasma 8.6 so that P + are then as shown in Fig. region has B = 0. The pressures = constant, and there is an azimuthal l?V87r current sheet at r0 such that

Let us consider two

the

z-pinch. In

simple casesof plasma

theta

VP

-j

(8.55)

is satisfied
A plasma,

(Fig. 8.7).
possible the

second and

equilibria

plasma

is the z-pinch, where a current flows a along is confined by its own magnetic field and its own current

Fig.

8.4

Theta

pinch.

MHO

Equilibrium

199

\302\251

B*0
\302\251

\302\251

B =0

\302\251

\302\251.

\302\251

Fig.

8.5

Hypothetical
the

final

state

of a theta

pinch.
8.8. Then
in

through

* B

force, as shown
VP

in Fig.

cyclindrical

coordinates

we

have
=
\342\200\224

JXB

-r-(VXB)XB An

(8.56)

or

dP

IF <\"\342\200\242> herewe merely note that of (8.57) will be left for one of the problems; The solution (8.57) does have well-balancedsolutions for B6{r) and P(r). we note two related points.First, of equilibrium, Before closing this discussion
&

(8.57)

because

P+
the magnetic

-f~

OTT

constant

(8.58) a plasma
we

(P =
have

0).

This

field jsjsmaller irtsidejt^lasma(P > 0) tnan outside of the fact that a plasmai^djamagriejic; is anothenilus\"tration
before
iri

seen this

considering (8.48)

sfngfe and

particle\" motion.

Second, we notice from

(8.49) VP

that when J is parallel to

B, we

have

= 0
X B

(8.59)
= 0

and
(V

B)

(8.60)

Pressures i

Magnetic
\"1

pressure

-^ 8.6

Radius

Fig.

Pressure balance for

the

final

state

of a theta

pinch

shown

in Fig.

8.5.

200
Current

Mag

netohydrotfyn

amies

deniity

-*- Radius
Fig.

8.7

Current

profile
as

that

maintains

the pressure

profile
magnetic

in

Fig.

8.6.

which

is

known

the force

free situation.
V

Any

field

for which

B(x)

=/(x)B(x)

(8.61)

In the next section we proceed to discuss the stability of our equilibria. It is the unfortunate case that both the theta pinch and z-pinch are unstable, as well as the but simple mirror machine. We shall find that stable equilibria are possible, only when certain criteria are satisfied.

satisfies (8.60).

8.3
In the

MHD

STABILITY

last section we found various examples of MHD We must now equilibria. ask whether thoseejyiilibwa-ar^stable. There are two ways of doing this. The first the equations g\302\243rnotionabout is to linearize and solve the zero-order equilibrium, same we for the frequenciss-in in which found the linear previously exactly way ~ waves. If one of these frequencies has Im(\302\253w)> exp[Im(<o)f] O^then exp(\342\200\224iml) with time, and the system isunstaSle. The will second is to considerthe total grow of a system, or decreases under a and to ask that increases whether energy eR\302\243rgy If the will not the the increases, grow. perturbationTTf energy perturbation can happen and have energy left over to go into energy decreases,the perturbation kinetic energy of expansion; this is the mark of instability. The is to linearize the equations of motion. first method In ideal MHD, these

are (8.28)to (8.31). Forexample,

consider

a plasma

held

up

against

the

force

of

->-J=yfr>S

Fig.

8.8

Current

and magnetic

field

configurations

in a z-pinch.

MHD

Stability

201

B = (/Plasma

Y////A
\302\251 \302\251 \302\251

9*0

Fig.

8.9

Plasma

held

up

against

the force

of gravity
For this
we

by

a current

sheet.

gravity

by

a magnetic

the

force

equation

field, as in Fig. (8.29) to include

PmW

8.9.
gravity,

example, becausewe generalize

have
X

= ~
at

W + \\
z =

pMg

(8.62)

Since |B| has a

the

discontinuity

0, (8.31)
quantities
B2 \\

(\342\200\224)J)-direction.

The

equilibrium

at z = 0 in predicts a sheet current are, generalizing (8.51) and (8.52),

d I
lb
We

\\P

\"8^)

= \" P\"8
and

(8.63)

next

consider
variation

sinusoidai
in

a perturbed fluid at the plasma-vacuum velocity only along y, an undetermined variation in 2,

V =
+ v(z) exp (\342\200\224i'o)f

interface

with

no variation
(8.64)

x,

iky)

where

(0,u

,uj.

It can then

be shown
J

[1]

that

instability

results,

with

- kg

(8.65)
(8.66)

or
<u

\302\261 /(**)l/2

which implies
the

instability.

This
fluid

is called

the Kruskal-Schwarzchildinstability,
instability.

and is

MHD

analog

of the

Rayleigh-Taylor

It is interesting to consider the microscopic of this instability. Recall the physics this current is due to the g X B drifts current in the \342\200\224J)-direction. Microscopically, of the particles on the plasma surface. Since this drift is proportional to mass much faster. Now consider the initial as (why?), the ions are drifting perturbation, to the shown in Fig. 8.10. Since the ions drift to the left, and the electrons drift creates an electric field as shown. The right, charges build up as shown.This plasmaon the surface then performs an E X B drift, down in the left section and

\302\251

\302\251

\302\251 the

Fig.

8.10

Microscopic

picture of

Kruskal-SchwarEchild

instability.

202

Magnetohydrodynamlcs

Fig. 8.11

Azimuthal

variations

of displacement

for m =
initial

0, m

1, and m

~ 3.

up
A

in

the

right

section,

thus

intensifying

the

perturbation

and leading to

could be carried out for other equilibria, such as the theta Consider the section. equilibria considered in the previous + imd + ikz), where 6 is z-pinch equilibrium, and perturbations ~ exp (\342\200\224iaii \342\200\224 is known as the sausage the azimuthal 0, the instability angle (Fig. 8.11). Form \342\200\224 is known as the kink instability. 1, the instability instability (Fig, 8.12). For m as flute because their perturbations values of m are known instabilities, Higher
similar

instability.
and

analysis

pinch

z-pinch

resemble fluted

Greek

columns.

We come to the second method of treating the question of stability in MHD the energy principle. Consider a ball in a potential well, as shown in Fig. systems, leads to a 8.13. In the unstable case, a small change in the particle's position for is available decrease in the particle's energy; the difference in energy potential

kinetic energy and the

is

implication

is instability.
in

characterized
perturbation

by a

to and the system is stable. It is interesting of these ideaswhen nonlinear are included. effects It turns out that plasma systems behave in the same way. The energy of a is be turned into the kinetic energy of instability, could plasma,which potentially the integral over its volume of 2?V8tt, the magnetic energy, plus its internal kinetic energy ViT per particle (Te = Tt = T). Thus, the plasma energy W is

positive change
is

potential

On the other hand, the stable case for a small perturbation; energy

thus, the
contemplate

prohibited

the modification

W=fdyj^

YfdVnT

(8-67)

or

W=idV{jn+\\P) If a hypothetical
will perturbation

(8-68)
in W, the

causes

a decrease the

system is unstable. (We

that

not

prove

this here.)

If W

increases,

system

is stable to

perturbation.

Fig.

8.12

Spatial

variation

of

displacement

for an m = 0

instability.

MHO

Stability

203

A
(a)

V
<b)

A
M (a)
nonlinearly

w
(d)
(b)

Fig. 8.13
unstable;

Examples of stability:
(d) linearly

unstable;
stable.

stable;

(c) linearly

stable,

nonlinearly

unstable,

(Note

Murphy's

unstable

eighth law: To prove perturbation. To prove stability,

to each

instability, one

needs

one needs to to prove stability

find

only for

one

each

and

every possible
each

considered previously; of perturbations considered types before. Here we consider the more general problem of the hypothetical of two neighboring tubes of magnetic flux. If this leads to 8 W < 0, we will interchange call it an interchange instability We consider separately the change of (Fig. 8.14).
of the equilibria
would

perturbation.) One could apply this technique

yield a change

6fV

<

0 for the

magnetic

energy

Wm,
Wm

JdV
Wp,

-|^

(8.69)

and

the

change

of internal

plasma energy
Wp

The interchange

is accomplished

fdVP by moving tube

\\
=

(8.70)
to \302\251

where

used \302\251

to be.

Then

Wm

X
1=1,2

J0

f'dl.'Ai

-^\302\260W
flux tube.
But

(8.71)
in a

whereJ,isthe

cross-sectional
flux

flux tube the

is constant;

of the/th area, and/, is the length, = therefore ipt Bt Ait or

(=1,2

S7T

J0

Ai
its flux

The change 6 Wm

in

Wm by

and Ai]

moving

to \302\251

is [\302\251 \302\251 keeps

but finds a new /,

Fig.

8.14

Two neighboring

flux

tubes.

204

Magnetohydrodyrtamics

(8.73) while the change

for (?) \342\200\224 Q is

(8.74)

The total change,

adding (8.73)to

(8.74),

is then

(8.75)

or
\302\253\"-=

3?
flux,
dWm

\342\200\242

1/4] we have
=

(8.76)

If we

pick

two

flux tubes

with

equal

0
change

(8.77)
fit into

With two

flux

tubes

of

the

flux

tubes,

as

flux, we next calculate the the plasma expands or contracts to

of equal

energy a changing volume

to

in internal

(Fig. 8.15).
The

change
\\V2

(assuming

in internal -

energy as
\302\253

we move

the

plasma

in

V]

the

volume

Vl

is

V,\\/V,

I)

PVy

\\

(pyy),(i

- ywrw
y)^-^(^2

y (P^),(l

V,)

(8.78)

Fig. 8.15

Neighboring

flux

tubes

with equal

flux

may

have

different areas

and

volumes.

MHD Stability

205
we

where we have
have

approximatedVs\"
that

V^

*=

V2 in

used

the fact

PVy

constant

in an

the denominator only, and adiabatic compression; assuming

5/3. (8.78)

three-dimensional Next,
adding

compression

we have y

\342\200\224

the

the change 5Wp ~_q two pieces yields

=

is obtained from
\\(pyy^

by interchanging

and \302\256

\302\251;

SW\342\200\236

(X

(^)i
(Vi

v,)

(8.79)

Approximating

Vl

\302\273

V2 in

the denominator
=

only, we have 8(PVy)8V With y =

3
-

(1-7)
V{v (PVy\\.

8Wp

(8.80)
this

where 8{PVy) now means (PVv)2

$WP
or
$wp Now

5/3

is

V{-\302\273d(PVv)8V

(8.81)
(8.82) \302\253

vcy8V(8Pvyy density
will

+ yP.yy-'dV)

suppose
the

we are
flux
VB2/87r

in

a low

part of the
be

plasma, so that

P(8V/V)

8P.

(This

is possible

because 8V
of the
~
two

recall that

tubes

very small is equal and

when magnetic fields are large; we only need a small magnetic

X?P).

field gradient

BVB to

balance the particle pressure gradient = 8V8P 8Wn

from 1 to 2,

Then

(8.83)
be

If

the

plasma

density

decreases

8P < 0, 0

there

will

instability

(8W\342\200\236

<

Q)\\i8V

> Oor
8V

=
djdlA

tpdf

-^->

(8.84)

so that

the

condition

for instability

is

Plasma

Fig.

6.16

Magnetic

field

lines

and plasma

density

in

a cusp

configuration.

206

Magnvlohydrodynamlcs

Fig.

8.17

Magnetic

field curvature

in

present-day

mirror

machines.

>
\302\273/f

(8.85)

Consider the simple mirror

the

length

offdl
The

instability.

of Fig. 8.14. As we go from (T) to \302\251, configuration increases while \\B\\ decreases; (8.85) is easily satisfied and we find same result is easily obtained for both the 0-pinch and the z-pinch.

Equation (8.85)leads to a very important principle, which we shall not prove the field lines curve toward the rigorously here. This principle states:Whenever field is unstable. lines curve away from the Likewise, when plasma, the plasma and are plasma, the plasma is interchange stable. Thus, the simple mirror pinches the cusp is stable, as shown in Fig. 8.16. Since the field lines curve unstable, while the from the plasma the cusp is interchange stable.Furthermore, away magnetic field is a minimum in the center is associated of the plasma, so-that minimum-B with interchange of the simple mirror has led mirror stability. The instability
designers

to look

coils,
in

known
the

configuration \\B\\

for a minimum-2? this by putting They accomplish configuration. as Joffe bars, along the axis of the mirror. The net result is a field curves away from the plasma, has a minimum that of everywhere center, and is MHD stable (Fig. 8.17).
PICTURE

8.4 MICROSCOPIC

OF

MHD

EQUILIBRIUM

is based on a picture of the plasma as a single fluid. Yet Magnetohydrodynamics we know that the plasma consists of two species of charged particles. Thus, any in MHD can also be understood the orbits detailed of the topic considering by In this section, we look at the topic of MHD equilibrium from a charged particles.

microscopic point

of

view.

Microscopic Consider
magnetic

Picture of

MHD

Equilibrium

207

field

predict, in

a plasma whose density varies = B0 B0(x)2 (Fig. 8.18). Then the steady state and in component
dP

smoothly
the

in the

^-direction,

with

MHD form,

equations

(8.47) and (8.48)

dx
and

\342\200\224JyBo

(8.86)

dxBa

-f
yields

Jy

(8.87)

Suppose constant

that the ions

in

are cold, 7\",

at x
\342\200\224

0, and

the electron

temperature

Te

is

space.

Then

0,

(8.86)

(8.88)
is being balanced pressure picture is one where the plasma force. Suppose the ions are cold and very massive; then it is reasonableto suppose even though that the current is being contributed by the electrons, of the behavior of the individual species. If the one-fluid equations tell us nothing this is so, then there must be a mean electron flow speed in the j5-direction such

so that
by

our

macroscopic

the

x B

that

~
Jy~

\302\243\302\2530 (Vy)demons

(8.89)

or from

(8.88)

= /
which
with

--CI\302\261

dx
>

(8.90)

'

L\342\200\236 (\342\200\224l/n0)(dn0/dx)

0 is

Vje

\342\200\224

iaii.

(8.91)
and

where
thermal

vde

is

the

electron

diamagnetic

drift

speed,

ve is,

as usual, the

electron

speed.

a*

-\342\226\272*

-^.A

Fig. 8.18

Coordinate system

for

MHD

equilibrium.

208

Magnetohydrodynamlcs

\302\256A\302\273

V\302\273o

Fig.

8.19

Single particle

picture

of

MHD

equilibria.

EXERCISE

Where does the

\"diamagnetic\"

come

from?

Now let us look at the singleparticle picture.Theelectronsare gyrating about no E X B0 hence field in the x-y plane. There is no electric field, magnetic drift. There is no curvature of the field lines, hence no curvature drift. will There be a VB drift a tiny X?B is if we assume a very strong magneticfield, then but, only \342\200\224 needed to make V(/> + B2/%tt) we can ignore the VB drift. So where 0, and does the single particle drift come from to make vde in (8.91)? The fact is that in of guiding centers, there is no drift, terms there is a but in terms of fluid elements, drift. Consider the x-y plane, as indicated in Fig. 8,19. Because there are more for x < 0 than will see more for x > 0, a small area of the x-z particles plane of flow to the right than to the left; thus, there is a net particles going through to the right elections in every fluid element, and a net current to the left. This is true even though the guiding centers never move! MHD is an This concludesour introduction to magnetobydrodynamics. in plasma physics that used in fusion is widely important extremely approximation
the

plasma physics, solar physics,

further

plasma

astrophysics,

and

energy technology.

For

discussion

of MHD

see Refs.

[2]-[30].

REFERENCES

[1] G.
[2]

Schmidt,

Physics

of High

Temperature

Plasmas, Academic, New

York,

1966. New YoTk, 1957. Interscience, Cowling, Magnetohydrodynamics, R. K. M. Landshoff, Stanford ed,, Magnetohydrodynamics, University Press, [3] Stanford, Calif.,1957. and D. J. Rose and M. Clark, Jr., Plasma Controlled Fusion, The M.I.T. [4] 1961. Press, Cambridge, Mass.,
Bershader,

T. G.

[5] D.
[6]

ed.,

Plasma

Hydromagnetics,
to Plasma

Stanford University Press, Physics, Pergamon, New York, Interscience, New York,

Stanford,

Calif.,

1962.
Introduction

W. B. Thompson, An

1962. [7] C. L. Longmire,

Elementary

Plasma

Physics,

1963.

References

209

[8]

S. Gartenhaus,

Elements of New York, 1964.

and

Plasma

Physics,

Holt,

Rinehart

& Winston,

[9] P. C. Kendall
Vol. Hydrodynamics,

C. Plumpton,

1, Pergamon,
Plasma and

Magnetohydrodynamics New York, 1964.

Physics,

with

[10] J. L. Delcroix, [11] E.H.Holt

New

R. E.

Wiley, New York, 1965. Foundations Haskell, of Plasma Dynamics, of Magnetohydrodynamics,

Macmillan,

York,
SherclifT,

1965.
A

[12] J. A.

Textbook

1965.
Jeffrey

Pergamon, Oxford,

[13]
[14]

A.

and

T. Taniuti,
Academic,

Thermonuclear Containment, W.

Magnetohydrodynamic Stability and New York, 1966.

in

B.

Kunkel,

ed.. Plasma

Physics
Reviews

Theory

and Application,

McGraw-Hill,

New York,

1966.
ed., 1966.
B.

[15] M. A.
[16]

Leontovich,

of Plasma

Physics, Vol. 2, Consultants

in

Bureau, New York, A. Simon and W.

Thompson,

eds., Advances

Plasma

Physics,

Vol.

1,

[17]

Interscience, New York, 1968. T.J. M. Boyd and J. J. Sanderson, Plasma Dynamics, York, 1969.
and

Barnes

& Nobel,

New

[18] P. C.Clemmow
Plasmas,

J. P.

Dougherty,

and Electrodynamics of Particles

Addison-Wesley,

Reading,

Mass.,
1970.

1969.
translated

[19]
[20] [21] [22]

H. Cabannes,TheoreticalMagnetofluiddynamics, A. A. Sfeir, Academic, New York, N. A. Krall and A. W. Trivelpiece,

by M.

Holt and

Principles

of Plasma

Physics, McGrawCommission

Hill, New

York,

1973.

Course on Instabilities

and Confinement
Luxembourg, of Plasma

in Toroidal

Plasmas,

of

the European Communities, A. B. Mikhailovskii,Theory

Inhomogeneous
New

1974.

Plasma, 1974.

translated

Vol. 2: Instabilitiesof an Instabilities, by J. B. Barbour, Consultants Bureau,

Plasma

York,

[23] [24]

Leontovich, ed., Reviews Bureau, New York, 1975. D. E. Davis, ed., Pulsed High
MHD

M. A.

of

Physics,

Vol. 6,

Consultants

Beta

Plasmas,

Pergamon,

Oxford, 1976.

[25] G. Bateman,

[26]
[27]

Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1978. Plasma and MHD Theory, Proceedingsof the Workshop, Heating Transport, Varenna, Italy, 12-16 September 1977,Pergamon, Oxford, 1978. Plasma The Study of Solar-System Plasmas, Vol. 1:Reports of Space Physics: of Sciences, the Study Committee and Advocacy Panels, National Academy Washington, D.C., 1978.
Instabilities,

The MIT

[28] SpacePlasma
Papers,

Physics:

The Study

of Solar-System

Plasmas, Vol.
D.C.,

2:

Working

National

Academy of Sciences, Washington,

1979.

210

Magnetohydrodynamics

[29]

F. Krause and K.-H. Radler,Mean-Field

DynamoTheory,

Magnetohydrodynamics

and

Pergamon, ed.,

New York, Reviews

[30] M. A.
Bureau,

Leontovich,

1980. of Plasma Physics, Vol.

8, Consultants

New

York,

1980.

PROBLEMS

8.1 B,y,
waves.

Alfven

Waves

Linearize
V

the ideal
=

Vxy,

Compare
any

MHD equations (8.28)to (8.31) with pM \342\200\224 pM0, J the dispersion and k = k2 to obtain relation Jxjt, from the two-fluid your result to the result (7.214)
\342\200\224'

B =

Bat +
Alfven

for

theory,

and

explain
8.2

differences.

Magnetosonic
=
for

Waves
linearize
V

For a cold plasma,

Pmu, relation

the =

ideal MHD

B02 + 5(f,
fast

= 7jX, and k = k$ to obtain the dispersion Vxy, J waves. Compare your result to the Tesult (7.227) magnetosonic

equations (8.28) to

(8.31)

with

pM

from

two-fluid theory,

and

explain

any

differences.

