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What is an Image ?
An IMAGE is a Pictorial Representation of an object or a scene. Forms of Images
v v Analog Digital
Analog Images
v Produced by photographic sensors on paper based media or transparent media v Variations in scene characteristics are represented as variations in brightness ( gray shades) v Objects reflecting more energy appear brighter on the image and objects reflecting less energy appear darker.
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Analog Images
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rows (y)
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columns (x)
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Multispectral Imagery
Enhanced Features with Color Broad Area Coverage Tens of Color / IR Bands Allows Discrimination of difference in Brightness
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Each of these formats is usually preceded on the by "header" and/or "trailer" information, which consists of ancillary data about the date, altitude of the sensor, attitude, sun angle, and so on. Such information is useful when geometrically or radiometrically correcting the data.
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Advantages / Disadvantages
v BSQ
if one wanted the area in the center of a scene in four bands, it would be necessary to read into this location in four separate files to extract the desired information. Many researchers like this format because it is not necessary to read "serially" past unwanted information if certain bands are of no value
v BIL/BIP
It is a useful format if all the bands are to be used in the analysis. If some bands are not of interest, the format is inefficient since it is necessary to read serially past all the unwanted data.
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GeoTiff
"The GeoTIFF spec defines a set of TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) tags provided to describe all Cartographic information associated with TIFF imagery that originates from satellite imaging systems, scanned aerial photography, scanned maps, digital elevation models, or as a result of geographic analysis" (Ritter and Ruth 1999).
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Digital image processing can be defined as the computer manipulation of digital values contained in an image for the purposes of image correction, image enhancement and feature extraction. A digital image processing system consists of computer Hardware and Image processing software necessary to analyze digital image data. Image Processing system
Hardware
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Software
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vInformation Extraction {Utilizes the decision making capability of computers to recognize and classify pixels on the basis of their signatures, Hyperspectral image analysis } vOthers
{Photogrammetric Information Extraction , Metadata and Image/Map Lineage Documentation , Image and Map Cartographic Composition, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Integrated Image Processing and GIS , Utilities}
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Image Preprocessing
Remote sensing systems do not function perfectly. Also, the Earths atmosphere, land, and water are complex and do not lend themselves well to being recorded by remote sensing devices that have constraints such as spatial, spectral, temporal, and radiometric resolution. Consequently, error creeps into the data acquisition process and can degrade the quality of the remote sensor data collected. The two most common types of error encountered in remotely sensed data are radiometric and geometric .
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Image Preprocessing
v Radiometric and geometric correction of remotely sensed data are normally referred to as preprocessing operations because they are performed prior to information extraction. v Image preprocessing hopefully produces a corrected image that is as close as possible, both radiometrically and geometrically, to the true radiant energy and spatial characteristics of the study area at the time of data collection. v Correct distorted or degraded image data to create a more faithful representation of the original scene (usually preprocessing operations) v Radiometric errors affect the Digital Number (DN) stored in an image v Geometric errors change the position of a DN value
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Radiometric errors
Several of the more common remote sensing systeminduced radiometric errors are:
Periodic line or column drop-outs, line or column striping. random bad pixels (shot noise), partial line or column drop-outs
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Line Dropouts
l l l
Possible cause: failure of a detector bad transmission storage defect processing defect
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l l l
Replacement (line above, below) Average line above and below Replacement based on correlation between bands
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V =V
i, j
i, j - 1
V =V
i, j
i, j + 1
i, j + 1
V =
i, j
(V
+V
2
i, j 1
V = radiometric value (DN) i,j = column, line indicator Replacing the line with other highly correlated band
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Striping
Digital Image Processing
De-striped
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Haze
Scattered light reaching the sensor from the atmosphere Additive effect, reducing CONTRAST Correction Single band minimum (subtract minimum DN or minimum-1 or minimum-2) Dark object subtraction method Dark object subtraction method Assumption: infrared bands are not affected by Haze Identify black bodies: clear water and shadow zones with zero reflectance in the infrared bands Identify DN values at shorter wavelength bands of the same pixel positions. These DN are entirely due to haze Subtract the minimum of the DN values related to black bodies of a particular band from all the pixel values of that band
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Atmospheric Haze
without haze
with haze
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Geometric Correction
The transformation of remotely sensed images so that it has a scale and projections of a map is called geometric correction. A related technique, called registration, is the fitting of the coordinate system of an image to that of second image of the same area.
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Geometric Errors
These errors can be divided into two classes (a) those that can be corrected using data from platform ephemeris and knowledge of internal sensor distortion (b) those that cant be corrected with acceptable accuracy without a sufficient number of ground control points (GCP).
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Dashed line indicate shape of distorted image Solid line indicates restored image
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Rectification
is a process of geometrically correcting an image so that it can be represented on a planar surface , conform to other images or conform to a map. i.e it is the process by which geometry of an image is made planimetric. It is necessary when accurate area , distance and direction measurements are required to be made from the imagery.
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Rectification
It is achieved by transforming the data from one grid system into another grid system using a geometric transformation In other words process of establishing mathematical relationship between the addresses of pixels in an image with corresponding coordinates of those pixels on another image or map or ground.