CHAPTER

9 Particle

Discrete

Effects

9.1

INTRODUCTION

the discrete nature of There are many effects in a plasma that are associated with is studied is that in the plasma particles. One of these effects of collisions, which of one discreteparticle is the interaction with Chapters 1 and 3 to 5. A collision effects that are due to the another discrete particle. TheTe are also discrete particle as a whole. For example,a fast interaction of one discrete particle with the plasma electron a plasma emits Langmuir waves. This phenomena through moving on the fact that the fast electron is indeeda discrete depends particle,but it does not thus, the rest of require that the rest of the plasma be made up of discrete particles; the can be treated through the Vlasov This leads to an plasma approximation. as the test-particle method. known extremely useful approach Sincethe effects to be studied in this chapter are discrete particle effects,it might with the discrete particle collisional have made more sense to study them together the relies heavily on the effects. it turns out that method However, test-particle Vlasov dielectric function. Chapter 6 on Vlasov us many of the theory taught so that we can now comprehend the results of function, properties of this dielectric the test-particle method more easily.

9.2
As a
of shielding

DEBYE

SHIELDING

first application of the test-particle let us calculate the Debye method, a test charge qT that moves a uniform plasma with a constant speed through = 0 at t = 0. For we freeze from the ions, and v0, starting position x0 simplicity, treat the plasma electronsvia the Vlasov equation. The only discreteness in the is the is test Poisson's Then problem charge. equation

212

Discrete

Particle

Effects
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

V2<p(x,t)
=
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

4np

4ne[n0

J d\\fe

(x,\\,t)]

\342\200\224

4nqT

<5(x

\342\200\224

\\0t)

47reJ^v/1(x,v,/)
the/0

AnqT

5(x

y0t)

(9.1) that

where

= f0 + makes only charge

fe
the

/,

and

term

cancels
in

the ion term.

the

Assuming

the

test

a small

Vlasov

equation

perturbation to obtain

electron

density,

we can

linearize
(9.2)

a,/,(x,v,/)
With
value

= v \342\200\242 V/,

-j\302\243-

V*

\342\200\242 V\302\245/0(v)

these two
problem.

equations, we use Laplacetransform The test charge suddenly appears

is
initially

techniques
at

to study the initial 0 at / = 0, and the

distribution

function

unperturbed,

/,(x,v,/
We

0)

- 0

(9.3)

Fourier

Fourier

transform (9.1) and and Laplace transform

(9.2) in space, and Laplace transform in time. The 5. The spatial conventions arc stated in Chapter
(9.1)

Fourier transform of
which

Poisson'sequation
=
47re

is

fcv(M)

ftfv/Hk.v.O

~-2

<r'kv\302\273'

(9.4)

has the

Laplace transform

Because

*Mk.a>)

AnefdxMKy^) J

Qt I CO

^\\

In.

(9.5)
V(j

the

initial
equation

linearized Vlasov

value of/, is zero, the (9.2) is

+

Fourier-Laplace

transform

of the

(Solving

iw

ik-v)A(k,w,\\)
inserting

=
in

yield

\342\226\240 -^- ik V,/0(v)\302\253p(k,a>)

(9.6)

(9.6) for/, Ar-^(k,cy)

and

(9.5)

\342\200\224

47re2 r
m,

j d\\

k-V,/0(v) :
w

\342\200\236 N , v(k,\302\253o) + \342\200\224 \342\200\242 v

i(2rr2yl

\342\200\224 \342\226\240

: k

gT (9-7)
v0

The

integrations
yielding

of the two velocity directionsperpendicular

the

to

k can

be

performed,

form
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

/cV(k,to)
L

pr k~

du

cu/k

<a

\342\200\224 -jk \342\200\242

(9.8)

v0

where
(6.34T

in square
Thus,

brackets we recognizeour
=

old

friend

the Vlasov

dielectric

function

rfk.\302\253)

kl6(k,aj)(uj

.,''(yr'^
obtain

\342\200\224 k \342\226\240

v0)

(9.9)

Next,

the Laplace

transform is inverted to

Debye

Shielding

213

l(-v0

Langmu ir poles

Fig.

9.1

Inverse Laplace contour used in

calculating

the Debye

shielding of a

test

charge.

*(M) =

e-\"\302\273V(k.<\302\273)

qT

-/,
The pole Langmuir / > 0 as

2ir

kle(k,u>)(u>
is as shown the two zeros we can
in

\342\200\224 \342\200\242

(9.10)

v0)

structure of the
has

integrand

Fig.

9.1,

where
to

for Maxwellian
Landau

electronse(k,<o)

among
this

others,
calculation,

corresponding

damped

waves. For

move the contour

downward for

in the calculation of Langmuir waves in Section 6.4. We ignore all of the transient contributions discussed in Section 6.4 (see Fig. 6.6). Furthermore, let us the contribution will damp from the Langmuir poles, which ignore away at large times. Then we pick up only the pole at a> = k \342\200\242 v0, obtaining

v(M) Since e is

(27T2)\"1qT e~'k
k2t(k,a>

'V
(9.11)
v0)

\342\200\224 k \342\200\242

evaluated at the real frequency

\342\200\242 we

v0,

can use the

exact formula

(6.45),
(9.12)
Let

us

work

out several
A

examples.

EXAMPLE
Letting

VACUUM

the plasma

disappear,

(oe

\342\200\224 we

0,

have e

= 1. Then
(9.13)

<p(k,t)

iZ_
2n2k we

e-(k-v\342\200\236/

Performing

the inverse

Fourier transform
<p(x,t)

have

Jdke*
I

\"(p(k,t)

= ldkeik

Jt iU \342\200\242 \302\273\342\200\236/

(9.14)

214
This
the

Discrete Particle
integral
direction

Effects

can be performed of x \342\200\224 V- Then k

\342\200\242

in

spherical

coordinates,

letting
6

the fc2-axis be
\342\226\240

in

(x

v)

= ^lx ~

Vlc\302\260s

(9.15)

and

<p(x,0
With

^2 In

Ja
6 dd,

dklnTdd
J0 we have
rffcf

smdeik^-v^cose

(9.16)

\342\200\224 cos

6, du

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 sin

<p(x,0 =
=

\342\200\224

rfj/e*l*-vl\302\253

2^

IfV

sip<*|xv

VI)
'
z

?)

f~
'o
V

dz

\342\200\224v\342\200\224 v

'

tt/2

or

**'>
Thus,

iT^vT
point

(9J8)
charge

we

regain
v\342\200\236.

the potential

due to a

in

vacuum,

moving

with

velocity

EXAMPLE

TEST

CHARGE

AT REST

IN

PLASMA

(v0

\302\253

v9)

For a test charge at rest, or moving we expect to regain very slowly (|v0| \302\253 v\342\200\236), = k \342\200\242 \302\253* the Debye shielding of Chapter 1 (for motionless 0, ions). Setting eo vC) we have, taking the electrons Maxwellian [seeEq. (6.24)],
=

c(k,\302\253

0)

co,2

C
du

dug

~j

~f

du

\342\200\2245-

l/v*

(9-19)

e(k,W which

0) =

.1 +

j^t
with

= I+ ^T
fixed

<

(9-20)

is the

\"static dielectric
-

function\"

ions.

The potential is

then

v(k'\302\260

^(m

= o)

F+T7

(921)

Debye

Shielding

215

where

we have

defined the
of 2n.
=

Debye

wave

number

K = V
without

(9.22)

any

factor

Then
jdk

\302\245>(x,r)

e'k

\342\226\240

*<p(k,t) cos 8 \342\200\236ikx

^5 2tt2

Jn 0

dk I l~ Ink1 2nk2dkf
/t2

dd sin 6
</w Jfc.

Jn \"0

,2
e\"

, 2

7T

J0

k2 +
r\302\260

/.:
(9.23)

= where
k, (x

dk

k sin /ex k2 + A:,1 used.

we =

the substitution can extend the |x|

dk

u'~ cos 0 has integration to

been

\342\200\224\302\260\302\260 use and

Because the integrand is even in contour techniques. We find

> 0)
k

-P 2L

sin kx
k,

k1 +

rfjfc (A:

/*,)(*
)\302\273 +

ik

..

2/.

ik.

e-i{-ik,)x
]
(9.24)

2(20

[2/*,

-2/*,

Te

so

that

V>(x,r)

\342\200\224

e\"y/x'

a:

\302\253 \302\253o

(9-25)
Note that this particle. for moving particles as

which

is exactly

formula

is valid
v0 \302\253

long as

what we expect for a Debyeshielded but not only for motionless particles, ve. (See Refs. [l]-[9].)
VERY

test also

EXAMPLE C
For

FAST

TEST

CHARGE

(v0
is

\302\273

ve)

a very fast test

charge, the dielectric function

2

\302\253 1 e(k,ai = k \342\226\240 v0)

r'
PJ\342\200\236

k1

dug(u) k-^/k

1 +

~\\ M) \"'-Co

dudug

0
\302\253 1

(9.26)
this

But where we have ignored w compared to k \342\200\242 in the denominator. \\0/k we find in vacuum so same result as for a test charge (Example A),

is the

6
VvTV,

= o.i

1
~5s ii '*>

-0.1

/
0

-0.2

1
\"ft

-0.3

^0.8
-2

-6

-6-4-20246
Distance

z' - (i\342\200\224vQt)/ \\t

as measured in the frame of a moving test contours, equipotential the with origin, charge qTand speed v0/2'A ve ~ 0.1. Contour labels indicate charge is at zero potential. From Ref. [9]. value of ipKe/qT, Unclosed, unlabeled contour Fig.

9.2

Steady-state

at

the

c0/V2

\342\200\242>,=0J3

2
-\342\200\2420.1

.-0.2
5-1 B

v,

0 --0.3

-2

-8

-6-4-2

\\
0

Distance

%'

(t~v0t)/ \\e ve

Fig. 9.3

Same as Fig.9.2, for

v0/2'h

= 0.3.

216

r0/V5a,-1

.,0.1

l_^
n
\\

J^0.5

I
-4

<

\\>0.8

-6-4-2
Distance z' =
Fig.

fz\342\200\224i0tVX,

9.4

Same as Fig.

9.2, for

u0/2*

v,

1.0.

VVH =2

-~^

^-*

0.1
0.2

/
H

\\

{ (

^~\\

0.3

\\

\\\\

\\

nf^V

0.6 0.8

j
J

\\>n

\\\\
\\

-0.3

7\\V^

-0.2

-0.1

-6

-6-4-2
Distance i'

0 =

2 (a-P0t)/
vr

\\f =

Fig.

9.5

Same as

Fig.

9.2,

for v0/2'A

2.0.

217

-4-2
Distance s'Fig.

2
(*\342\200\224v^tyx,.

9.6

Same as Fig.

9.2, for

v\342\200\236/2v' v,

3.0.

6
VVH
=

10

4
^^0.2

.^0.3

V^O.4

jLo.5
0 \\

^r

i*0.8

jCr
-2

/
f

-f>

-6

-4
Same as Fig.

-2
9.2,

Distance j^fg-j^tJ/X,

Fig. 9.7

for

v\342\200\236/2v' v,

10.0.

218

Fluctuations

In Equilibrium

219

rfx.0
The

=
iv lx time

1\\ \"see\"

v();

HI

vu

\302\273 \302\253*

(9.27)

plasma

does not

have

to

a fast
[l]-[9].)

test charge, and

thus

does

not

have

time to respond

and shield.(SeeRefs.

is a slow We have seen that has no shielding, while a fast panicle particle at intermediate speeds will be partially completely shielded. A particle moving on which shielded. The words fast, slow,and intermediate will depend plasma we are talking about. Figures 9.2to 9.7 show the transition from the Debye species in Fig. 9.2] to the 0.1 shielding of an almost motionless particle [vQ/(2Y've) \342\200\224 \342\200\224 almost unshielded behavior 10.0 in Fig. 9.7], of a fast particle [vQ/(2'/2 v^) In the next section, we continue to exploit the test particle approach, calculating the equilibrium level of fluctuations in a plasma. 9.3

FLUCTUATIONS
previous

IN EQUILIBRIUM
we computed
found

In the
Vlasov

section,

the electrostatic
the rest

a single test charge.We

that

of the plasma could be treated

potential in

a plasma

due to
by

the

equation. In this section, we want level of to use the same ideas to compute the average this each We do electric field fluctuations in an equilibrium by considering plasma. and every plasma particle as a test charge. Each test charge sees the rest of the the Cerenkov condition and it emits waves satisfying plasma as a Vlasov plasma, a = k* v0, where v0 is the velocity of the test charge. Likewise, waves are damped
via

Landau

damping, v0 is

which

again involves the

resonancecondition

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 k \342\200\242

v0

now the velocity of the particle that is doing the Landau damping, waves and u = k \342\200\242 we have a steady-state situation, with Thus, \\0/k. being emitted and absorbed. At each point in the plasma, the electricfield is fluctuating wildly in electric field energy density is a space and time. However, the ensemble averaged in space electric field energy constant and in time. It is this ensemble averaged density that we wish to calculate. The process considered here is an example of the principle of detailedbalance, which that to every emission process,there is a corresponding states damping to waves corresponds process, and vice versa. Cerenkov emissionof Langmuir Landau damping of Langmuir waves. In steady state, these two processes are of wave rate rate of wave emission equals the average balanced;the average
kit

where

damping.

Note that

here

we are

fluctuations of all frequencies that we call \"Langmuir waves.\"

The

in its most general sense; we have using the term \"wave\" the normal modes and all wave numbers, including

mathematics
the

involved
potential

in

this

calculation

Eq. (9.11)that space as

due to

a single test
(2tt2T'

charge

is straightforward. Recall from is written in wave number

<rfHk<')

<7re-''k,,<\302\273(') v \342\200\242 T \342\200\224 k

11 k k2e(k,a>

v0)

(9-28)

220

Discrete Particle
in the

Effects

where

exponent

we have

specifiedthe E(x,/) -

orbit

\\\342\200\236t by the

expression

\\0(0- Since
(9.29)

V<p{x,t)

we have

e(M)
so

- /Mk).

- w>i9T

,4;=^)

that

E(x,/)

=JdkelkxE(k,t)

fc\302\273c(k,\302\253, k

\342\200\242

<*31>

v0)

If we

(9.31) gives the electric field at point x due to a panicle with Equation in the plasma, and take add up the fields at x from all particles have we average,

orbit
the

x\342\200\236(/).

ensemble

<E(x,0>
where/0

fchnjdx0
function.

E(x,/)/0

(xo,v0)

(9.32)

is the zero
for

order distribution
particles

The
v0 and by

density average of

plasma any

to have

velocity

given by an In a uniform
expect
EXERCISE

that is caused property like (9.32). equation there is no plasma, isotropic

plasma

is the probability function/0 position x0; thus, the ensemble the discrete plasma particles is
we

preferred direction; therefore

(9.32) to vanish.
By

This indeedhappens.
the
x0

performing

integration,

convince

yourself

that (9.32)
in

vanishes. Next, considerthe

ensemble

average

electric

field energy density

E(x))

the

plasma,

W = Since this is
ensemble

\342\226\240\342\200\224\342\200\242

<E(x)

(9.33)

a positive definite average in the same

quantity,
way

we expect in (9.32),

as

a nonzero we have

result. Taking

the

X\\

dk

IJ

2 fc2e(k,w = k

< \342\200\224r r \\ \342\200\242

<&'

vu)

[J
real

,..# (* )

<

.,., (*

,ai

\342\200\224r> * = k \342\200\242 v0)J

(934)

where

integration; we find

used E*(x) = E(x)for the brackets.The x\342\200\236 yields integration square

we have

electric

field in the
k')

(27r)'6(k

\342\200\224

which

facilitates

second set of the k'

Fluctuations

in Equilibrium

221

We can perform and extract a

the
factor

two
of

velocity
to \302\2530,

obtain

integrations in the directions in the usual fashion

perpendicular

to k,

W =
Defining

6
tv

\"ofdumjA kMJ=
=

fa),,

(9.36)

at =

ku, we

find

!^f^Lfdk^) In J Iff
density
(E2)

Ar|e(k,&>)p

(9

Thus,

we can

define an

energy

W(k,at)

such

that

W =
with

V1 on

dot C = /f T~ A J Iff J/

^(k.\302\253)

<9-38)

W(k'a)

InkMk,*)]*
Vlasov-Poisson

(9-39)
system

Since &> is

purely

Teal, we

have for the

the exact

expression

(9.12). Thus,

KM,. +
We
limiting

[.

\302\243

,/*

^^]!
(9.40)

[^>r

</\342\200\236*(!/)|B=Wit] integration

can

easily perform the

cases.

frequency

in

Eq.

(9.38)

in two

simple

CASE This number

Langmuir

A:

k ke

\302\253

1 the

criterion regime

is exactly the one for we expect all of the

with frequencies
at/k
\302\273 &> \302\253*\302\273 but

existence

of Langmuir

waves. In

this

wave

energy

in fluctuations

waves

part

have at/k ve, which means that at/k integrate by parts to obtain
of e, we

Then in k \302\253 \\e_1; therefore for almost all the range

\302\273 \302\261 <ue.

concentrated in the denominator of the real

to be
at/k'\"
ate/k\302\273

ute\\e

of w

integration.

Thus,

we

pfdu

\342\200\224 -^Lr u (at/k)

\342\200\224 pfdu r-^TTkW J [w yai/k)Y

4U*(\302\253)

at

4 at

(9.41)

Thus

,(k,w)|2 =

(l

^pj

[^ ndug\\^

(9.42)

222

Discrete

Particla Effects
goes

Since

this

expression

into the
<u *=*

we denominator of (9.38),

see

that

there

will

be

g(w/k) ~
<ue. We

a large

contribution

when

Thus, a>\302\243.
\302\253

we

and the term dug\\tu/k g(iue/k) are left with the integration in dw 1

dug\\(uyk

evaluate the numerator in the denominator at cu

~
\"

the

form
rfcu 4 f<\302\253,+A
*\"' J\302\253,-A 1

/t\302\273,+a \"2^ \302\253,-A

[1

~
c2

+ (\302\253V/\302\2532)]2

2^

(a;2

coe2)2

e2V

(9.43)

where c2 is small; since the of integration let the limits

main

part

of

the integral comes from

y

==

\342\200\224\342\200\242 <\302\253. With \302\261

a>c, wc

can

o2,

dy

Iwdw

we have

^ ).m

ay

(y

^f
-

+ cW
icufMy

=
which

47J_
done

dy

{{y

u>>) +

<\"/)

few,1!

(9'44)

can

be

(multiplying
oi

by contour a factor of 2 by

to

we find integration; closing either up or down take into account the frequency regime near

\342\200\224

U)e)

2I

1 ^W4n
2ic<u/

=
<^_ 2c

so

that

\"'

Idk

^F

*\302\273<'*> >.\302\273

(9\"46)
1 J

2[-^r
For

, \342\204\242UL/a

a Maxwellian,

g/du g|

\342\200\224 /jt

ve2 k/w<,

therefore

we obtain
*

w =

r
Jk\302\253k,

dk

mv.2

(27r)3

2 TJ2

<>k\302\253k.

(2^^
per
unit

r/2

(9.47)
per

so that
space.

in the

regime

k\\e <<
the
1)

1, we find
total
from

energy

fc-space

unit real

Let us crudely
wavelength
(9.47)
(k\\e

evaluate
\302\253

fluctuations.

over a

spherical volume
W =

amount of energy, per unit real space, in long in To do this, we perform the integration ~ \342\200\224 k 0 to k \342\200\224 kc Xe_l. We obtain
<9.48)

(T^)(2^fX
by

Multiplying
factors,

numerator crudely

and denominator

nn,

and

dropping

all numerical

we

obtain

\302\253

-^T

(9.49)

Fluctuations
or

In

Equilibrium

223

W ~

\"oT>

(9.50)

the average long wavelength fluctuation energy density Thus, is very small; it is the divided average electron kinetic energy by the number of particlesin a density
Debye

cube.
\302\273

CASE B: k
When

X#

1 from

k is very

large, we have

(9.12) I
r

that du
\342\200\224\342\200\224

e(k,co) = 1

\342\200\224

-rjrt

(w/k)
d\302\273 g{u)

-1

-^-fA:2
1

du
J,

(9-51)

Then

from

(9.38),

^r/ \302\273<4^o*2)/^r

' (f )* (f)
l

2~

(2tt)3
dk

k2
l

= 1<L f
Writing

(2jt)j

k2\\e2

(9.52)

this in the

form
w (9.53)

we have
^k)
which

T\" j^7
where
fcX,

*X,

\302\273

(9.54)

can

be compared

with (9.47)
=

W{Y)

\302\253 1

-\302\243-

(9.55)

224
Thus,

Discrate

Particle

Effects

k\\e
intuition,

\302\273

wavelength normal modes(Langmuir

It has

the fluctuation level is much in the short wavelength region smaller 1 than in the long wavelength region kke \302\253 1. This agrees with our which would fluctuation level for the weakly damped long predict a high
waves).

been shown

in

an

elegant

calculation
all

lian g(u), the

exact expression for *w

wave

by Rostoker numbers is

[10] that

for

a Maxwel-

t-

r+W

(956)

so

that

(27jf

1 +

*V

the correct EXERCISE Does(9.56) limits (9.54) and (9.55)?Is the integral give in (9.57) convergent or divergent?What of this? is your physical interpretation The This brings us to the end of this brief chapter on fluctuations and shielding. test used here can be used to study the Cerenkov emission of particle technique electrostatic waves and their absorption via Landau damping. This is an illustration of the principle of detailed balance. The net result is the steady-state level of electric field fluctuations. in of a Another of the principle of detailedbalance, the presence application emission and cyclotron damping. background magnetic field, involves synchrotron of detailed balance also applies of electromagnetic The emission to the principle radiation via bremsstrahlung, and its absorption via collisional damping. Since these processes of two charged particles, it is not sufficient to involve the collision use the simple test charge theory that we used for electrostatic fluctuations.
Another emission,

way with

to say this is that Langmuir w = k \342\200\242 v0. Electromagnetic

waves

waves

plasma because their phase speedin a plasma of these topics, see discussion light. For further

are emitted via Cerenkov cannot be emitted in this way in a the speed of is always greater than

Refs. [11]-[17].

REFERENCES

[1] P.
[2] G.
[4]

Chenevier,

J.

M. Dolique,
Fluids,

and H.

Peres, /.

Plasma

Phys.,

10,

185 (1973).

Cooper,Phys. [3] G. Joyce and D.

E.

12,

2701 (1969). Phys.

Montgomery,

Fluids, 10,
/.

2017 (1967).
Phys.,

W.

Laing,

A. Lamont,
G.

and P. J. Fielding,
and R.

Plasma

5, 441 (1971).

[5] D. Montgomery,

[6] J.
[7]

Neufeld

and

R.

I.

Oppenheim
M.

and
Y.

[8] L. Stenflo,

(1968). Sugihara, Plasma Phys.,10,681 H. Ritchie, Phys. Rev., 98, 1632 (1955). N. G. van Kampen, Fluids, 7, 813 (1964). Phys. Yu, and P. K. Shukla,Phys. 16, 450 (1973). Fluids,
Joyce,

\"\342\226\240

Reference*

225

[9]

C.-L. Wang,

G. Joyce,and
Nucl.

D.

R. Nicholson,/.

PlasmaPhys.,25,225

(1981).

[10] N. Rostoker, [11] G. Bekefi, [12] M. Mitchner,

Fusion, Processes Radiation

1, 101

(1961). Wiley, New York, 1966.

in

Radiation ed.,

in Plasmas, and

Waves

Plasmas,

Stanford

University
Processes

Press, Stanford,

Calif., 1961.
The Statistical

[13]
[14]

Yu.

L.

Klimontovich,

Theory of Non-Equilibrium
Mass., 2nd

in

a Plasma,

The M.I.T.
and

Press,Cambridge,
Dougherty,
Mass.,

1967. ed.,

J. D.
Plasmas,

Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics,

Clemmow

Wiley,

New York,

1975.

fl5] P.C

J. P.

and Electrodynamics of Particles

Addison-Wesley, and

Reading, A. W.

1969.

[16] N. A. Krall
Hill,

Trivelpiece,
D.

McGrawPrinciples of Plasma Physics,

New

York,

1973.
and

[17] D. C. Montgomery
Hill,

A. Tidman,

Plasma Kinetic Theory,

McGraw-

New York,

1964.

CHAPTER

10

Weak

Turbulence

Theory

10.1
Most
small

INTRODUCTION

of the
in

wave phenomena that terms amplitude

the

treated in
which

earlier

chapters

apply

to linear

waves so

are

quadratic

in the

are large enough, the nonlinear terms of these nonlinear effects include the particle trapping discussed in Section wave equations with soliton solutions 6.8, the nonlinear introduced in Sections 7.15 and 7.16,and the parametric instabilities treated in All of these nonlinear effects Section 7.17. be can called coherent, since each to realization of a solution one and each solution has a unique applies plasma
wave

discarded.When
cannot

wave quantities can be

amplitudes

be

discarded.

Examples

spatial dependence.
In

this

chapter,

we discuss the
By

solution of nonlinear
this

equations we

under

conditions

that can
certain

be called turbulent.
averaged

we mean
the

that

seek

the time
in

evolution of
process each

spatially

or ensemble-averaged
detailed

quantities. The averaging

spatial

means
realizationof

that
the

we lose information on
plasma.

yariations

We treat three
turbulence

topics that
the direct

commonly

come

under

the heading
broadening

of weak
and wavevigorous

theory

(Refs. like

[1] to [5]):

quasilinear theory,
such

induced

scattering,

wave interactions. Other

turbulence

topics

as

resonance

and strong

theories

current

research

[6], and are beyond the

interaction approximation are

scope

topics of

of this

book.

10.2
Although

QUASILINEAR THEORY
it is

possible
theory,

to develop
we will

of weak turbulence

a general framework
take the alternative

that

includes
of

all aspects
considering

approach

Quasi

linear

Theory

227

each kind of

interaction separately, in
concept

order

to understand
that

the physics
nonlinearities

involved.
are small

Crudely,

the

of weak

turbulence

means

the

and yield small correctionsto linear behavior, whereas strpDg turbulence means are as strong as the linear In quasilinear theory that the nonlinearities terms. [7, 8], the wave amplitudes are considered to beso smalt that the wave propagation can of quasilinear be treated by the linear theory^..oLChapier 7. The nonlinear paxt the of many waves on concerns the background theory Ipne-terrn effect
distribution function. \342\226\240'-'' '\342\226\240\342\200\236-\342\226\240

Consider

the

bump-on-tail

situation.
jjha^g thej\302\243

We have seen in

Section

6.5 that

Langmuir

waves are unstable, when

given
Thus,
by

speeds^6rre.sjjojid..tD-regions
a~pQsili^e,,sj\302\243pe.

dimensional distributionfmjgt.ion
(6.52)

,gj($<jLwJtJi

The
function

of the onerate as growth

is proportional

we have times when linear theory is valid situation thegrowth in have indicated 10.1. Here we imaginary displayed Fig. only positive fregione'of wave as a function of the phase speedof a Langmuir frequency graphed (fi^k\\ \302\253 = tur/k We know that on forever. For v cannot linear go wc/k. instability one thing, there is only so much energy in_ the\342\200\236hump, and the waves certainly cannot grow.t\302\253Qeyels such that the^wave energy is jarger thfl.nlthf*in'*':'1 partidp

to thCsSiogs^jfihe distribution

4u\302\243j(w) !,\342\200\236/*\342\20

at

early

energy.

'

As the waves grow, the

particles both

find real

themselves

in

a ^[rhnlpnt

<titngt;r>n Thus, a
be

typical particle's qrjat, in

turbulent

space and

velocity space, will

electricfiej^s.. Consider

velocityspace\\
time

/ =

In particular, particles will diffuse all of the particles at position if^with

0. In the absence

of any

electric x(t)

fields,

affected by the real space and at the initial speed u^ these particles would have orbits in both

x0 +
=

tig?

(10.1)

and

u(t)

u0

(10.2)

Fig. 10.1

Initial

bump-on-tail

distribution

function,

and corresponding

region

of positive

growth rate w^k).

228

Weak

Turbulence

Theory
electric

for all times according to Vlasov In the presence of the turbulent theory. the are ace the Because the are turbulent, fiejds fields, particles denied. acceleration is not constant negative. positive_and butjs random, being alternately

Thus,
random

jn, velocity spare walk processes, this^arnpliesardiffusiQn.x>f.Dajlid\302\243sTn.velQcitv^pace (see Appendix the same and (10.2) will experience B). While all the particles described by (10.1) the.same at a and thus will have at time fields /, particlesstarting speed u(t)
with

typical particle willjjerforrn a random walk

As

all

neighboring point k^ + AWith a different_speed at tirne^

speed

ii^ will

have a different time

history

and

thus

Diffusion tendsto spread,

the

out and

jgfi/^nd wave intensity distribution in Fig. The on the distribution 10.2. as.sjiown mighLlook slope /(v^) function has changed and, thus, theJifjieax^r.owth rate Qf.fiacjb.Jgavs has changed; since the maximum^ slope is smaller at timeiSthan at t = 0, the maximum positive
time

waves

have

\302\243rown

the_p_a_rticle_s.in velocity, the particle distribution

space. Thus,

after some

growth

rate

is KrnalW

the that the \\q\\p- hctwppn Eventually, the particles diffuse sn much ^ymp and the background hasjniedjn, and there is no longer a region.of positive^Iooe.Then situation the linear growth rateofthe ...wayesjs zero, and we have the steady-state shown in Fig. 10.3. Of course, this situation of is only a steady state in the context the Vtasov equation. In practice,the waves will eventually decay awav due to

collisions,and
collisions.

frTe\"di&tribution

will

eventually

became-J^axMsellian
do

due to

Let

be a little we wish
timp averaged

us de^eiorxa mathematical more than if we clever

to

framework for these ideas. To were simply linear theory. doing

\342\200\224 +

follow

gfalp

It would not do or ensemble a\"veraged

c1iange|in

to write/

thejjackground
/0 background

distribution spatially f{ where fpjs the initial distribution. Then we would have

this, we must This is because function on a very lpnp

to

Fig.

10.2

Particle

distribution

and

wave

intensity

distribution

after the waves have

grown

for

some

time.

Quaellinear

Theory

229

Fig.

10.3

Particle

and

wave

distributions

at a late time.

include in^fhe
tiojuJJut
A

difference

between

the

final distribution

and the
the

initial

distribu-

since such
successful

bump,/,\"faould be as large
more

difTerenceTareariarge as or larger
or

larger

thar^>

an<ltne expansion would

than^jin

vicinity

of the

break down.
(10.3)

approach

is to separate
j

f(x,v,t) =Mv,t) + Mx,v,t)

where
/0(v,0 =
and

(f(x,v,t))x
out.

(10-4)
Thus,/0

they

averaged

z dependencies distribution.function,
and wavesjare

of/have been integrated

and
this it

is

th^e

spatially

changes^qnJh\302\2433jfiwjy3B\302\243\302\253S\302\243ale

a\302\273_tjig,bump

diffusesj^wayiliJTie by

represented
separation,

(i0'.3)\"and

(10.4).

With

by^fev^and,
we take/,
electrons,

thus,^^^^ J= 6 as given

Let us now write the Vlasov equation for We have, in one dimension,
d,f
and

all (x',vtt). are fixed. assumin^Jthe_ion$

\302\253 A/or

vdj~

j-Edvf=0

(10.5)

d*E

4ne

[dvj]S_x.v,i)funcij.oriji^ancels

(10.6)
the ion
space,

where the spatially

contribution

averaged electron distribution

equation

to

Poisson's

(10.6). Next,
v

average (10.5)
IE

over

to obtain

*M Our spatial averaging L/2, divide by\302\243,;and

dx

\342\200\224

(10.7)
dv!x
< \342\200\224L/2
(10.7)

procedure take

the

integrate over a finite length first term in limit as L \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260. The
is to

x <

is clearly

230
d,f0.

Weak Turbulence
The

Theory

second

terni

in

(10.7)

is

(ifl-K;
is always a smooth,

dx *\302\243-\302\243[*-*)-\"--*)]<
I-\302\260o

il

10.8)

where

limi_a= the

that/(x,u,/).is
by

using

be .produced

implied when we write 1/L, and where we have assumed well-behaved function. The third term in (10.7) is simplified to we Jake tjje_gkctri\302\243iield that (E)x = 0; this is because assumption of with no component fpbeing by;greinsic|e .the plasma volume,
capacitorp|ates
at-'5t\342\226\240\342\200\224\342\200\242 \302\261\302\260\302\260. Then

produced by

E1L\\

dv

(E\302\260\302\243)+

dv

dv

=
*>.a-\302\243

dv
(10.9)

- E
where

dv

f0(v,t)

can be

removed from
(10.7)

the

averaging

bracket

because

it

is

not

function

Equation ofy\302\243)

then

reads

*JM
Equation

= Ue
part of
is a
auasilinear

*-\302\243'

(10.10)

(10.10)
of

is the nonlinear
\302\243and^

second order quantity. The remainder of quasilinear theory is completely linear.The Vlasov equation a equation (10,6) (10.5) is linearized using/! \302\253 f0, and with the help of Poisson's is precisely relation is obtained. This development as in Section 6.4, and dispersion we obtain the normal mode Langmuir wave frejruenciesfor k > 0, adapted from of the product
which

theorvi/jis

changing

because

(6.52),
w(k,t)

V^w^^' \342\200\242\"1

\342\200\242-t*~$ wt..

_, _^

j~;\"~+ jf
V~

w,(l

y kw)

W^'K

,/k
with

(10.11)
com-

whereJLiiid)_^
_Blex.
according

^^oX&iJiJi
nonlineaT
this

Thus, theHnearLan^muir.wavesjevol.ye.
while the background.distiibu40n

given fr?.QiiS.ri\302\273\302\243v-as to

hy (10.11),

evolves

the

equation

Consistent with
right of

(10.10)
has

by

ordering, the inserting

on the we wish to evaluate the nonlinear term linear form of/,. We consider the linear waves to

(10.10).

consist of these waves

a spectrum

of right-going

waves

with

different
given

wave
by_(10.11).

numbers;
Thus,

each of
the real

its normal

mode frequency
=

electric field is
dk -.6* ' \" \302\243(k,i)ij^.

ft^V
i
J ~OD

dk

\302\243(k,tjeZi?/[k).'+J.'?;

(10.12)

Quaslllnear

Theory

231

where the Fourier transform conventions are given and (5.12). Now by (5.11) be be must for it to the and in order real, real, E{x,t) component at each wave \342\200\224 \342\200\224 = number at k at k 1/cll must be real. Thus, the the (the part \\k\\ plus part

elementary propertiesof and

Fourier

transforms

imply

ojr(-k)

= -wr(A:)

(10.13)

E(k,t) = E*(~k,t)
The

(10.14)
-

latter

implies

that

E(k,t)

\342\200\224 E*(\342\200\224k,t)

and

w,(\342\200\224k,t)

w,(/c,r).

EXERCISE
The

Demonstrate these results.

distribution

perturbed

function

f^(x,v,t)

can also be

written

in

the

form

(10.12), as

Mx.vj)

- f\"
=

dkMk,\\>,tyh*

dkfl(.k,vj)e~i<\"Ml+'kx J[\302\260\302\260 -xE(kj)

(10.15)

Vlasov
obtain

The relation betweenfi(k,v,t) and the equation (10.5), with

=

is as

assumed

dependence

usual obtained by linearizing the exp [^ja>{k)l + ikx), to

ft(k,v,t)
In

..

~et(m
the

. dvMv,t)E(k,t)
are

(10.16)
brackets
quantity

the

right

side of

(10.10), we can move

velocity
We

since

E(xj)

does not depend on

=

velocity.

thus

derivative outside the in the interested

(Efih

-jrfLl

dxE(x,t)Mx,v,t)

'
\\l
j-

dxJdkMk)eikxJdk'E{k')eik'x
'
jdkf,{k)jdk'\302\243{k')
using

f
standard

dxe^k+k\">x

(10.17)

Equation

(10.17)

can be

simplified by
lim I
2

the

formula
(10.18)

dxe'\302\260*

2n8(a)

The right-most integral and integration is trivial,, (EfX

in

(10.17)

thus

becomes

2nd(k

+ k'),

upon

which

the

k'

we obtain

2Z-fdkE(-k)Mk)

^\\dkE(-k)

[%- 1^rj- 5./,]

\302\243(*)

(10.19)

232

Weak Turbulence
(10.16)

Theory

where

has been

in used. Inserting (10.19)

(10.10)

we

have

With the result below

*JoM
Equation

(10.14) this -

becomes

-^ ^

a.[ [/>
defining

^fe]
the

(1021)
a\302\253'\302\273H

(10.21)

can be

the electric

field. The

simplifiedby
definition
\302\253(*)

so-called

spectral is

density

t{k)

of

natural

of this =
-\302\261-

quantity

\\E{k)f is

(10.22)

Then

the average

electric field energy density

\342\200\224!\342\200\224 8ttL

f J-L/2

rfx f J

dk E(k)e'kxjdk' J

E{k')e'k'x
dx \302\243\"(*+*>

=
-

-^
-^

fdk E(k)fdk' E(k')j\"'

f dk E(k)E(-k)
jdk

=
=
which

-\302\261-

\\E(k)\\2

dk t(k)
wave energy density, per unit
Eq. (10.21)
interval

(10.23)
of wave

shows

that

t(k) is the

number

space.
With

the

definition

(10.22),
t\\

reads
(10.24)

a ft d,Mv,t)

8?rg2 \342\200\224

\342\200\224^r

This equation

is

in the

form of
d,fa(v,t)

a diffusion
=

equation,

du[D(w,/)

a\342\200\236/0(w,0]

(10.25)

with

\342\200\236, ,

D(v,t)

&ne2 r \342\200\224
w2

I J_x

dk

j,

i[w(k,t)

\302\253(*,0 \\ \342\200\224

'

kv]

(10.26)

Since

3,.\302\243(fc)

\342\200\224 o),\302\243(k),

the

spectral

density

(10.22) must satisfy

'

B,t(k,t) =

2<w,(MMM

(10.27)

Quasilinear

Theory

233

(10.28)

where oj,(A:,/)is determined from the normal mode frequency (10.11). Given initial = and a 0) and e(k,t_ =_Q), Eqs.(10.25)7(10.26) (10.28) provide of the system. For the bump-on-tail complete description of the time evolution the evolution is as described in of this section, with the beginning problem, diffusion eventually in a flat distribution function \302\260\302\260). resulting foiv^r* are several useful forms of the diffusion There coefficient Since 2?(u,/) in (10.26). of (10.26) is of /0in (10.25) is real, it must be true that D(v,t) is real. The integrand the form
conditions/0(i;,f

~i<k)
\342\200\224 (w

_
a>r

-it(k)
+
\342\200\224 /\302\253ij kv

-ie(k)[<or

ky
+

- ;oj,]
oj,2

kv)

(wr

\342\200\224

kv)1

Using

the

imaginary (10.26).

e(/c), we see e(\342\200\224k) symmetries (10.13), and the fact that in k and, thus, vanishes upon integration part of (10.29) is\" odd
-

that

the in

EXERCISE
We

Verify
left

the last

statement.

have

D(v,t)
In

=
nr
tiny

e(kj)w,(k,t)
dk r J_\342\200\236

K(M)

the

limit

of very

aiji the

integrand

in

kvf + fo(*.f)]2 ~ 5(ajr (10.30) takes a form

(10.30)
\342\200\224

kv),

and

we find
16\302\273rV 1 v

D{v,t)
EXERCISE Verify

..

m2
back

e(k

air/v,l)

(10.31)

(10.31)

by

going

to (10.26)
\\x I

and

using

the

formula

t-0'

lim

\342\200\224 = \342\200\224

- le

+ 7riS(x { \342\200\224\342\200\224) \342\200\224 a

a)

(10.32) '
comes

To show that the P( ) part vanishes, and the constant in a. The all of the places where x \342\200\224 right, be careful to count because we use the equivalent of a Landau contour in (10.26), proper treatment of the initial value problem.

(10.31)

out

plus sign is chosen as demanded by a

the Hiffiisinn nf partir|p<; wjth \302\273 is caused Thus, (10.31) shows that sppfri by is resonant hefrflvjor. where v- This wa^es-with-phase. particles speeds.-w,/ii;\342\200\236= interact strongly with with which they those waves are resonant, with wr \342\200\224 kv, In the linear theory, it is the resonant particles that cause linear Landau growth or in (10.11). In the quasilinear theory, it is the resonant particles damping, as shown that are diffused because of the wave fields.