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Difference in Geometry
Shift Scale Rotation and Skew
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Mathematical Transformations
Linear Transformations/ Affine transformation/ first order transformation X = a0 + a1x + a2 y Y = b0 + b1 x + b2 y where X , Y are the Rectified coordinates (output) x,y are the source coordinates (input) A first order transformation can change
Location in x and/or y Scale in x and/or y Skew in x and/or y Rotation
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Polynomial transformation
If the coefficients a0 ,a1,a2, b0, b1 and b2 are known then, the above polynomial can be used to relate and point on map to its corresponding point on image and vice versa. Hence six coefficients are required for this transformation (three for X and three for Y). Requires Minimum THREE GCPs for solving the above equation. However before applying rectification to the entire set of the data, it is important to determine how well the six coefficients derived from the least square regression of the initial GCPs account for the geometric distortion in the input image.
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Accuracy of transformation
In this method, we check how good do selected points fit between the map and the Image? To solve linear polynomials we first take three GCPs to compute the six coefficients. Its source coordinates in the original input image are say xi and yi. The position of the same points in reference map in degrees, feet or meters are say x,y
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Accuracy of transformation
Now, if we input the map x,y values for the first GCP back into the linear polynomial equation with all the coefficients in the place, we would get the computed or retransformed x r and yr values , which are supposed to be location of this point in input image. Ideally measured and computed values should be equal. In reality this does not happen. There is discrepancy between the measured and computed coordinates i.e we have to check the accuracy of transformation
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RMS ERROR
Where xi and yi are the input source coordinates and xr and yr are the retransformed coordinates
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RMS ERROR
RMS error is expressed as distance in the source coordinate system. It is the distance in pixel widths An RMS error of 2 means that the reference pixel is 2 pixels away from the retransformed pixel.
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Acceptable RMS
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Where: Rx = X RMS error Ry = Y RMS error T= total RMS error n= the number of GCPs i= GCP number XRi= the X residual for GCP i YRi= the Y residual for GCP i
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Normally an RMS error of less than 1 per GCP and a total RMS error of less than half a pixel (0.5) is acceptable
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Grid Transformation
At the end of this step we have established the mathematical relationship between the coordinates of pixel and map coordinates or in other words we have fitted an empty grid over our reference map
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Intensity Interpolation
Pixel brightness values must be determined. Unfortunately, there is no direct one-to-one relationship between the movement of input pixel values to output pixel locations. It will be shown that a pixel in the rectified output image often requires a value from the input pixel grid that does not fall neatly on a row-andcolumn coordinate. When this occurs, there must be some mechanism for determining the brightness value (BV ) to be assigned to the output rectified pixel. This process is called intensity interpolation.
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Once an image is warped, how do you assign DNs to the new pixels? Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches the grid for the reference image, the pixels are resampled so that new data file values for the output file can be calculated. This process involves the extraction of a brightness value from a location in the input image and its reallocation in the appropriate coordinate location in the rectified output image. Types
Input Driven Output Driven
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Resampling Techniques
Input Driven
Output Driven
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Resampling Techniques
vThis results in input line and columns numbers as real numbers ( and not integers) vWhen this occurs, methods of assigning Brightness values are
vNearest Neighbour vBilinear vCubic
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The nearest neighbor approach uses the value of the closest input pixel for the output pixel value. The pixel value occupying the closest image file coordinate to the estimated coordinate will be used for the output pixel value in the georeferenced image.
Nearest Neighbor
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Nearest Neighbor
ADVANTAGES: Output values are the original input values. Other methods of resampling tend to average surrounding values. This may be an important consideration when discriminating between vegetation types or locating boundaries. Since original data are retained, this method is recommended before classification. Easy to compute and therefore fastest to use. DISADVANTAGES: Produces a choppy, "stair-stepped" effect. The image has a rough appearance relative to the original unrectified data. Data values may be lost, while other values may be duplicated.
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Bilinear
T he bilinear interpolation approach uses the weighted average of the nearest four pixels to the output pixel.
BVwt =
D D
k =1 k =1 4
Zk
2 k
1
2 k
where Zk are the surrounding four data point values, and D2k are the distances squared from the point in question (x, y) to the these data points.
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Bilinear
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Bilinear
ADVANTAGES:
Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth.
DISADVANTAGES:
Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computationally more extensive than nearest neighbor.
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Cubic Convolution
The cubic convolution approach uses the weighted average of the nearest sixteen pixels to the output pixel. The output is similar to bilinear interpolation, but the smoothing effect caused by the averaging of surrounding input pixel values is more dramatic.
BVwt =
D D
k =1 k =1 16
16
Zk
2 k
1
2 k
where Zk are the surrounding four data point values, and D2k are the distances squared from the point in question ( x, y) to the these data points.
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Cubic Convolution
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Cubic Convolution
ADVANTAGES:
Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth.
DISADVANTAGES:
Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computationally more expensive than nearest neighbor or bilinear interpolation.
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Nearest Neighbour Bilinear Interpolation Cubic Convolution
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Thank You
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