234

Weak

Turbulence

Theory

Quasilinear
magnetized

theory,
has

with

its

simplicity
the

and straightforward

plasmas,

seen and

continues to
next

seea great

application to
of use in

deal

both fusion

and astrophysical
another

applications. In
turbulence

section,

we shall

proceed to consider

aspect

of weak

theory.

10.3

INDUCED SCATTERING

In the previous turbulence the section, we considered one aspectof weak theory, nonlinear diffusion of particles due to the presence of many waves. \"We now wish to consider another aspectof weak turbulence theory, the nonlinear coupling of wave to another wave through one the background particles. This is called induced off ions, induced scattering off the polarization scattering [9], induced scattering cloudsof ions, and nonlinear Landau damping. All of these terms refer to the same process; the last expression is somewhat unfortunate, as this process has in the nonlinear nothing to do with stage of linear Landau damping, as discussed

Section

6.8.

In linear
between

Landau damping or
wave

growth, satisfying oj

the

one

and one

particle,

important linear the

is a resonance concept condition resonance

(10.33)
In

kv

such

that

the

particle
the

velocity
resonance

v equals the
a

wave phase velocity

between

w/k.

induced

scattering,

the important

concept is
\302\253! <u2

resonance

two

waves and

one

particle, satisfying
such

condition
=

(k,

kz)v

(10.34)

that

that

TT^T,
velocity of
the

(10'35)
beat

is,

the

particle

Consider a particle in
says

velocity equals the

the

of two

waves.
force

presence

of two

real waves. Then exp

+ (\342\200\224itu2t

Newton's

law

mx
where

\342\200\224

qEi

exp

+ (\342\200\224imj

ik,x)

+ qE2

ik2x) for the

+ ex.
the

(10.36)
right

all

fields

are real

so

that

the

complex

conjugate

must be

added to

side

of (10.36).
If

x(t).
have

the

Equation (10.36)is a very nonlinear equation fields \302\243\\, E2 are not too large, we can solve (10.36)
x = x0

particle orbit
We

perturbatively.

+ x,
v0t

(10.37)
(10.38)
(10.36)

where

x0

is the orbit
and

of the

expanding

in the absence of the particle the exponents, we find

wxj

fields. Inserting (10.37) into

ik{v0t

qE} exp

+ (\342\200\224iw^t

+ ik,Xi)

+ qEi exp (\342\200\224im2t +

\342\200\224

ik2v0t

+ ik2Xi)

+ c.c.

qE\\

exp

+ (\342\200\2241(0)1

ikxvat)(l

qE2

exp

+ (\342\200\224j'wjf

ikivat)(\\

+ iktXi) + ik2x,) +

c.c.

(10.39)

Induced

Scattering

235

First,
from

ignore
integrating

x^

on

right of (10.39). Then the twice with respect to (10.39)

the q

lowest

order
find

solution

to x,

comes

time. We
+

E, exp

(\342\200\224 icait

ik{v0t)

_
this lowest

q^ m

B2 exp

(-iw2t
(w2
in

+ ik2v0t)
k2v0)2

\342\200\224

(10.40)
(10.39), we obtain 20
+

Inserting

order solution to xl

the

right

side of

terms, or
Xi

* (g2/m2)ik ' E' E \342\200\224. (w2 22

exp

\342\200\224 [\342\200\224i(w, (u2)t

i{ky

\342\200\224

k2)v0t]

(19 terms)
(10.41)

k2v0)

If the

resonance condition (10.34),

(\302\253,

a>2)

(k,

k2)v0

(10.42)

term that is constant in is satisfied, we see that (10.41) will have at least one force a as time. with initial can interact Thus, very particle velocity given by (10.35) u0 with two waves strongly [3]. A plasma contains not one but many particles. As a specific problem, we the interaction consider of two Langmuir wavesE{and E2, with a low frequency disturbance. We assume that the low frequency disturbance is dominated by details of the ion distribution, the with electrons simply supplying the charge to almost neutralize the low frequency that is, we invoke quasineutrality disturbance; of the low frequency disturbance.Then we can use fluid theory to describe the from 7 we have electrons; Chapter

mene

d,Ve

men,Ve dxVe =
d,ne

yfTe

dxtte

en\342\202\254E

(10.43)

dx(n,Vt) =
=

(10.44)
(10.45)
frequency

and

dJE

4wene

where we
oscillations.

shall

only

use Poisson's

The ions

are describedby
a, A

equation to
the

describehigh
equation

electron

Vtasov

with/,(i>)

+ f\342\200\236(v)

+ vdj,

-^Edj0

=o
over

(io.46)
vz.
Although

where

v =

vx and/i

has already

been integrated

vy and

the

theory performing is not a linear one, we have ignored the term involving \302\253 in Thus, the theory is limited to those regimes where (10.46). dvf0 dvfl dj'i for all ion velocities of interest. + ik^x) + E2 exp The fields are given by E, exp (\342\200\224io>{t high frequency to be wave with a real + + c.c. We consider a relatively large \302\243, ik2x) (\342\200\224iw2t to be a tiny wave, which can use the ions frequency tu,. The field E2 is considered

we are

236
to drain
frequency

Weak

Turbulence

Theory
hence \302\243,;

energy from the large field

is therefore \302\2532

the

term
imaginary

induced scattering.
part

The
its
exp

complex,

with

a positive
the

describing
w3

growth. The low frequency responseis + c.c. We assume that + (\342\200\224jw3/ ik^x)
Wl

described

by a density frequency

matching

perturbation condition

<o2 +

w3*

(10.47)
(10.48)

and the wave number matching are both satisfied.

with

condition *i = k2 +
and

ki

Here, to,, k}, k2j

part. We
w,

/c3 are

real
w3r

while

<o2 and

w3 are

complex
(10.49)

the

same_ imaginary

note that
\302\253

w2,

\302\273 in in

For

the

high

frequency waves)

modes, of the

we have

mind the

waves

that of the

would be normal

modes (Langmuir
frequency

plasma

absence
would

coupling. The low

damped
in

mode,

however,

is a

disturbance that
could

be strongly

the

absence

of the

it coupling. For example,

be an

ion-acoustic

mode

in

an

equal

is strongly Landau plasma, which damped by the ions. By contrast, the parametric instability of Section 7.17 is valid when Te \302\273 T, so that theory ion-acoustic waves are not strongly damped. We first treat the behavior at frequency all terms w2. From Eq. (10.43), we write that vary as exp(\342\200\224iw2t + ik2x), given the matching conditions (10.47) and (10.48). are third We keep linear terms and secondorder terms, we discard terms that but order in small quantities. Dividing (10.43) we have for high by mtne, frequency

temperature

motions

d,V,

+
in

Ve

dxVc

ye

-\302\243-

axnt

-~E
small

(10.50)
k2\\e2

where nonlinearities
correction
appropriate terms

the

pressure
dispersion

to
are

the

Langmuir

the term (which would multiply been have relation) ignored. The

\342\200\224

iw2v2

\342\200\224

ik^v3*v,

/fc|V]V3* =
with

\342\200\224

iik2

\342\200\224 \342\200\224\342\200\224

n2

\302\2432

(10.51)

where
the Similarly,

v2 is terms

the component in the continuity

\342\200\224

of Ve
+

time

equation

dependence that vary (10.44)

etc. exp (\342\200\224i<o2t), as exp (\342\200\224ia>2t +

\342\200\224 0

ik2x)

are

ia)2n2

ik2(n0v2

\302\253|t>3*+

n^*v,)

(10.52) and

EXERCISE

Verify

that all the appropriate

for

terms appearin

(10.51) (10.52).

(10.52).
We

Equation

(10.51) can be solved

v2, and
\302\251

the result
\302\251 \342\200\224 \302\2530

inserted in

find

\302\256

fl,v3*

\302\2533*Hi

u3*v,

w2
\302\251

Ml
co2

UiUi. +

lk2{T/mt)n2 +
w2

j^
ioo2m\302\243

1
3)

Induced

Scattering
sum

237

We next

wish

to

discard

the sum

of terms \302\256, and \302\251,

This \302\251.

is of the

form

(k
To lowest

\302\253!

n0

\342\200\224

Vl

n0

k \\ \342\200\224L

vA

W2

0>2

(10.54)

order, the

continuity

equation

(10.44)

gives
\342\200\224L

m,

n0

\342\200\224L ** \302\253! (U\\ \302\253=

n0

i),

(10.55)

Oil

where

the last

form is valid since a>|

+ \302\251
+ \302\251
\302\251

<o2. Equation

(10.54)

becomes

Vi*V,n\302\260

(*,

k, +

*,)
(10.56)

u3*v1\302\2530

(*, w2

Ar2)

However,

this is

much smaller than

\302\251

term

\302\251,

\302\253,*\302\253,\302\2530v3*v,

Hf

(10.57)

where the last form

follows from

the

lowest

order

continuity

equation for

\302\253,*.

is much larger than because |to,*| \302\253 |o>2|, (10.57) (10.56) Eq. Equation in (10.53) we neglect are of the same order. Thus, the wave provided numbers and to to obtain term compared \302\256 \302\251 \302\251, \302\251,
\342\200\224

terms

UUy

tl2

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 IKj\302\2533*l),

(10.58)

where
varying

in \302\2432

(10.53)

is eliminated
w2.

using the component

by
3*2V)\302\2532 ia>2

of Poisson'sequation
(10.59)
yield
\342\200\224 &\302\2732:

at the

frequency
(w22

Multiplying

one

finds

by

\302\253u,2

CU2M/W1

If (10.59)
the
3k22ve2

were linearized

neglecting

the right

side, the remainder would

the

familiar
on

Langmuir wave dispersion the left, we obtain

(to22

relation. Separating
= (o2k2ni*v]

factor

3k2ive2)e(cu2,k2)n2

(10.60)

where

f((n2,k2)

is the

high frequency
t(w,k)

dielectric function
2

or
2 \342\200\224 <U\\.2

ik

ve

(10.61)

Having
out

obtained

the
v,

high

frequency

equation

(10.60),

we are

one-half done with

for Recall \302\253,*.

derivation.

We must now
is

to lowest

order,

obtained

obtain a low frequency equation from the force equation

w\302\243a,V!

that

eE)

(10.62)

or
\302\253,

7^-

(10.63)

238
(10.49).

Weak

Turbulence

Theory is determined low

so that v,

in

(10.60)

by (10.63), part.

with

<a{

real

as

discussed

above

Let us
\"j

derive

the

frequency
electrons,

\342\200\224 \342\226\240** F\302\260r the Hei nn-

varying

as
the

exp(\342\200\224f<w3f +

/A:3x)

We intend to enforce quasineutrality, of the force equation (10.43) are, dividing first by mene and ignoring nonlinearithe components =

ties in

pressure

term,

-/ftj3i/3

vlik2v2*

ikiV^vj*

Te - / \342\200\224fA:3\302\2533
n0me
We

\342\200\224\302\243,

me

(10.64)

where we haye chosen ye \342\200\224 motions. 1 for low frequency \342\200\224~ because k3 to obtain a>i is smalt, and use k, k2

neglect

\342\200\224

la^i/j

E, =
From

ikM equation,

'\342\226\240^Jl

viv2*

(10.65)

the lowest

order continuity Ei = ~

v2*

(a)2*/k2)(n2*/n0),

therefore,
(10.66)

-\342\200\224-

IkiHi

77
by

x\"
the

v^2*n2*

The
yields

low frequency

ion response is given

-

Vlasov

equation

(10.46),

which

/\302\273

where/B
* =
=

is

the

perturbed

-,(^lWt) ion distribution

W
function
low

(10'67)
at frequency
density
o>.,

and/0

is the

zero order ion distribution

=

function. The
dv
n\302\243'\\v) \\

frequency

disturbance

is

dvf\302\273

E*L

*\302\253/o

l-TJk^

mjc^nf

f-

dv

(e/m.)

fl

Defining

w we solve

*l\302\243i

dw
o>j

^L\342\200\224 \342\200\224

(10.69)

k}V

(10.68) for

n^

to

obtain

ifc277

(10.70)

for the low frequency density perturbation \302\253,. We insert the complex conjugate of (10.70) the high frequency into finally we with m on both sides. Cancelling \302\2532) an equation equation (10.60)to obtain
have

W
which

- IkfvMmte)

m
]V,[W
Tr

1 +

W* W*
on both

(1071)
u>2. Ignoring

is a

nonlinear

small thermal

correction 3k22vc2

dispersion relation for the complexfrequency on the left, we can divide out

the

at2

sides.

Induced

Scattering

239

Then

defining the thermal

=

speed ve2
i((li2,K)

Te/me

we have

tNL

w*

V
and

1+

(10.72)
If the

where we have introduced field El \342\200\224\342\226\240 0, then v{

dispersion

the
\342\200\224

nonlinear

dielectric function
0,

tNL.

fixed electric

eE^/imfO),

-\302\273

we regain the

linear Langmuir

relation

ftj2(/r2).

We call tNL a nonlinear u, finite, we have the possibility of instability. the square relation because it contains of the field E] ~ vv However, dispersion with Vj considered a constant, we can treat e,vz. in the same fashion as we did linear in Section dielectric functions 6.5. Recall that for small instability |<u,| \302\253 \\a>r\\, we have from (6.42) and (6.43),

With

(,(0)2,)

(10.73)

and

~e,(a>2r)
(10.74)
der/dw\\

The
(10.69).

imaginary
Evaluating

part of the dielectric function (10,72) W using the Landau contour for W =
WY

comes

from
|a>3,|,

W, given
we have

in

\302\253 |\302\253u3/|

-^
where

vtaM^

(10.75)
integral

the

real

part
the

of W, W,, involvesa
imaginary

bother to evaluate.
We

principal value
in

that

we shall not

require

part of
W*)]

tN,_

(10.72),

which
Wrf

is proportional to
(10.76)

Im[W*/(l +
where Wf has

W/(l +
and

been treated

as a small quantity

terms

quadratic

in

W<

have

been

ignored.

EXERCISE
Then

Verify

(10.76).

Im(e,vJ

kl2
(1

Wt

w,y

I2 Ljl

(1

Wrf

*vfo\\

vt-

m,n\342\200\236

./*>

(10.77)

For dtr/dcul^
obtain

in

(10.74),

we can

use the dielectric function e de,

dcu

= 1

\342\200\224

ai^/co2

to

_2_

(10.78)

240
Equation

Weak Turbulence
(10.78)
given

Theory

ignores
by

the thermal
(10.72).

correction and the

the
growth

nonlinear

frequency

shift

that would be

Then
1 Wrf

rate

(10.74)

is

^3/

w2;

\342\200\224

me 2

|u,|2

Te it
m<nn dvfo\\c,
\342\200\236/*,

(1 +

(10.79)

Notice

that

the derivative

dvf0 is evaluated at
w]
fC-t

(10.80)
fCj

which is the phase speed of the beat between w, and oj2,. This reinforcesour of a nonlinear resonance between two waves and one particle.

notion

The
waves

growth

rate

(10.79)
Maxwellian close

is positive

when

the

slope

E2 that

grow fastest

are

the

ones

whose

beat

dvf0 is negative. Thus, the with E, falls rieaT the ion

thermal speed for There is a very

involving

ions

relation

(Fig. between

10.4). the induced

here, scattering considered

waves and the ions, and the parametric decay \302\253= and when The former is more appropriate 7\", Te instability discussed ion distribution. The latter the beat phase velocity is likely to fall in the body of the \302\253 because is inappropriate when the low frequency wave equation is an Tt Te when Te \302\273 ion-acoustic wave in the absence of nonlinear undamped Tf coupling; waves are strongly Landau damped by ions. ion-acoustic The latter is more when waves are undamped. In the next ion-acoustic Tt \302\273 Tt and appropriate we introduce a statistical approachfor the case Tt \302\273 Tt. section,
two

high frequency in Section7.17.

&M

Fig. 10.4
number kt,

For a given
fastest
wave
w2r,

finite

amplitude
Langmuir

Langmuir
waves

the

growing
number

due

frequency

= /c2, such that (w3r//c3)

wave with frequency to induced scattering

(w^ \342\200\224

and \302\253;, are

wave those
uf.

with

iu2r)/(fci

k2) =

Induced

Scattering

241

10.4

WAVE-WAVE
preceding

INTERACTIONS
we have
quasilinear

In

the

two

sections,
was

discussed two
theory,

turbulence theory. The first

particle

of weak important aspects which involves the linear wave-

interaction

characterized

by the
w

expression
k
\342\200\242 v

(10.81) the

The

second was induced scattering, which interaction characterized by the expression

<u,

involves

nonlinear

wave-particle
(10.82)

w2, = (k,
with

k2)

\342\200\242 v

In the
speed

first

case,

a particle
in

is resonant
direction

one

wave;

its speed is

equal to the

phase

of the

wave

the

of the

particle's velocity,
w/k]}

|v| where

(10.83)
with

between
two

In the second case, y/vtwo waves; its speed is equal to the in the direction of the particle's waves

k.,

\342\200\224 k \342\200\242

a particle is resonant
phase

the

beat

speed

of the

beat between the

velocity,

jvl =
where

Jfil_^i^

(10.84)
\342\200\242 k2)

(k,

s
k2)\342\200\236

[(k(

y]/v

(10.85)

In this
theory,

section, we wish
of nonlinear

that

to consider a third important aspect of weak turbulence wave-wave interaction. We shall find that this interaction matching
0>!

is characterized by a frequency and

a wave

condition (o2 +

w3

(10.86)

by

number

matching condition
kt

k2 +

k3

(10.87)

For
linear

wave-wave

interactions,

we assume

that resonant
the

and nonlinear)
involve

are not important, so that

velocity.
ideas
Section the
in

particle interactions
(10.86)
using

(both

conditions

and (10.87)
Zakharov the

do

not

a particle

We shall illustrate equations discussed

nonlinear

7.16.

of wave-wave interaction by Recall that this equation

the

describes

ion-acoustic waves. between linear Langmuir waves and linear coupling we know that this approach is valid for a plasma when with T\302\243 \302\273 Th ion-acoustic waves exist. For the case Te =* Tit there are no undamped ion-acoustic here. modes,and we cannot use the wave-wave interaction ideasto be developed when Te <** T, we would expect the nonlinear wave-particle interactions Rather, of the previous section to be the dominant nonlinear (induced scattering) interactionbetween ion fluctuations. electron waves and low frequency high frequency The physical interaction discussed here is the same as the physical interaction that 7.17. However, in that case the parametric of Section yielded decay instability

Thus,

242

Weak Turbulence a single

and
Langmuir

Theory

we considered
Langmuir

finite-amplitude Langmuir
wave.
evolves
By

wave contrast,

that here

wave

one ion-acoustic
waves

decays into one other we consider a broad

according to the nonlinear physics so that we Our one, contained equations. approach is a statistical the rather than of in an ensemble waves of the evolution the systems predict of the waves in a single system. evolution are and The Zakharov equations (7.329) (7.330)

spectrum of

that

in the

Zakharov

/ d,E(x,t)
and

+ d/E
-

nE

(10.88)

d2n(x,t)
The

a>

dx2\\E\\2

(10.89)

spatial

Fourier

transform

of (10.88) is
e-\"\342\204\242 n(x,t)E(x,t)

d,E(k,t)

\302\253-/:\302\243

J~

T~

e~'kx \\

idk

\"^'^H

x[
=

f\302\260\302\260dk\"

E(k\",t)eik'A

r J-ec

dk'n(k',t)f\302\260

J-ec dk\"E(k\",t)[~

J-n

I\342\204\242

er(-*+f+*\x
V
kf

(10.90)

b{k
so

k\

id,E{k,i)

- k2E(k,l) =

dk'n{k',t)E(k f\302\260\302\260

k',t)

(10.91)

Note
appeared

that

the

in

the

side,

Suppose and

matching condition k = k' + k\" has already the 6-function in (10.90). of argument of (10.91). We ignore the nonlinear we look at the linear limit
wave

number

right

find

id,E(k,t)

= k2E{k,t)

(10.92)
(10.93)

so
E(k,t)
Defining

= E{k,t
ta,{k)

= 0) exp
= k2

{-ik2t)

(10.94)

we

have

E(k,t) =

E(k,t =
means out

0)

exp

[-/\302\253o,(/0r] the

(10.95)
Zakharov

where the subscript / in (10.94) are obtained by factoring equations

Recall that \"Langmuir.\" the high frequency time

dependenceexp

Induced

Scattering

243

{~imet)\\

if we

put

this

time
that

dependence
(10.94)

back
becomes

in

and

change

back

to dimensional

variables, we would find

where
is just

fc

is

our

y P\\P2) *>,(l the dimensional is the dimensional wave number and <\302\243/ old friend the Langmuir wave dispersion relation.
Why

&,(*) =

(10.96)

frequency;

this

EXERCISE
for Langmuir

is.

co2 =

a>e2

3*V

the same

as

wil

waves?

-j*2\\A

The idea of weak turbulence theory is to assume that each Langmuir wave approximately obeysits linear solution (10.95). However, the amplitude is allowed to have a slow time variation because of the nonlinear term on the right of (10.91), rather than being an exact constant as in the linear solution (10.95). Considernext the spatial Fourier transform of (10.89), which is

dx /x
=
e-ikxE(xJ)E*(xj) \342\226\240%=-

~ *2

/\"
X

e~'k*
\"fir\"

e'k'* I I\302\260\302\260dk'

^''^l

| j\"dk'e-ik\"*E*{k\"A

k2{\302\260\302\260 dk'E(k',t) \342\226\240'\342\200\224

J-<*

[\"'dk\"E*(k\",t)[\302\260\302\260-\302\243Leii-k+k'-k'')*

J~~

It*

(10.97)

6(k

- k +

k\

so d2n(kl)+
The
kln(k,l)

- k1

{* dk E(k,t)E*{k'

k,t)

(10.98)

linear

limit

of (10.98) is

d2n{k,l) + k2n(k,t) = 0
with

(10.99)

solution

n(k,t)
Since

=
must

A(k) exp
be true

(-ikt) + B(k)exp(ikt)

(10.100)

n(x,t)

is real,

it

that

n(k,t) =
EXER

n*(-k,t)

(10.101)

CISE

Prove

(10.101).

244
Then

Weak Turbulence

Theory

A(k)
and

= A*(-k)

(10.102)

Linear

theory

tells

us that

B(k) = B*{-k) A(k) and B(k) are constants

co/(k) =
k

(10.103)
in

time.

Defining
(10.104)

and

cos(k)
where

- k
write

(10.105)
(10.100)

s means

\"sound\"

(acoustic),

we can

as

n(k,l)

= A(k)

exp [-/\302\253/(*)0

B{k)

exp [-ia>-(k)t]

(10.106)

of the right-going ion-acoustic waves[ws*(k)/k amplitude ~ is the amplitude of the left-goingion-acousticwaves while B(k) [ws~(k)/k \342\200\224 is to use the form (10.106) in 1 < 0]. The idea of weak turbulence theory but to allow the coefficients A(k,t) and B(k,t) to be slowly (10.98), varying functions of time. The word \"slowly\" in this means stow compared to the context
is the

Note that/4(A:)

1 > 0]

the frequencies of our old friends the we want to solve equations Thus,

terms exp [-iw^/c)/]. (Note

that

in physical units, the frequencies ion-acoustic waves, G>*ik)

\302\253/(<:)

are

just

\342\200\224 \302\261 kcs.)

(10.91)
exp

and

(10.98)

with

solutions

of the form
(10.107)

E{k,t) =
and

\302\243(k,t)

[~i(ti,(k)t]

n(k,t) =
where
into \302\243(kj),

+ A(kj) exp [-/<w/(*)rj

and

B{k,t)

exp

[-i(us-(k)f]

(10.108)

A{k,t),

B(k,t)

are

slowly

varying.

After

we insert

these forms

(10.91),

the
/'

left side
d,E(k,i)

becomes
-

klE(k,t) exp
= i

= i d, \302\243(k,t)
exp

exp

[\342\200\224ia),(k)t]

<o,(k)E(k,t)

[-/<\302\253,(*)/]

k2

\302\243{k,t)

exp

[-ia>,(k)t]

d,\302\243(k,t)

[-ioi(k)t]
entire

(10.109)
equation

since

by

(10.94)

the

last two
exp

terms cancel. The

=

(10.91)

becomes

/
+

d,\302\243(k,t)

[-iw,(k)t]

f
E(k

dk' [A(k',Q exp [-/\302\253>/(*')']

-

B(k',t)

exp [-ioj;{k')t]}

\342\226\240

k',t) exp [-/\302\253,(*

k')t]

(10.110)

dtE[k,t)
X

= - i
ii[a>,(k)
kf,t)

j\302\260\302\260

dk'(A(k\\t)

E(k u>,(k

k',t)

exp

w/(k') ~

k')]t] o),(k

+ B(k\\t)E(k

exp

\302\253>/(*')

|j[\302\253/(*)

*')]'})

(10.111)

Induced

Scattering

245

that will In the exponents on the right side of (10,111) we can already seethe terms lead to the three-wave frequency matching conditions. In order to put the \"ion\" (10.98) in the same form as the \"electron\" equation it is useful that all of the terms with to assume at this point equation (10.111), of all of the terms with behave exp [\342\200\224ia)s*(k)t] will independently frequency frequency only for the terms on the left side of exp [\342\200\224iws'(k)t]. Then looking

(10.98)

with

frequency

exp

[\342\200\224/w/(Ar)f],

we

find {d2A{k,t)

(d,2

+ k2)A(k,t)

exp [~iti>;(k)l]
A(k,t)

2iws\\k)d,A(k,t)

The last
compared
two

[\302\253/(*)]2

k2A(k,t)}exp

[-iw*(k)f]

(10.112)

terms

cancel
7.16.

by the definition
d,A just

to

\342\200\224

2i(t)s*(k)

(10.88)in

Section

We

(10.104) ofw*(k), and we ignore d2A of the \"electron\" equation obtain for the entire equation (10.98)
as
in

the

derivation

~2iw/(k)
=

dtA{kj)

exp

[\342\200\224iws+(k)t]

k2

f
-

dk' E{k!,t)
k,t)

exp [-iwt(k')t] ~ k)t]

\302\243*(\302\243'

exp [i<o,(k'

(10.113)

or
d,A(k,t)

\342\200\224 ik1

f\302\260\302\260

^'\"
exp

dk' E(k',t)E*(k' wtik'

k,t)

JiK(it)

- a),(k') +
matching

k)]t}

(10.114)

where the

three-wave side.

frequency

conditions
the

can again
manner,

be seen

popping

up on the right The equation

with equation as (10.114)

for B(k,l) is
A

obtained -ik2

in

same
a>s*

replaced

by B and

replaced

leading to the same by (o~. This is

-

d,B{k,t)
X

2mf{k)
{i[ms-(k)

s:
-

dk'

E(k',t)E*(k'

k,t)

exp

u>,(k')

w,(k'

k)]t]

(10.115) set of
let us
equations

and Equations(10.111), (10.114),

(10.115)

are now

a complete
to

for

the slowly

varying

amplitudes

In order to see model equation

clearly

and B. the method we are

E, A,

about

develop,

consider the

%C{k,t)= f
X

dk'

V(k,k',k

k')C{k',t)C(k

- k'j)
(10.116)
of

exp

{i[a)(k)

w{k')

w(k

k')]t}

is easily This model equation seen to have the same basic structure equations (10.111), (10.114),and (10.115).

our

three

246

Weak

Turbulence

Theory
with

The derivation
clearly

proceeds

formally

an expansion
the it

distinguish

the different

terms
though

in

the

expansion

parameter,

even

of the amplitude C(k,t). To we treat the \"vertex\" Fas expansion, is small in some is Teally C itself that

sense.

Thus, we expand

C(k,t) =
Substituting

C\302\260\\k,t)

C-l\\k,t)

+ C(21(A:,/)+
(10.116)

\342\200\242 \342\200\242

(10.117)

this in the
V,

basic dynamical equation

dtO\302\260\\k,t)

we

obtain,

to zeroth (10.118)

order in
with

solution

C{i\\k,t)
which

O0\\k,t

= 0)
we

(10.119)
choose

is

C(k,t = 0).
Next,

just

what
zeroth

linear

physics would tell us;

this basic

value

to be

the

oTder solution

(10.119) is substituted into

the

dynamical

equation

(10.116) to obtain

a,0*\\k,t) = f
X

dk'

V(k,k',k

k')O0\\k')Oa\\k

- k')
(10.120) The solution
-

exp

[i[oj(k)
time

index

a)(k')

w(k

k')]t] constant.

where we have droppedthe

on C((1) since

it

is a

of

(10.120)
is

C\">(*,0

P df

[' dk' exp

-

{i[w(k)

oi(k')
-

k')

co(k

k')]t] (10.121)

V(k<k',k

A:')C<\302\260t(^)C(<\"(jt

We can write

this

in a more

symmetric form if
k\"

we introduce

- k'
\\i[oi(k)

(10.122)
co(k')

Then

defining

F{k,k',k\",t)

V(k,k',k\") exp
X

- w(k\]t]
(10.123)

6(k

k'

k\")

we can

write (10.121)

in

the

form

-\302\273

Cm(k')Cm(k\") dk'j \342\226\240'-\302\273

dk\"

df F(k,k\\k\",f)

(10.124)

\342\200\242'o

this form, we should now consider F as the expansion parameter. \342\200\224 C10' + C\"' on the right The equation for Ct2) is obtained by substituting C out only those terms side of the basic dynamical equation (10.116) and picking are ordeT in F. We find that second
In

Induced

Scattering

247

d,O2)(k,0

= f\"
\"'-co

dk' f\"
J
-x,

dk\"

F(k,k',k\"J)

[Cm(kf)0[\\k'\\i)

+ 0\"(k\\t)Cm(k\]

dk'r
X

dk\"F(k,k',k\",t){Cm(k')r
dk'\" \342\200\242'o

dk\"\"

Oa\\k'\OaKk\"\")")

[' dt'F(k\",k'\",k'\"\\t')
dk\"\" O0\\k'\On\\k\"\")

Oa\\k\")

r
X f

dk'\"

f~

rf/'

F(k',k\"',k\"\",t')}

(10.125)

\342\200\242'o

which

is integrated

in time to yield

Cm(k,t) =
X

Jrf/t'
f

dfc\"

rf/T'

rfjfc\"\"

C(0,(/tOC(0'(/r')C(0>(A:'''')

[' dt'

dt\"

F(k,k\\k\",t')F(k\",k'\",k\"\".t\

Jdk'
X

dk\" dk'\"

dk\"\"

O0\\k\O\302\260\\k'\")Cm(k\"\")

dt'

['

dt\"

F(k,k',k\"j')

F(k',k'\",k\"\",t\")

(10.126)

This is the highest order term that we shall need for our theory. At this we wish to introduce the idea of random phases. We want to point, a statistical theory of weak turbulence. One way to do this is to consider develop an ensemble of realizations, in each of which the absolute value of the amplitude C(0),at a given wave number k, is the same. However, the complex quantity
O0)(k)
has

|C10)(A:)|e''flW

(10.127)

a phase
in

6(k),
each

which

is

a random

number 0

< 0(k) <

In.

Thus,

\\O0](k)\\

is

the same
realization.

realization,

but 6(k)

varies randomly from realization to

Consider

the

two-point

correlation
=

function

(C0)(k)O\302\260Kk'))

\\O'\302\273(k)\\\\Cl0Kk')\\(ei^+ie<k\">)

\\O\302\260Xk)\\\\CW{k')\\(cos[0(k) +

6{k')]
(10.128)

+ /sin [0(k)+
where ( ) indicates
statistically independent,

0(k')])

ensemble average. If which means (since any

k', then

6(k) and 6(k') are

0 and 27r is equally

6 between

likely)

248

Weak

Turbulence

Theory

' (cosld(k)+
The
6{k')])

^
dO

-2

(k)J

dd (k') -^
dO

cos [6(k)
dO (k')

+ B{k)]
:

I
happehs for the
sin

p^
(k)

0 (10.129)

\342\226\240'o

\342\226\240'o

same

thing

[6(k)

&(k'y\\ term.

If k =

fc',

then

(cos [20{k)])

+ /(sin [20(fc)]>

= 0
Thus,

(10.130)
0

we

have

for all

fc

and

fc' that

{C{t>\\k)C{0)(k')) =
However,

(10.131)
(10.132)

consider

<C'\302\260'(A:)C|0)*(A:';}

| O01( A:)11 Cl0)( A:') | <eW^>-y\302\253^')>

When

k = k' we

have
<e'\302\253<*W\302\253<*')>

(e0)

(i) = i

(10.133)
it

whereas when

9^ kf,
k
write

Eq,
\302\245= k'

(10.132) is zero when function. Thus, we

(10.132) vanishes and is nonzero when

as =

as before. Thus,
k

k'\\

must

the quantity beaDiracdelta

in

(10.132)
(C\302\260Kk)C0)\\kf))

nm(k)8(k

- k')

(10.134)

where analogy

the to

quantity

quantum

n'k) theories

the zeroth order intensity,

C{0).

is sometimes called the mode occupation number by of atomic transitions. In this section, we shall call ni0)(k) since it is proportional to the square of the amplitude
we have
some

taken the phase 0'k) to be statistically need to be cases, this assumption may independent phase modified. For example, in the physics contained in the nonlinear Schrodinger is quite appropriate for the amplitude E'k,t), but it is equation, this assumption as The result of and can be seen and (10.103). B(k) wrong for^(Ar) by (10-102) is to of as these cases add more same form we shall find terms the treating properly
[Note:

In

this

model

problem,

of the

In fl(\342\200\224k).

for

our

model

problem.]
n(k,t)

The total
Cu(k,t)
is \302\253(U|

intensity

is related same

to the total
O0):

amplitude C(k,t) =
the

C{0)'k,t)

+
related

C(2\\k,t) in the to the zeroth

way [Eq.

(10.134)] that

zeroth

order

intensity

order amplitude

(C(k,t)C*(k',t))
EXERCISE assumption

= n(k,t)6(k

- k')

(10.135)

Show of

that

the form spatial

(10.135) is a
that

of the rigorousconsequence

statistical

depend

on spatial book introductory

is, ensemble averages can only homogeneity; differences x \342\200\224 x', not on absolute spatial location, x. See any on turbulence theory, lor example, Leslie[10].

Induced

Scattering

249
the
in

We look
expansion we have

for an equation that describes the time evolution of n{k,t). With terms only up to second order (10.117) of the amplitude C, keeping (setting k = Jf),

F,

= (\\C(kj)\\2)
=
+
Many <C(2)C(0,*>

((Ci\"1

C<\" +

C'2>)(C|0>* +

C\"1*

C,2|,)>

|C(0)|2 +

+ (c((,)c(i|*) + <c(llc,0O
+

(c10)c(2O

(C'C\"'')

+ {higher

order terms}
from

(10.136)
(10.124)

of

the

terms

on the
the

right

see that all

terms of

form

of (10.136) vanish. CmCl']* look like

For example,

we

(C<0)C(l,t)~
~ ~

(C<\302\260\302\273(A:)C<0,*(A:')C<0)*(/f\> /e/\302\253(*)-/9(*')-/\302\253t\V

0
of

(10.137)
the
O2**

EXERCISE

Convince yourself
the

last step.
are

Likewise, all terms of

(C(0,C(21*>

form ~

C(01

of the

form [see Eq. (10.126)]

(C(0,(A:)C10|,(A:')C(OI*(yt\"')C(0|,(/c\"\)

(eie{k)-i6{V)-Wk'\-ie(k\"\"))

~ 0
EXERCISE

(10.138)
of the last discussed

Convince
When

yourself conditions

step.
in the previous note prevail, but (10.138) still vanishes
that

[Note:
C(k)
vanishes

the

is,

is correlated to
in

C(-k),

then

(10.137)

no longer

general.]
only

Thus,

the

terms

contributing
\\Ov\\k)\\2

in (10.136)
= we find

are
(10.139)

(|C(A:,/)t2) FTom (10.124),(10.134), and

(C'KkjK^'ikj))

(10.135)

[n(k,t)

nlo\\k)]6(0)
[' df

'
f dk' dk\"
['
\342\200\242

dk'\"

dk\"\"

F(k,k',k'\\t')

\342\226\240

drF*(k,k'\",k\"\",t\
(10.140)

(O0\\k')Cw(kJ')a0)\\k\"')Cm'(k\"\

where

8(0) means
find

6{k \342\200\224 k')\\k.=k;

factor

in order
right

for (10.140) to
side.

make any

sense

we will

need to
Consider

a similar

on the

the factor

{CU){k')Oa\\k\C^\\k\"')C^'{k\"\")

(10.141) <^\302\253*o+/\302\253r*\-<\302\253(*\")-(\302\253r*--))")

250

Weak Turbulence
are

Theory

There

two possible

ways to obtain a
k' =
k\"'

nonzero result
k\"

on

the

right.

The

first

is

when
and

k\"\"

(10.142)

and

the second is

when

k'

k\"\"

and

k\"

k\"'

(10.143)

Thus,
< Ct0\302\273( k')Cm{

k\")

C,(,)

*( k'\")

O0 **( Jfc\" \>

n^(k')nw(k\8(k'")
n^(k')nm(k\8(k'")

- k'\8(k\"")k\"\8{k\"")

k\"\
k'\
functions

+
Substituting the k'\" and
this

(10.144)
to perform

on

the

right

k\"\"

integrations,

of (10.140), we obtain

and using the

dk\"

delta

[n(k,t)

- n^(k)]8(0) =
X

\\dW

[' dt'

dt\"

F(k,k',k\"j')rim(k')nm(k\

X \\F*(k,k\\k\",t\")
To

+ F*(k,k\",k',t\}")
this

(10.145)
that
(10.146)

make

life simpler,

let us assume

for

model

problem

V(k,k',k\")
which

~
V{k!k\",k')

means

that [see

Eq. (10.123)]

= F(k,k',k\",t\")
Equation

F(k,k\",k'j\")

(10.147)

(10.145)

then reads
=

[n(k,t) -

nm(k)]6(0)

Jdk'

dk\" nm(k')nia)(k\

dt' F(k,k\\k\",t')

(10.148)

From the definition

(10.123), I dt' F

~
theory

dt'

e'I|U<*)_,u<*')~(U(*\\"'

(10.149)

-'o

'\342\200\242'n

The idea

of weak turbulence
to
that

is to

consider

changes on
With

time this

scale in mind,

long

compared
wish

to

apply

to

characteristic frequencies. (10.149) the formula

of

any

of the

we

lim

dt'

jm'

= 2irtd(Cl)

(10.150)

Equation

(10.150)

can

be derived

as follows:

Induced

Scattering

251

lim

f dt'

ei{11'=
1 im

lim /\342\200\224oo

in
1

(e'ni

- 1)
-

lim 1 l_
n2

-^
(e

(e'n' -

1 )(<\342\200\242-''\"'

1)

lim

iO</2

-in(/2\\/e-/n//2

e\\m/2\\

,^S^
Now,

Sm Then, if fl
sin2

h\ ^ 0, we
^
have

(10.151)

multiply

the

argument

by / '.

S
If

7^7
0,

\302\260

(t-)

(10.152)

we first

take the lim

limit

\342\200\224 we

obtain

lim

n2r

sin'

VTj

=
7v7 !L\342\204\242

(t)

lim

\302\253>

(10.153)

Thus,

the argument
it

of (10.152)vanishes
be proportional

if fi

Because

must

therefore

5^ 0, and becomes to 8(Cl),we write

infinite

if fi

= 0.

lim

-^-

sin2

f-y-l
sides

\302\2536(H)

(10.154)

To determine

the constant a-, we

integrate both
TFT !\342\204\242
<*c .

over

all fl, to

obtain

*=f*mda
=

sinJ

(t\

. r* 2 I

sin \342\200\2245-

= 2n

(10.155)
by contour

EXERCISE
the

Obtain

(10.155)

integration,

moving the contour off

of

nonexistent

pole at x

\342\200\224 0.

252

Weak Turbulence

Theory

EXERCISE
that

By techniques

similar to

those used in
dt\"

the

proof

of (10.150),

show

lim

oo -'o t\342\200\224

dt'

e'a''

e~iM'

ntSiO.)

,
the

o result

Finally,

the factor t to the right in (10.154), we obtain result and the definition (10.123),we find this Using
moving
dt' F{k,k',k\",t')

(10.150).

= \\V(k,k',k\\\22nt8[w(k)
X

w{k')

a>(k\]

8(k

k'

k\d(k
V

k\

(10.156)

-J

8(0)
where

one

may

write
this

6(x)8(x) = 6(x)S{0)sincex
into

=0

is

the

only
each

counts. Substituting

(10.148)

and canceling

a 6(0) on

side,

value that we find

n(k,t)
X

- n^(k) =
at
t

4Trtjdk'dk\"\\V(k,k',k\\\2

n^(k')n^Kk\d[w(k)")

w(k')

<o(k\]6(k")

k\")

(10.157)

l that was considered went out a time we may say that only the side of (10.157) as tiny, right long. However, considering this calculation a small performing change in n(k,t) results. Thus, one can imagine the new value of n(k,t) on the right of over and over again, each time inserting equation (10.157) instead of \302\253(01(A:). Dividing (10.157) by /, we obtain a differential

This

calculation

started

\342\200\224 0 and

for

n(k,t);

the

left

side

becomes
\302\273'u'w \302\273<*\342\226\240'>;

-i-

\342\200\236(*.,)

(10.158)

Finally

we have
d

dt

fi(kj)

Anjdk'dk'

'\\V(k,k',k\\\

n(k',t)n(k\"
-

,0

X 6[cu{k)
The

- u(k') right

u>{k\]8(k")

k'

- k\

(10.159)
indicate [<o(k)

important

quantities

on the

are

the

that

wave

number

matching (k

\342\200\224 k' +

two delta functions, which k\") and frequency matching

w(k')

+ a>(k\]") are

operative.
the form

is Equation (10.159)

basic

but details of thesecalculations, discussions in otheF places. (See Refs. by

fluid equations

of

the

(10.88)

to as applied result of weak turbulence theory and (10.89). We will not present any of the rather we refer the reader to the extensive this section us conclude Let [1] to [5],

[11]to [16].)

describing to

qualitatively

the predictions

of the weak turbulence

theory

as

applied

the equations

which (10.111), (10.114), and (10.115),

contain

the nonlinear

References
nE(k,t)

253

2L_ Fig. 10.5

<2 > Behavior

of

the

intensity

nt{k,t) predicted by

weak

turbulence

theory;

>

t, > t0.

coupling of Langmuir
parameters,it

waves

to ion-acoustic
the

is found

(Fig. 10.5) that

initially

intensity

waves. For a large range nE, defined by nE(k,t)8(k

wave

of
\342\200\224 \342\200\224

k')

(E(k,t)E*(k,t)),
localized

localized

about some k0, migrates to

sign

numbers
in

about

a wave

than

k0. This
this

number opposite in process is the same as the

until

and

somewhat
decay

smaller
instability

magnitude

parametric

of Section
some
of

7.17. The processcontinues

time
numbers

the

phenomenon

of condensation

paradox
so

in plasma that in the drive

solitons of

physics, becauseLandau damping is small was absence of collisional there damping,

know

0. For intensity piles up about k \342\200\224 in wave number space was thought at

as a

small

wave

mechanism. We
k
\342\200\224 0 can formation.

now

(Section
in

7.17)

that

intense

Since

the oscillating are localized

in

two-stream instability
configuration

space,
thus

broadening

H\302\243(kj)

wave

number

space and

no known dissipation localized around to soliton leading their formation leads to a to the possibility of leads
waves

Landau damping.Unfortunately, the four-wave modulational instabilities cannot of the weak turbulence theory be treated within the context of the present chapter. The development of a complete theory of Langmuir turbulence including modulational instability and soliton formation is only one of the many fascinating aspects of nonlinearity that are being treated in current and turbulence research in plasma physics ([6], [16]to [31]).

REFERENCES

[1]
[3]

B.

B.

Kadomtsev,

Plasma
Methods

[2] R. C. Davidson,
1972.

Turbulence, Academic, New York, 1965. in Nonlinear Plasma Theory, Academic,New

Effects

York,

V. N.
V.

Tsytovich, Nonlinear
Tsytovich,

in Plasmas,
Plasma,

Plenum, New York,

Consultants

1970.
New
New

[4]

N.

Theory
and

of

Turbulent

Bureau,

York, 1977.

[5] R. Z. Sagdeev
York,

A. A.

Galeev, Nonlinear

Plasma Theory,

Benjamin,

1969.

[6] J. A. Krommes, in Handbook of Plasma Physics, edited by R. Sudan and A. A. Galeev, North-Holland, to be published. Amsterdam, and D. Pines, Suppl. Nucl. Fusion Part 3, 1049(1962). [7] W. E. Drummond

254
[8]

Weak

Turbulence

Theory
and

A. A.

Vedenov, E. P. Velikhov,
(1962).

R. Z.

Sagdeev, Suppi Nucl. Fusion Part

Valeo,

2, 465
[9]

F. W.

Perkins, C.
Leslie,

Oberman,and
in the

E.

J.

J. Geophys.

Res., 79, 1478

(1974).

[10] D.C.
1973.

Developments

Oxford, Theory of Turbulence,Clarendon,

[11]

V. E.

Zakharov and E. A.
Theory

Kuznetsov,

Sov.

Phys.-JETP,

48, 458

(1978).
York,

[12] A. A. Vedenov,
1968.

of Turbulent

Plasma, American
to the

Elsevier, New

[13]

V. N.
gamon,

Tsytovich, An
Oxford,
and

Introduction

Theory of

Plasma Turbulence,

Per-

1972.
V.

[14] S. A. Kaplan
Oxford,

N. Tsytovich,

Plasma Astrophysics,Pergamon,
Nonlinear

1973.

[15]

A. Hasegawa,

Plasma Instabilities and

D. Choi,

Effects,

Springer-Verlag,

New York,

1975.
and

[16]
[17]

W.

Horton

Phys. Rep., 49, 273

Phys.

(1979).

S. A. Orszag

and R. H. Kraichnan,
and

[18] L. I. Rudakov

V. N.

[19]

T.

H.

Dupree,

Phys.
Phys. Phys.

(1967). 213 Plasma 13, (1971). Phys., Tsytovich, Fluids, 9, 1733(1966).

Fluids,

10, 1720

[20] J. Weinstock, [21] T. H. Dupree, [22] B. H. Hui and [23] T. H. Dupree, [24] H. A. Rose, J. [25] D. F. DuBois [26] J. A. Krommes
[27]

Fluids, Fluids,

11, 1977

(1968).

15, 334 (1972).

T. H.
Phys.

Dupree, Phys. Fluids, 21, 783 (1978). Fluids, Phys., 20,

18, 235 (1975).

Stat.
and

415 (1979).
Plasma Phys.,

J.

C.

Adam,

[28] P. J. Hansen

20, 1209(1978). and R. G. Kleva, Phys. Fluids, 22, 2168 (1979). Rev. G. Laval, and D. Pesme, 43, 1671 (1979). Lett., Phys. R. and 615 D. Nicholson, Phys. Fluids, 24, (1981).
M.

Espedal,

[29] D.F.

DuBois,

Phys. and and

Rev.,

A23, 865

(1981).

[30] T. Boutros-Ghali

T. H.

Dupree, Phys. Fluids,

24, 1839(1981).
(1981).

[31] D.F.
PROBLEM

DuBois

H.

A. Rose,

Phys. Rev., A24,

1476

10.1 Quasilinear

Theory

(a)

Supposetwo

so that beams are incident on a Maxwellian electron plasma, in Fig. the one-dimensional distribution function is as shown 10.6. Using the ideas of quasilinear theory, an initial value problem consisting of consider

Problem

255

\302\253/,B2

U3

H,

Fig.

10.6

An electron

distribution

with

a background

Maxwellian

and

two

electron

beams.

as shown plus a small noise level of electric field of sketches, at several different of: the growth times, rate of Langmuir of Langwaves as a function of wave number; the intensity muir waves as a function of phase speed; and the distribution function. Use
the distribution
fluctuations.

Draw

a series

I/,, w2,
to
t

u},

and\302\2534

as

benchmarks.

Make
time

your
scale

final

-*

\"oo.\" Crudely

estimate a

for

electron

plasma

frequency and the

of

ratio nh/n0

set of sketches correspond this entire process, using the where nb is the density of beam

particles. (b) The derivation

and
equation thus

left

out

from

an

theory proceeded from quasilinear certain physics. Discuss this physics, would allow earlier chapter that us to

the Vlasov equation

and

recall
this

an
physics.

include

Draw

a new t

set of
\342\200\224 oo.

(a) as the /
correspond

= 0 sketchof part
Crudely

sketches as in

part (b).

(a), using Make your

the

\342\200\224\342\200\242 \"<\302\273\" sketch

of part

final set
this

of sketches
entire

to

estimate

a time

scale for
what is

process.
the

In each
ions.

of pans (a) and (b), state Should this be the same in each

explicitly
part?

being assumedabout

APPENDIX

Derivation

of

the

Lenard-Balescu

Equation

In

this

appendix,

we complete

the derivation
and

of

the

Lenard-Balescu

equation
from

(5.19)
BBGKY

starting from Eqs.

hierarchy
(5.4)

by

(5.1)

From discarding three-particle correlations (Refs. [1]to [5]).

we have

(5.1)

(5.4),

which

in turn

are obtained

the

and

to (5.8),

d,/i(vi,0 ~

n0J

rfx2rfv2al2

\342\200\242 VV|\302\243(x,

x2,v,,v2,0 -

(A.l)

-gf

g(*\\

x2,v,,v2,0
Vlg{\\2)

4- V,g +
=

V2g

S(\\x

x2,v,,v2)

(A.2)

v,

\342\200\242 VX|\302\243(12)

[\302\273o/\302\253/3

8,3^(32)]-

VV|/-j(v,)
\342\200\242

(A.3)

Vlg{\\2) =
+

v2

Vxjr(12)
\342\200\242

[\302\273\342\200\236/<\302\253

a23 g{\\3)]

Vvy,(v2)
\342\200\242

(A.4)

S(x,

on

x2,v,,v2)

g(23),

+ (a12 \342\200\242 VYj

we

a21

VJ/^v,)/,^)

(A.5)

where we have

usedg(32)=
convenience, 1 is and

alternate

between

the notations
5

(1) and
to

solve for g(i \342\200\224 where \302\260\302\260) time scale, the functions/, need, from (5.9),

(x(,v,)

depending

and we

recall from Chapter

that

we wish

the fast time scale on which g relaxes. thus S are consideredto be constants.

On this fast We shall also

258
Using
transform

Appendix

the Fourier
these

transform conventions in
X[ and

Chapter

5, we

combination can

with respect to equations \342\200\224 the (Xj x2), we obtain k, by For

\342\200\224

x2. Because
k2)

factor 6(k( +

spatially Fourier of the appearance of the in several places and, thus,

replace

k^

EXERCISE
transform

with

transform

\342\200\224 show any function/(x, x2), is to and + respect x( x2 k2) 8(k, with respect to x. of/(x)

Fourier Fourier is the f(k{) where/(k)

that

the double

= (27r)3/</k/,(-k)/2(k) EXERCISE Showthat/</x/,(x)/2(x) is the Fourier transform fi and/2; here,/,(k) of/|(x),

EXERCISE
X/2(x2
Show

for

any

functions

etc., as

usual.
\342\200\224 dx^

that 6(K

the

double

Fourier

transform of

/^Xj

x3)

x3) is (2tt)3
of (A.

+ k2)/1(k1)/2(-kl).
Eq.

With the results

transformed

version

of these exercises, and to is J) (A.6)

(5.16)

for a12(k), the

Fourier

\342\200\242

fdv2

dk,

k,

<f(ki)g(kl,y\342\200\236vl~t

=o)

(A.7)

+ *(k,,\302\273\342\200\236v2,7) \342\226\240jf

Vlg =

V2g = S(kltvuv2)
\342\200\242

(A.8)

V,

g{\\2)

ik,

v,g(12)

n^rf_

V^M^MkjfdvigQLLWJ)

(A.9)

K2*(12)
+

\342\200\242 \342\200\224*kx ^^(12)

!^~~

\342\200\242 \302\273k,

VTj/I(v2M*rl)j'</v^(kI,vl,v\342\200\2367)

(A.10)

S(ki,v,,v2)
Our
With in

^-/k,-(VV|

VO/((v()/,(v2)

(A.ll)

the

express the right side of (A.7) in terms of/, by solving (A.8) for g. be the calculation can the of remainder (A.7) present form, performed wave number space; because of the factor /on the right of (A.7) and the fact that of (A.7) must be real, we need only the imaginary calculate right part of
goal is to
in its
=

g(klyv},y2,l

The
transforming

solution
with

of (A.8) for g(k1,v1,v2,r= to the fast time /. respect

g(t),

\302\273).

is \302\253)

accomplished

by Laplace

EXERCISE For any function - 0) - io>g(a)). ~g(t

show that the

Laplace transform of dg/dt is

Derivation

of the

Lenard-Balescu

Equation

259

With

the

result

of this

exercise,

the

Laplace

transform
gOLuyuy2,<o)

of (A.8) is
+

- g(k|.V|.v2,7 =
+
where
operators V2g{\\2a>)

0)

itu

V, g(12a>)
(A.12)

4p

S(k\342\200\236v\342\200\236v2)

g(at) is
Vx and

V2 can

(A.9)

and

(A.

defined only for w, = Im(aj) sufficiently large, and where the be regarded as numbers sincethey have no time dependence 10). Solving (A.12) forg(oj) we find
g(at)

in

gQ =
ici)

0) +

(S/iw)

\342\200\224

V, +

(A. 13)
of

We

requireg(i

\342\200\224 This can \302\273)\342\200\242. turns

be obtained
the

from the inverse Laplace transform

(A. 13).

It

out

that

distribution
that consider

sense (Chapter6) are such lower half to-plane. We Thus, the inverse Laplace

in the Vlasov that are stable functions/^v) in the zeros of \342\200\224ion + occur K, + V2 always such stable distribution functions/,(v). only

transform

_ g{t) ~
can be

f dc^ g(t JL 2k ~ia>

0)

S/iu
(A.
V2

V} +

14)

performed
the only

poles

in

lower

(ai^)) the

the Laplace contour as shown deforming half plane contribute only functions damped is the one at to g(t \342\200\224 <\302\273) pole that contributes
by \342\200\224 \342\200\224

in Fig. A. 1.Since of time, ~ exp

w \342\200\224

0; therefore,

g(l

oo)

lim

o ~iw

V,

(A. 15)
V2

Original

contour

( \342\226\240N )

c}

Deform*

d contour

Fig. A.l

Inverse Laplacecontour

for

calculating

g(t

\342\200\224 <*>).

260

Appendix

where we retain the lim _0

to help us
combination

interpret

other

contour

integrations
Vx

that
and

occur

in

the

calculation.
allows
Vx

At this separately,

point, we introduce a trick that

rather
than

us to
+

treat the operators

V2

in

the

V2. Consider

-in

\342\200\242 r + v,1 + v2 2

K \"0

J0
\342\200\224 f

JCl dw*
1

2n

+ \342\200\224iw,
\\

Vl JC2

2w

+ \342\200\224ita2 I

V2

dwi

JCl

2n

Jc

2n

+ \342\200\224iwi

Vj

\342\200\224

iw2

V2

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224i(u) to, <u2)

(A. 16)

where the contours (A. 15) becomes

C, and

C2

must

be

chosen

so

that

w,

>

cou +

w2i.

Then

^(k,,v,,v2,7 =
. m-o

\302\260\302\260)

f JC\\

d(o{ 2tt

r JCl

dw2 2tt

1__
+ V2 \342\200\224i(xi2

5(k,,v(>v2)
\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224i{<u w, w2)

+ V, \342\200\224iwl

(A.17)

In expressions {~icox
We

(A. 13) to
acting

(A.17),

we

interpret

+
first

V\\YXF Vy)G.

on

a function

the meaning of an F to be that function

inverse

operator

G such

that F

(~iaj, +

need
\302\253(ki,v\342\200\236v2)

\\

5(k1)v1,v2)

(A.18)

such that
S(k(,v,,v2)

(-/\302\253,

P,)o(k1,v1,v2)
1
/(27T)3\302\2530 \342\200\224 \342\200\242

/\342\200\242_!_\342\200\242!

(-1^!

A CI + rk^vja^v,^)

k,

VV]

X In order

f&xMkjfdVi

a(k\342\200\236v3,v,)

(A.19)

to solve

this

for

a we

must

first

eliminate

J dv3

a; we

express(A. 19)as

<*<k\342\200\236v,,v2)

\342\200\224-\342\200\224, . [S(k,,v(,v2) I <\302\2731 \302\273l

'[

/(2tt)3/ii k,

\342\200\242

Vi/AyMkjfdY,

afl^v,,*,)]

(A.20)

and

integrate

over all v, to

find

Derivation

of the

Lenard-Baleacu

Equation

261

dv,

a(k|,v,,v2)

^jOX
Realizing

,. ,
is merely

f.

kt

>

VV|/.(v.)

that

v3 on the (a

right

a dummy
*

variable of integration,
S(JLuyity2)

we

find

J
where

dv>

\302\253<k\"v^)

,y

(a

\302\253k^)Jdy> -m, w,2 r

+ ,1,

\342\200\242

(A'22)

v3

k,

\342\200\242

vVi/i(v,)

is the

dielectric function

encountered
=

in

Chapter

6. Thus,

(A.20) becomes

\302\253(k,,vi,v2)

.\342\200\224\342\200\224 S(k,,vlsv2) + ;k, \342\200\242 v, L \342\200\224i(ul

TT^

\"

\342\200\224:v-^ / \302\253V,

(A.24)

which completes the inversion Next, we need

JrfvjjSCk^Vj.Vj)

of the
=

operator

+ (\342\200\224ico,

F,)\"1

J</v2
that

_/ft)
need/dv2
that

^-p

a(k,,v,,v2)
g,

(A.25)
usio allowing if the sign of

where

we

have

noted

from (A.7)

we

analogue of (A.22).Noting is if v, and and k, changed interchanged v2 are

use the compact
J[<h2
With KM,.*,)

g rather than V2 is the same appropriately,

as V^
we

find

. .1
from

t(\342\200\224kuw2)

Jfdv2

-iw2

.a(k\"V''V2) -

ik,

\342\200\242

(A.26)

v2

the result

(A.26) we have
J

(A,

17)
=

</v2\302\243(ki,V,,V,,7

oo)

j.
M_0

r
JCl

da^ r dot
2n

1
e(-kua)2)

JCl

In

-i(co y K,

1
w,

co2)

J(^

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\224Z IT-i \342\200\242 ,+ + \342\200\224ICO, }(U2 IK{ Y2

S(k\342\200\236v\342\200\236v2)

(A.27)

the a>2 integration first, Since the integrand behaveslike o2~2

We perform

along
for

large

the contour C2 shown co2, we can close the

in

Fig.

(A.2).

contour upward

262

Appendix

A
wa,'

cj2

\342\200\242 \342\200\224k, v2

#c f-k|f

aij>-0

Fig. A.2

Contour C2 used in

evaluating

(A,27).

and pick up

only

the

pole

\342\200\224 v at co2 \342\200\224 w,, yielding

J/^2^(k,,v,,v2,7 X 1
\342\200\224 e(\342\200\224k,,aj a/,)

=
1

<\302\273)

lim

w-0

/ c/v2 \342\200\242>

-V,

-^-J Z7r

^i(w

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\242 + oj,) /k] v2 \342\200\224rot!

(A.28) ^,,\342\226\274,,\342\226\2742) Vx

Inserting

the results

(A. 11) and

(A.24)

we have

/rfvj^k^Vj.VjJ

lim \302\260\302\260)

fd\\2

-^p-

1
X e(\342\200\224 kl5w \342\200\224

1 Wi)
\342\200\224z(w -co,) \342\200\224 \342\200\242 + v2 \342\200\224ioj, <k|

ik,

v,

i(27r)3Hoki

'

^.^(v.WtJV
e(ki,w!)

kl X

\302\256 \342\200\242

\302\251 Vy2)

Idv,
/\342\226\240 <\"i

(?y,

k,

/,(V3)/,(V \342\200\242
v3

(A.29)
\342\200\242>]

There

are lour numbered terms in the and the denominator containing v2,

we

brackets. square have

Including

the

v2 integration

Derivation of the
-viki) \342\200\224*ki

Lenard-BalescuEquation
VT,/,(v2)

263

,,

, f

.
(w

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\242 i\"k] oj|) v2

/f0(27r)

W-k\342\200\236a. \"\342\226\240^H

a.,)

- I]

(A.30)

where

(A.23) has

been used. Similarly

-i(2tt)X
\302\253(k1)Wl)

^
Vi x

f
-i(o.

[-/flV2

/,(v2)
-/k,-vj \302\253,,)

b \342\200\242/ w/ k, \342\200\242 v./Kv.M^)/^

f^(/C|)
[\342\200\224

r^*,

ki-v>-/<(^)i ^_ki,vJ

[1-^](-/>k'-v^'>^

where

(A.23)

has

been used

again. Likewise,
(2tt)37j0

\302\251

/k,

\342\200\242

/ dv2

\342\200\224

-t

r.

X
_

kr

^/ilTiWt,)/*!,
7.

e(k1)(W|)

\342\200\224 \342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\226\240; / av, \342\200\242 \342\200\224 \342\200\242

/,(v3)
r
k,

ai!

V3

0(-k|,co

- ^,)
e(k1)Wj)

- 1]
*t-v\302\273,/i^i>

<?(\302\243,)

w^

X fdyy J
Cancelling

MV\"]
OJ! \342\200\224 \342\200\242

k,

V,

(A.32)
combine

term

with \302\251

one

of the

terms

in

term

we \302\256,

the remaining

terms to obtain
I

f ,

^(k.^.v^

\302\253*)

lim

f
J
\302\251

d(u\\ -=\342\200\224-

!
,

\302\251

\302\251 1

(L

e(-kj.o)

\302\251

ir
fl),)

/i(\302\273i)

ki-^/.KMA:,)/*!.
\302\253(k,,w,)

JL

/i(](27t)3
\302\251

/i(v2)

/rfv
&)!

1 k, v2 J

ft,

\342\200\242

V./1(T1MAr,)/m,

\342\200\224 \342\200\242

\342\200\224 &\302\273,) e(k],<ui)\302\253(\342\200\224kj.ftj

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\242 \342\200\224;(&) oj,) /k, v, j

264

Appendix A

)-0 e(\342\200\224k,, a)\342\200\224w,

i o>, = (j + k, \342\200\242 w2

Ci

-*.\"lr
\342\226\240\"\302\2531

Fig.

A.3

Contour

Ct used

in

evaluating

(A.33).

where a change of dummy (A. 16) that we still have

in term from below @. Recalling the and that stable <u, o>,, along C, contour, recalling that the of zeroes occur for < the distributions/,(v) imply 0, e(k,<u) only oi, C, contour and the poles of the integrand on the right of (A.33) are as shown in Fig. A.3. Note that not all of the poles occur for each of the terms in (A.33). Term is evaluated the contour downward, by 0 closing C, yielding a \342\200\242 \342\200\224 contribution from the at which only pole w, k, v,, gives

variable

has

occurred

>

n=
EXERCISE
to Term

/i(vi)

L
the

\"
integrand

(A.34)
k, \342\226\240\342\226\274,).

allow
X \302\251

Convince the contour

vanishes \302\251

yourself

that

falls off fast

to be closeddownward.
when

enough at large w,
we

the contour

is closed

upward. Finally, 1
;k,

consider

the remaining
X \302\251

two pieces
\302\251

together; these are

f

+ \302\251

lim

^B-

_
Wj

1
+

\342\200\224 \342\200\242 V[ e(\342\200\224k^oi o>()

X
X

1
e(k,,w,)

k,'
-1 -

V./.Cv,)

*(*>)

m.
ai{
w

jd\\1A(v2)
(A.35)
kt v2

}[

k,

\342\200\242

v2

\342\200\224 \342\200\224 \342\200\242

At

in (A.7) to use the fact that we only need the we move the contour in Fig. A.3 down to the real axis we must be of (A.35) appears to vanish. However, (let a) \342\200\242 at the contour at the two poles that careful at the pole wt \342\200\224 pinch kj v, and \342\200\242 \342\200\242 = the Plemelj formulas, w, = w + k, v2. Recall m1 k, v3 and

this point
part

it

is

convenient

imaginary

g. As offd\\2 \342\200\224\342\226\240 0), the integrand

Derivation

of the

Lenard-Balescu

Equation -

265

l
lim

^o

. , \342\200\224 a \302\261 it)

T ;tt5(o) {\342\200\224-\342\200\224) \342\200\224

\\w
a contour

a]

a)
the

(A.36)
lower

where sign

the upper sign is used when is used when a contour passes

Re

passes

above a pole, and

'
co!

below a -1

pole. Then
v2

lim

-.

ft\302\273, \342\200\236,_<>

k,

+ [-\342\200\224=r-\342\200\224 [ \342\226\240 \342\200\242 V[

[wl [w,

ki k[

to

^ \342\200\224 \342\200\242

k,

v2 J

MfL-V^~'7r6(tu'~ki-vi)]

x[-/>U-1k1-J

+ ,va(B,'\"k''va)

fL-1kl.vJ
=

+ ^\"'-t-^>]
k[
use
\342\200\242

27r25(co,

v,)6(o),

where
integration,

Re indicates the
(A.35)

real part. If we
X

one

of

(A.37) k, \342\200\242 v2) the 5-functions to perform the <x)]

yields
Im[\302\251

+ \302\256

\302\251]

iVk,
~

\342\200\242

V./.O,)

^~

v f ^, J
X

(v, 5[k, \342\200\242

v2)]/i(v2)

..
cu is

(A'38)

xv.

|\302\253(kl,k1.T1)|*

where

we have

used the fact

that

\342\200\224 w) e*(k,o\302\273) e(\342\200\224k,\342\200\224

when

real.
Show e(k,w).

EXERCISE
that

for

w real, if one

Demonstrate this Im[e(k,o))J =

fact

from

the definition
/d\\

(A.23) of

iir{we2/k2)

[k

\342\200\242

Vv/,(v)]5(co

\342\200\242

v).

Similarly,

uses the results of

=

the

exercise,
\342\200\242

mLt\302\243;j

rni

/'(vi)
n0{2Tr)}

Im^k^k,

v,)]

-/ir/ttv^feiVw, l^.k,
\342\200\242

\342\200\242 U(k\342\200\236k( v,)|2

v,)|2

jdy2

[k,

\342\200\242

\342\200\242

V^/KvjJJdtk,

(v,

\302\273,)]

(A.39)

Finally,

inserting

(A.38) and
= -

(A.39) into
8tX

(A.7),

one

obtains
k,k(
l*(k,,k,
\342\200\242

a,/,(f,./)

-^?vfi./

\342\200\236 (\342\200\236 J rfk,rfv

<p2(k,)

-v,)!2

X
which

\302\253[k, -{v,

v^Jt/^v,^/,^) of variables is the

-/1(v2)\\7Ti/,(v1)]

(A.40)
(5.19).

with

appropriate

changes

Lenard-Balescuequation

266

Appendix A

REFERENCES

[1] D. C. Montgomery
New

and

D. A.

Tidman, Plasma

Kinetic Theory,

McGraw-Hill,

York,

1964.
and

[2] P.

C. Clemmow
Addison-Wesley,

J. P.

Dougherty,
Mass.,
of the

Electrodynamics of Particlesand
1969.

Plasmas,

Reading,
Theory

[3] D. C. Montgomery,
New

Unmagnetized Plasma, 10, 390

Gordon and Breach,

York,

1971.
Ann.

[4]

A. Lenard,

Phys. Fluids,

(New

York),

(1960).

[5] R. Balescu, Phys.

3, 52

(1960).

APPENDIX

Langevin

Equation,

Fluctuation-Dissipation

Theorem,

Markov

and Fokker-Planck
Process,
B.1

Equation
FLUCTUATION-DISSIPATION
*

LANGEVIN

EQUATION

AND

THEOREM
The

discussion
the

of plasma
Fokker-Planck

5, led to

in Chapters kinetic theory, including 3, 4, and collisions, This is form of the plasma kinetic equation in (5.31).
appendix,

not a coincidence. In this arises naturally whenever

distribution function/s(v,f)]

it is

a probability

changes
the a plasma; the

slowly
Fokker-Planck

shown that the Fokker-Planck equation distribution [i.e., the one particle in time because of huge numbers of small
equation,

changes (i.e., small

In orderto motivate
is simpler
and
than

angle collisions).
we use
namely,
Langevin

physical

example

that

the case

of Brownian example of
in the The

motion.

This

will lead
ask

us to the
theorem,

related topicsof
Markov

equation,
analogue

the fluctuation-dissipation
Brownian

processes.
equation

yourself

how each
Langevin

The
variation

to its step corresponds

arises
varying A

As we study the
whenever
force.

motion,

plasma case.
is

a variable
particle

as a

result of a rapidly

best known (mass

experiences a slow time example of this

\342\200\224

the

case

of Brownian

motion.

large

1CT'2

gram)

exhibits

~ 10\"22 motion when bombarded by the molecules in air (mass gram). look The path of the particle may as shown in Fig. B.l. The human eye, looking a microscope, cannot see the fine structure on the curve shown, and so through sees the curve in Fig. B.2. The wandering motion is, essentially, a instead [1,2] random that suffers per unit walk due to the large number of collisions the particle with the gas molecules. Picking out one of the dimensions of the motion, we time can write Newton's force law in one spatial dimension,

Brownian

268

Appendix

Fig.

B.l

Path of a

Brownian

particle.

force per unit mass on the Brownian particle. Thus, F(t) contains an extremely short time. collisions, each lasting To study the physics of (B.l), we can consider an ensemble of realizations, each = \342\200\224 the same but random initial different functions v(t F(t). having 0) v0 speed Our intuition tells us that the overall effect of the many collisions be to slow will \342\200\224\342\200\242 \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260. the Brownian particle, so that (v(t)} p as t Brownian slows it collides the because with more Microscopically, particle of motion than in the opposite direction. It thus gives up net particles in the direction a net gain in which leave the collision with kinetic energy to the gas molecules, momentum. right-going This discussion that the ensemble average of the force on leads to the conclusion the right of (B.l) must a term that tends to slow the contain Brownian particle.
where
the

sum

F(t) is the of many

Fig. B.2

Path

of a

Brownian

particle as

seenby

the

human

eye.

Langevln Equation

and

Fluctuation-Dissipation

Theorem

269

Thus, we split the

force F(t)
0.
gas,

into

two

terms,

so

that

(8F(t))
the

properties of

+ 6F(t) The ensemble averaged part of

F(t)
and =

= <f(0>

(B.2)
will

Taylor expand
When

this

quantity (F(t))

F(t) depend on the speed v of the Brownian particle. Suppose in terms of the particle speed v:

on the

we

c, + c2u

+ cV
is then

+ ...

(B.3)
thus,

\342\200\224 we

0,

want

(F) = 0,

sincethere

0. Let us then keep only the next term to slow the particle, we introduce the minus introduction of a new constant v such that c2 = \342\200\224v; force our
c,

no preferred direction; in (B.3). we expect this Because through the sign explicitly equation

term

(B. 1) now

reads
(B.4)

JMO = _ Mt) +
which
The

dF(t)

is the
constant

famous Langevin equation (Refs. [3] to [7]). v in (B.4) represents dissipation. This can
(B.4)

be

seen

by taking the

ensemble average of

d
dt

(v(t))

v(v(t))

(B.5)

so that
<\302\253(0>

W1
speed

(B.6)
v0).

(Recall
characteristic

that

each

realization down v represents

of the
v'\\

ensemble has initial

and

Thus, the

slowing

time is

since

the slowing down

properties

in means a decrease

kinetic

energy,

is a linear
easy

Let us next investigate someof the

inhomogeneous

dissipation.
statistical

of (B.4).

first

order

ordinary

differential

This equation equation and thus is

to solve.

We have

^pMultiplying

+ vv=

8F(t)

(B.7)

each side

by

e\"'

we have

-|- [*/)*\"]
Thus
viOe\"'

e\"'8F(t)

(B.8)

v0 +

[' dt'

&F(t')e\"'

(B.9)

or
=

v(t)

d0 e'\"'

e-\302\273'

dt'

8F(t')ev''

(B.10)

The ensemble

average of this

equation

reproduces

(B.6),
(B.6)

(v(t)) = voe'1\"

270

Appendix

<5F(f) &F(t\>

\342\200\224f~t\"

h
Fig.

\342\200\224:

I the

B.3

time

Autocorrelation scales t and </\"'.

function of

fluctuating

force

6F(l), indicating

the

relative

Next,

we square the

velocity and ensemble average.

Using

(B.10),

we have

(At))
X

= <K e~\"'+
[v0e-\"'

<?\"\"'

dt'

8F(t')e>\"\"\\

+ e'\"'

['

dt\"

8F(t\e>\"\"])

v02e

-2\"' +

e'2\"1 [' dt' e\"'' [' dt\" {5F(t')8F(t\e\302\273<\") \342\226\240'ft \342\226\240'n 'o \342\226\240'o

(B.U)

two terms have disappeared in the ensemble average. We now make the important assumption that 8F is only correlated with itself over a time r(. extremely short compared to the characteristic time v'1 dissipation assume that 8F is a stationary process, so that (Fig. B.3). We furthermore is only a function of the time difference /' \342\200\224 t\". The correlation {8F(t')8F(t\ time rc is roughly the time of one molecular collision. interested in the integral We are
where

7 =

e-2-\"

['

dt' that
With

e\"<'

['

df

(dF(t')8F(t'

))e\"

(B.12)
for
\342\200\224

The above
/'
<*=

arguments

indicate

t\",

as shown

in Fig.

B.4.

the integrand is only important (nonzero) of variable y ~ t' \342\200\224 the t\", dy change

Fig.
in

B.4
(B.12).

Region of

the

t'-t\"

plane

that contains a

substantial

contribution

to the

integral

Langevln

Equation and

Fluctuation-Dissipation

Theorem

271

t'

<

^pj**

Integrand

i \342\226\240*-y

Fig. (B.13).

B.5

Region of the

t'-y

plane

that contains a

substantial

contribution

to the integral

in

\342\200\224

dt\",

(B.12)

becomes

j = By stationarity,

e-2w P df
write

evf

dy

e\302\273i-vy(8r(t>)df(t'

y))

(B,13)

we can

(6F(t)6F(f

y)) =

{8F(0)5F(-y))

= (5F(0)dF(y)}
where

(B.14)
function. The
B.5,
Fig. 0,

the

last

in (B.13) integral \342\200\224 \"\302\253 f

0.

equality is now substantial in Since the integrand is only

jy-integration

is due

to

the

evenness the

of the region near

correlation
in

shown y

where

\342\200\224

important

\302\253\302\273 we

can replace the

by \342\200\224 \302\260\302\260.

upper
Then

limit

of

by

+\302\260\302\260 and the

lower

limit of

^-integration

(B.13)

becomes

/ =

e-^'f
the

df
factor
integration

e2\"''

j\"

dy (5F(0)6F(y))
that can

(B.15)

where we
integrand

have

discarded

vy

is unity now

when y =

where

the

is important.

The f 2v

be performed,
(B.16)

-2yi

fX

dy (8F(0)8F(y))

so

that

the

full

equation

(B.ll)
+

now reads

(At)) =

v02e-2\"'

-f-

(1

- e-^T

dy

(6F(0)8F(y))

(B.17)

then

If we allow the time to become we obtain an expression for

'^5

very large
the

thermal

compared to the dissipation time fluctuations of ir,

v ',

(v\\t))

\342\200\224

dy (8F(0)8F(y))

(B.I8)

However, we know from elementary thermodynamics that in thermal equilibrium, the Brownian particle will have ViT of kinetic energy per degreeof freedom (Boltzmann's constant is as usual absorbedinto the temperature T). Thus, elementary thermodynamics predicts
ViM(v2(t))

ViT

(B.I9)

272 or

Appendix

<*2('\302\273

(B.20)

20)

w<:

have 2v -L
dy

or

(8F(0)6F(y))

(B.21)

\342\200\224

M f

dy {6F(0)8F(y))

2TJ_\342\200\236

(B.22)

which

is

the fluctuation-dissipation

theorem.

fact that the dissipation of a Brownian the amazing Equation (B.22) expresses is directly related to the correlation function of the (8F(0)8F(y)) particle = (F(t)) + force the fluctuating F(t) (F) produces 8F(t) whose ensemble average is a fundamental result of physics that applies in many situations; in This dissipation. of electric circuits it is known as Nyquist's theorem. the theory This concludes our discussion of the Langevin equation and the In the next section, we shall consider related theorem. the fluctuation-dissipation topic of Markov the Fokker-Planck processes and derive equation.

B.2

MARKOV PROCESSES
previous

AND FOKKER-PLANCK EQUATION

the behavior
with

In the
derived
this

section, we show

we considered

of a Brownian

particle

and

the Langevin

equation together

how the behavior of a The Fokker-Planck equation is a very general equation. it describes not only Brownian equation in physics; but any phenomenon that particles, Markov in some sense can be of as a thought process. approximate A Markov is one whose value at the next measuring time depends only process on its value at the present measuring time, not on any previous measuring and = x(t\342\200\236), > . . . > time. Thus, if x(t) is the random process, and x\342\200\236 with > r\342\200\236-i f\342\200\236 such that density _! > t0, a Markov process has a probability
section, a Fokker-Planck . . . p(x\342\200\236|x\342\200\236_, x\342\200\236_2 x,x0)

a fluctuation-dissipation can Brownian particle

theorem. In be described by

p(x\342\200\236|x\342\200\236-,)

(B.23)

where

the notation

p(a\\b) means \"the

was; x\342\200\236_!

true.\"
what

Thus, for
the

a Markov

value

of

of a given that b was density probability = 5 the that x\342\200\236 depends only on process, probability of x\342\200\236..2, it does not depend on what the values etc. x\342\200\236_,,

were.

There
give
xn

are both discrete

process

discreteMarkov
each
=

toss a

value
of

An example and continuous Markov processes. is given by flipping a coin. A trivial comes example = = 1 4a toss of \"heads\" for and a x(.\342\200\236) x\342\200\236
Then

of a
if value

we

\342\200\224 1 for

a toss

\"tails.\"

x is

clearly a Markov
on
much x\342\200\236-,, process

= process, since p(x\342\200\236)

\342\200\224 V_8(x\342\200\236 1) +

A better

l/28(xn + 1) does not example of a discreteMarkov

depend

less

on

etc. x\342\200\236_2, X\342\200\236_3,

is given

by defining the random

variable

Markov

Processes

and Fokker-Planck

Equations

273

x(t)

Fig.

B.6

Any function

in

nature

can

be drawn

as a smooth

curve

as shown.

X(t\342\200\236)

Xn=%

(B.24)

X is where the x, are given by the coin tosses of the previous paragraph.Now a at Markov whose density clearly /\342\200\236 definitely depends process, probability very on the value oi Xn_{, but on no previous value.

EXERCISE Calculate p(Xn\\Xn.t)

To give an
continuous
random time

for

this

example.

example of
Markov

a continuous

Markov

process is more
To

difficult,

because

function scale

shown,
only

that it appears depends

process cannot exist in nature. we can draw as a smooth curve,

that

see this,

xBtl

not

is,

not x\342\200\236+)

on
written

but x\342\200\236,

as in Fig. but also on only depends on x\342\200\236, also on the derivative of the

consider any B.6. Now, on the

That *\342\200\236_,. function

dx(t)/dt\\l=l,

which

can be

dx(t)

dt

At
that is a fact, no function can be a Markov process. cannot be a good approximation

(B.25)

Thus,

this

function

is not a

continuous curve

and,

therefore

Markov process. In no physical function,

to mean that Markov processes in of Brownian the Consider the function the process. particle velocity section (Fig. B.7). We have seen that the velocity consists of a rapid previous fluctuation due to each molecular collision, togetherwith a slowing down or net friction force. Thus, on the time scale of molecular collisions, the process is not Markovian. on the much longer time of many collision times, the scale However,

This does not

a physical

Fig.

B.7

One

realization

of

the

velocity

of a Brownian

particle

in

a particular

direction.

274
situation
walk

Appendix

in velocity

is very nearly Markovian. The Brownian space, and soon forgets the details

particle

is performing

a random
\342\200\224 it

of its

orbit near /

0;

does,

0. however, remember its velocity u0 at t \342\200\224 we consider the process to have time scales (Fig. B.8): the collision three Thus, which is the autocorrelation time of the force in the Langevin time SF(t) tc, that the equation; the time At after which we may assume to good approximation time v~\\ We must have At \302\273 t,.; we process is Markovian; and the dissipation shall further assume in this section that At \302\253 \302\253/\"'. of Markov This some of the mathematical properties Let us develop processes. development will lead us to the Fokker-Planck equation. of a sequence of values of the random function Considerthe probability x(t). This is . . ,x2,x1,x0) p(x\342\200\236,*\342\200\236_!,.

that, at time t0, {probability has the value x0 and at time

the

process

x(t)

value *!, and . .

the value /, >
By the
t0

. and

at

r,, x(t) has the time has t\342\200\236, x(t)

where x\342\200\236}

> V, t\342\200\236

>

. . . t\342\200\236-2

>
(B.26)

definition

(B.23) we can write

. . . , X0) P(X\342\200\236,X\342\200\236,U

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 - , X0) p(*\342\200\236|X\342\200\236_!,*\342\200\236.;>,

. p(xM_!,x\342\200\236_2,

. . , x0)

. p(xJxK_,)p(x\342\200\236_1,x\342\200\236_2,

. , x0)
right

(B.27)
of (B.27),

The same procedure can that

now

be applied

to the last factor on the

. . . p(x\342\200\236_i\\xn.2)p(x\342\200\236-1,

so

Pfc-.A-!:
and so on
until

...
finally,

,x0) =

, x0)

(B.28)

we

have

for a Markov

process,

e(t)

Tc |\342\200\224|

Collision

time, not

Markovian

\342\226\240 1At

Many collision times, almost time

motion.

Markovian

\342\226\240 I\342\200\224\342\226\240 ' v

1 Dissipation

Fig.

B.8

Three time

scales of Brownian

Markov

Processes

and Fokker-PlanckEquations

275

. . . ,x0) p(xK,x\342\200\236-i,x\342\200\236.2,

p(xjx\342\200\236_,)p(x\342\200\236_,|x\342\200\236_2)

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 - P(x2)x,)p(xl\\x0)p(x0)

(B.29)
that

By elementary

considerations

it

must

also

be true

= . . . , x,,x\342\200\236) p(x\342\200\236>xn.|,x\342\200\236_2, Comparing

i, . . . , x1|x0)p(x\342\200\236) p{x\342\200\236,x\342\200\236

(B.30)

(B.30)

and (B.29) we

find

. . . ,x,|x\342\200\236) p(x\342\200\236,x\342\200\236-,,

\342\200\242 \342\200\242 P(*ll*o) P(*kK-i)p(*\342\200\236-|I*\342\200\236-2) \342\200\242 \342\200\224 2 to

(B.31)

In particular,

we can

choose n

obtain

Let

us

iTow integrate

- p(x2|x,)p(x,|x(l) this expression over all possible x, to obtain

p(x2,X!|x0)

(B.32)

p(*2l*o) =

dx,

p(x2,x,|x0)

(B.33)

PU2K)
which
assume

dx\\

p(.x2\\x])p(xl\\x0)

(B.34)

is the Chapman-Kolmogorov equation, or we identify time t and x2 as x{ with Suppose

that

Smoluchowsky

equation

[8],
further

x(;

Af). Suppose we
xu)

p(x0)
Then

= p(x,t

8(x /\342\200\236)

(B.35)

we can

drop

the

references

to x0 in =

(B.34), and + At)

write

p(x2|x0)
that

p{x,t

(B.36)

is,

x2 is now

denoted

by

x,

and

p(*]|*o)
We

P(x\342\200\2360

(B.37)
definition

can also

change

the

notation

of p(x2|x!);
Ax

with the

- x,
At\\x

(B.38)
-

we

can

write

p(x2|x,)

= p(x,/

+
+

Ax,t)

where

i/r(Ax,/

At\\x
a

jump

Ax,t) tp

(B.39) gives

the transition probability i/r is defined at time t + At, the random process has Ax at time ;. value x \342\200\224
With

by (B.39);

the probability

that

made

of

dx from

its

previous

these

notational =

changes,

we can rewrite

(B.34) as
-

p(x,t +

At)

J d(Ax)ij/(Ax,t

At\\x

Ax,t)p(x

- Axj)

(B.40)

276

Appendix

B
\342\200\224

The value x appears on the right of (B.40) only if we assume that all of the important physics

in

the

combination

Ax.

Thus,

make a

Taylor seriesexpansion

happensfor small Ax,

then

we

can

on

the =

right of (B.40), obtaining t

p(x,t +
X

At)

\\d(\302\243Lx)

^=^-

(J A> ^-7-7

(/'(Ax,/

A/|x

\342\200\224

Ax,/)p(x

Ax,/)

j J X i\\X\342\200\224\342\200\224X

or

d(Ax)

\342\200\224T1

T-7

|>(Ax,/

+ A/|x,/)p(x,0]

(B.41)
summation

If the
integration,

infinite then

sum

converges,

and if we can

interchange the

and

we can

write

[p(x,/)

fi/(Ax)(Ax)V(Ax,/

A/|x,/)]
or

(B.42)
ensemble

The quantity
average

given

by the

Ax integration is just the

=

expectation value +
At\\x,t)

of (Ax)',
<(Ax)'>

[ d(Ax)(Ax)'ilH.Ax,t
through </r.

(B.43)

which

is itself a function

of x,t
A/)

Equation

(B.42)

becomes

p(x,/
Moving

\302\243

-^r-

-\302\2437

[p(x,/)<(Ax)')(x,r))

(B.44)

the I

\342\200\224 0 term

to the

left

side,

and

dividing

by At, we

have

We much

next

take
smaller

the limit as
than

At

->

\"0\". This

means

that

we

let A'

become very small,

At

this really go to zero, because justify

any macroscopic
development

time scale (e.g., y_1).

has assumed
left

However,
At

cannot

that

is large

enough

to

the

Markovian

assumption.

Thus, the
At) \342\200\224

side

of (B.45)

becomes
(B.46)

lim

p(x,/ +
refers

p(x,t)

dpjxj)
dt

A/--0\"

At
to macroscopic

where the

time

derivative

time. Equation (B.45)becomes

Markov

Processes

and Fokker-Planck

Equations

277

IT
Defining

(-0'
\302\247

Um

Lf

p(x,0j

(B.47)

the

diffusion

coefficients

D*'\\x,t) =
Equation

<(Axy>
li Af\342\200\224\"0\"

/!A*

(B.48)

(B.47) is

^
If we keep
only

= 2 c-iy
two terms

\302\243

wmm
of (B.49),

(B.49)
we have

the

first

on

the

right

dp(x,t) dt
which

-^
the

[Z)\"'(x./)p(x,/)]

^7

[D^(x,t)p(xj)]

(B.50)

is the

well-known
motion, as

Fokker-Planck

equation [9].
the

For Brownian
and Z)(2,W).

v(l). We shall leave it

random variable x is replaced by an exercise to determine the diffusion

particle

velocity
Dil)(v,t)

coefficients

EXERCISE Use the results of the previous section to evaluate the coefficients \342\200\224 \342\200\224 for Show Brownian motion. that vv, andZ)I2)(u,/) Eq. (B.50) D{,\\v,t) with so that the Fokker-Planck equation associated the Langevin vT/M,
equation

in
\342\200\224

of

Brownian

motion

is
{vp) +

dp(v,t)
dt

a7

1T1?P
to show

(B.51)
thatZ)(1,(u,/)
At

EXERCISE

Use
vanishes

the

results
as

of

the

previous

section

and, thus,
in

A/

\342\200\224

\"0\".

We can now understand why of a Fokker-Planck the form

we

are

able to write the

Lenard-Balescu equation

equation,
\342\200\242 Vv,

a/(y,,0
dt

(A/)

VV|

Vv,:

(B/)

(B.52)

\302\253 f,(l)fi(2), Because the derivation of Lenard-Balescu assumed we have ^(1,2) collisions. The effectively limited ourselvesto small angle two-body quantity/(v, ,0 be thought of as the probability density of particlesin velocity Thus, may space. f(Vi,t) is changing slowly on the time scale for a two-body collision. All of these features are precisely those assumed of the Fokker-Planck in the derivation equation. It should come as no surprise to us that the Lenard-Balescu can be equation in the form of the Fokker-Planck written A in (B.52) is equation. The coefficient called the coefficient of dynamic and plays the same role as vv in the friction, the Fokker-Planck equation (B.51) for Brownian motion. It represents slowing

278

Appendix B

down of a
coefficient

particle due
B in

to

many

small

angle

Coulomb
plasma

vT/M

in

(B.51).

(B.52) is called the diffusion It represents the diffusion

coefficient, of the

and

collisions. Likewise, the plays the same role as

in

small angle collisions. In the steady state, a typical particle is suffering friction dynamic plus diffusion; the net effect is to producea Maxwellian. This is just as true in a plasma as it is for a Brownian particle. In addition to the stated include the book references, sources for this appendix Stratonovich and the and excellent article Chandrasekhar by ageless by [11]. [10]
due to many

particles

velocity

space

REFERENCES

[1] R. Brown, Phil. Mag.,4,

161 (1928).

[2]
[4]

R.

Brown,

Ann.

Phys.
C.

[3] M. P. Langevin,
A.
A.

R.

Chem., 14, 294 (1928). Acad. Set. Paris, 146, 530 (1908).

Einstein,
Einstein,

Ann. Phys.,
Ann.

[5]

Phys.,
Phys.,

17, 549 (1905). 19, 289 (1906).

19,

[6] A. Einstein, Ann. [7] D. K. C. MacDonald, York, 1962.

371 (1906).
and

Noise

Fluctuations:

An Introduction,

Wiley, New

[8] M. von Smoluchowsky, Nature, [9] Lord Rayleigh, R. L. Stratonovich, [10]

Breach,

Ann.

Phys.,

21, 756

(1906). Noise, Gordon and

72, 318
Topics

(1905). Theory of Random 15, 1 (1943).

in the

New

York,

1963, Vol.
Rev.

1.

[11] S. Chandrasekhar,

Mod.

Phys.,

APPENDIX

Pedestrian's

Guide

to

Complex

Variables

book make use of the basic results of the theory of complex in have not yet studied this variables the benefit of readers who subject [1,2]. or who to have these basic have studied it long enough ago detail, forgotten it, results are summarized here. that the integral in a which states The most useful result is the residue theorem, is the sum of the a 27r/ times direction around closed curve counterclockwise ~ If the residue at the simple the is of form the residues. integrand i())\"\\ f(z)(z = z consider For the integral pole z0 is/(z(l). example,
Many

parts

of this

For

** at

-^-J

(CI)
can

where the integration is along the closed by a large semicircle at infinity,

real

z-axis,
since

and a > 0. The integration from the the contribution

be

semicircle is

-~
The

lim

(nR/R2)

Iim

(n/R)

= 0
lower-half

semicircle

can
Writing

occur
(C.l)

in either the
as

upper-half z-plane or the

z-plane

(Fig.

C.l).

(z +

ia)(z the the

dz

(C2)
ia)

we close the contour downward, changing the clockwise direction, to obtain (only

sign

pole

on the result because ia is enclosed) at z = \342\200\224

\342\200\224

this

is in

/ =

(-2th) -^~

la

z=-ia

(C.3)

280

Appendix

1 xia

\\
\\

\\

\\ \\
\\ *\342\226\240*, 1\342\200\224\302\273-

/
ia < >\342\200\224

Fig.

C.l

Integration

contour

in

the

z-plane.

EXERCISE The solution

Fourier

Obtain the same result

by

closing

upward.

of many
in

ordinary

and 5, are

partial

differential equations is facilitatedby

transform

and

Laplace

transformation.
Chapter

The Fourier
for functions

conventions dimension

used x,

in

this book,

stated

of one spatial

/<*)

f \342\204\242 dx
/

-^/(x)

exp (-/Ax)

(C.4)

with inverse

transform

f{x) = J\"
The x and k integrations
conventionsfor

dk

f(k)

exp

(ikx)

(C.5)

are

along
t

the real

axes. The

Laplacetransform
(C.6)

functions

of time

are

/{w)

[\"

dt

f(t)

txp

(itut)

with

inverse transform

/c) = f
where

dw

f (to)

exp (-icot)
complex

(C.7)

co-plane that must can be considered (C.6) pass = /(/) for / > 0 and of the function/(/) as the Fourier transform such that/(/) transform Laplace (C.7) can be /(/) = 0 for / < 0. Then for / < 0 the inverse
the

Laplace

above

contour all singularities

horizontal line in the transform of/(aj). The Laplace

L is a
~

closed upward

[since

exp

(\342\200\224iwt)

exp
contour

(\342\200\224|/|w,)

\342\200\224 0 for

oj,

\342\200\224

+00],

yielding

/(/)

= Ofor/

< 0 sincethe
solution

Laplace

Considerthe

passes above all singularities

of/(&)).

of the

differential

equation

df -

(C.8)

Pedestrian's

Guide

to Complex

Variables

281

with/(r

0) =

f0. The Laplacetransform

dt

of

the

left side is
i\302\273

df(t)
exp

\342\226\240'n -^\342\200\224

(/o)/)

/(/)

exp (ia)/)|o
(i<nt)\\~

/<u f

tfr

/(/)

exp

(j'\302\253uO

/(/)

exp
say

ia>f(w)

(C.9)

\342\226\240'o

Without
w)

knowing enough,
remains

large

the function/(f)> we can only for only then is/(f) exp (/<wf)li=to

that

this integral is
to zero.

defined for

equal aiit

enough

be seen.

For large

enough

Eq.

How large is large (C.8) has the Laplace

(CIO)

transform
so that

/(/ = 0) =

/o)/(o))

af{a,)

if(t

= 0)

/(\302\253>)

la
if{i

(CM)

The inverse transform

is

fit)
where the contour
must

_ f
be

dw w

= 0)

la
high

exp (\342\200\224iwt)
in

(C.12) so that/(to)

placed

defined (the shaded region in Fig, C.2). Once the contour is drawn in the shaded region of Fig. C.2, it can be moved around only if/(aj) is analytically continuedto of the complex w-plane.An analytic the remainder function is one that is differentiable (the derivative in the complex z at the does not on which plane point depend direction the point is approached from). of The continuation a simple analytic function like/(to) in (C. II) from the shaded region in Fig. C.2 [the only region where (CIO) is defined] to the entire w-plane is easy;it is just the function
/(\302\253)

enough

the

<u-plane

is

'/('

= 0)

ia

(C.13)

\342\231\246 ur

Fig.

C.2

Inverse Laplace contour

must

be drawn

initially

high

in the <u-plane.

282
itself.
<o

Appendix

ia.

This function is now analytic in The contour in (C.12) can now

defined

the

entire

w-plane
a

be closed
everywhere.
=

lower-half <u-plane, since/(to) is fit)

except at the point semicircle in the by large The result is

= =

-^-fd
f(t

O)exp(af)

= O)exp(af)

(C.I4)

which oj/

is the

desired
why

>

a. This is
f(<u)

result. In retrospect, we can now see that (C.9) converges for the inverse Laplace contour must be drawn above all

singularities of Analytic

ia the
continuation

to-plane.
is not

always quite

as simple as in
dx

{C.

13). Consider

m
defined

(x2

a2)(x

- z)

(C.J5)
real x-axis.Closing the

for

contour

z( > 0 with either up or

a > 0; the integration down (Fig. C.3), we find

is along the

/(z)

\342\200\224

TVTa

(C.16) continuation

for
for

Zj

>

0. We
(C.15)

cannot use (C.15)as the

yields
\302\253z)

analytic

of/(z)

for z, <

0,

then

1
T\"

2m

, + h,

z2 +

(C17)
a2

and (C.17) is discontinuous at by (C.16) z, < 0. The function/(z) defined = so is not to one 0 and order continue In (C.15), z, analytic. properly analytically in (C.17) that leads to the discontinuity, and write must subtract the extra term
for

dx
/(*)

2-rri

=/\"

(x2

a2)(x

- z)

z1 +

a2

(C.18)

<>-(fl

Fig.

C.3

Evaluation of/(z) for z,

>

in (C.15).

Pedestrian's
Xj

Guide to ComplexVariables

283

urn

II II II

A.

Fig. C.4 (C.I5).

Integration

contour

Tor z,

< 0

that

gives

the proper

analytic

continuation

of

for z, < 0. The combination analytic function everywhere one can deform the contour
/(Z)

(C.15)

except
in

(C

for z, > 0 and (C.18)for z, < 0 is now an \342\200\224 /#. Alternatively, at the pole of (C.I C.4 for z, < 0, and write 15) as shown in Fig.

6),z =

),,
Fig.

(x2 + for z,

al)(x ){x -

z)
along z, <

(C19)
the real 0.

The

contour

z, >

0. This

is as shown the same gives

C

in

< 0, and is result as the form (C.18) for

C.4
is

x-axis for

A useful formula for

Fourier transformation
I
dx f\302\260\302\260 -z\342\200\224 exp

(-ikx)

= 6{k)

(C.20)
an

This formula
function/^)

can and

be demonstrated

integrating

by multiplying side over all k. The right

each side by
yields

arbitrary
while

f(k

= 0),

the

left

side is
= [' dkf(k)C 4r exp(-i*x)

f\"

~
/\"\"

dk/(k)exp(-ikx)

dx -i:

/<*)

= /(* = 0)
where

(C.21)

it has

been assumed

that

the

order
the

right

and

left sides

of (C.20) yield

Sincethe of integrations can be reversed. be same result, the identification (C.20)must

of

correct.

Another

useful formula

concerns integrals
= lim
7,-0

the

form

r
J\302\253

dx

\302\261 i\\-n\\

(C.22)

284

Appendix C

\342\200\242-\342\200\224\342\226\240

Fig.

C.5

Integration

contour

leading

to

the Plemelj

formulas.
the pole the

where the integral is along the real x-axis, and a > 0. For the lower is at x = a + i\\n), and the integral can be performed by slightly contour as shown in Fig. C.5. This leads to
1 dx
-'\302\243

sign,

deforming

\342\200\224

ni

(C.23)
where

where

the semicircle

in

Fig.

C.5

contributes

half of

2ni, and

Pf
Formally,

= lim

f J\"'\"\"'

+f

(C.24)

one

writes

lim
rr~0

'

\342\200\224TT i\\rj\\

I\342\200\224\342\200\224) \302\253'\302\253(*fl)

\\x

a }

(C.25)

which

when

integrated
integration

over x
than

yields (C.23). For the

from
downward,

approaches the
deformed
contribution

contour

upward
changes.

rather
The

sign in (C.22), the pole upper be below, the integration contour must and the sign of the imaginary

general

formula is
= p

finally

lim

- a \302\261 -\342\200\224~m
t\\n\\

^ \"\342\226\240'tf* (\342\200\224\342\226\240\342\200\224) \\x

- a

\"

fl)

(C.26)
book.

Other

properties

of complex

variables are

explored throughout

the

REFERENCES

[1]
[2]

I. S. Sokolnikoff and R. M. Redheffer, Mathematics of Physics and Modern New 1966. York, Engineering, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, G. Arfken, MathematicalMethods New 1970. York, Academic, for Physicists,

APPENDIX

D
and

Vector

Tensor

Identities

The

following

vector

and tensor
X

identities are useful

B)
\342\200\242 =

in the

study

of plasma
X

physics

\342\200\242 x

(B

C) =
=

(A

\342\200\242 X

(C

A) =
B

(B

C)

\342\200\242

C
(B

\342\200\242 X

(A

B) =

(C
C)B

A)

\342\200\242 \342\200\242

(D.l) (D.2)
C)

A (A
X

X C)

= (A

\342\200\242

(A
-

B)C

B)

\342\226\240 X

(C

\342\200\242 D) = (A C)(B V(fg) = fVg +

\342\226\240

D)

(A

\342\200\242 \342\200\242

D)(B

(D.3)

gVf
A
\342\200\242

(D.4)
V/

= V \342\200\242 (fk)

/V

\342\200\242 A + X

(D.5)

V
V V

(/A)

=/V
(V

X A +\342\226\240 Vf

(D.6)
B)

\342\200\242 X

(A

B) = B
A(V

\342\200\242 X

A)
A)

\342\200\242 X

(V

(D.7) (A
\342\200\242

X B)

(A

X B) A
X

=
(V

\342\200\242

B)

B(V
X

\342\200\242 +

(B

\342\200\242

V)A

V)B

(D.8) (D.9)

V(A

\342\200\242 =

X B)
V(V

+ B
A)

(V

X A)

+ (A
X A)

\342\200\242 +

V)B

(B

\342\200\242

V)A

V2A =

\342\200\242

(V

(D.10)

V V V \342\200\242

V/ = 0 \342\200\242 X A) = 0 (V
X
\342\200\242 +

(D.ll) (D.12)
\342\200\242

(B

A)

= A(V
=

B)

(B

V)A

(D.13) (D.14)

V REFERENCE

\342\200\242 (/\302\245)

(V/)

\342\200\242 T

+/V

\342\200\242 T

[1]

D. L.

Book,Plasma

Formulary,

Naval

Research

Laboratory,

D.C., 1980.

Washington,