Compressor Magazine March 2014

COMPRESSOR
CONTROLS REcIP MODELING RUB PROBLEmS MARCH 2014
REAL-TIME SOLVING IMPELLER
GE Buying
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Whats Yours Is Yours, Whats Mine Is Yours
A lot of flack seems to be appearing in the mainstream media of late having to do with redistribution of wealth. In my favor, you have to be wealthy in order to be subjected to this seemingly appealing exercise of justice to lift up the poor among us. In the process, someone or some bureaucracy determines if you have too much or too little. Always, someone who likes to dispose of other peoples money makes these decisions. Fortunately, at my level of wealth, I wont have to deal with this ideology. My belief is that it is our right to be wealthy if we so desire to be to keep the fruits of our labor. The poor arent poor because Bill Gates and Warren Buffett are rich. Im not sure of the source of this quote, but, Ill give credit to Kathleen Parker, an opinion writer for The Washington Post. We adore the rich and famous, pure and simple, and in the end, despite our envy, we grant them their due. History does not reveal any success with the attempt at wealth distribution. On the contrary, the poor remain poor and the wealthy either are lowered to poverty or relocate. But, how should we view being rich from a moral perspective? We have been warned that riches are dangerous, dangerous to the soul and dangerous to society. So what should be our attitude towards having wealth, both as it pertains to the very rich and as it pertains to us? First, we must never idealize poverty and see wealth as a bad thing in itself. Then, we must avoid politicizing both poverty and wealth. Our lens must always be moral rather than
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political, though wealth and poverty have huge political implications. The position of wealth is not a bad thing of itself; it is how we use it and what it can do to us as authentic human persons that can be bad. There is a huge cavern that separates generosity from miserliness. Generally speaking, it is the rich that provide the engine for economic growth through their investments and risk taking. It is through their efforts that society in general progresses and is the best hope for lifting up the bottom rung of society. The poor will always be with us and they should be the target of our generosity regardless of our level of wealth. Bill Gates Sr. puts it, Society has an enormous claim upon the fortunes of the wealthy. This is rooted not only in most religious traditions, but also in an honest accounting of societys substantial investment in creating fertile ground for wealth-creation. Government is limited, in my opinion, in solving the problem of poverty. It is very inefficient, it doesnt manage its vast economic power very well and try and try as it does from time to time, it always fails in its effort to eliminate poverty. On the contrary, depending upon the power of the decision-makers, the wealth-distribution ideology often morphs into despotism if the perpetrators arent thrown out of office. History reveals some prime examples of where to gain compliance, a major portion of the population had to be eliminated. May the Lord hold you in the hollow of His hand throughout the rest of 2014. CT2
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March 2014
COMPRESSOR
Featured Articles
16 GE Acquiring Camerons Recip Division 18 Murphy, EControls Assimilation Pays Dividends 26 Motortech Adds High-End Ignition Controllers 28 Dresser-Rand Makes Major Move Into Gas Liquefaction 32 Custom Packager Strikes Gold In The Marcellus Shale
Cover Designed By Alyssa Loope
Dedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications
22 The Importance Of Motor Dynamics In Reciprocating Compressor Drives
42 Flowmeter Can Be Sized For Any Engine 62 Recip Compressor Performance, Safety Predictions For Control Panels
COMPRESSORtech2 (ISSN 1085-2468) Volume 19, No. 2 Published 10 issues/year (January-February, March, April, May, June, July, August-September, October, November, December) by Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications, 20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, WI 531861873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals postage paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 and at additional mailing offices. Copyright 2014 Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications. All Rights Reserved. Materials protected by U.S. and international copyright laws and treaties. Unauthorized duplication and publication is expressly prohibited.
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TECHcorner
36 Motor Dynamic Influence On Torsional Vibration Analysis 46 Friction-Surface Coatings In Dry-Running Recips 58 Solving Compressor Impeller Rub Problems During Mechanical Run Tests 76 Case Study: Intake/Exhaust Silencer Redesign Mitigates Noise
Departments
4 Page 4 Whats Yours Is Yours, Whats Mine Is Yours 8 Global Perspective EOR Could Revitalize Middle Eastern Oil Industry
10 Meetings & Events 12 About The Business Frigid Winter Challenges U.S. Gas Industry 14 Monitoring Government U.S. LNG Exports Remain On The Back Burner 56 Featured Products 73 Recent Orders
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73 Web Headlines 74 Prime Movers 84 Scheduled Downtime 85 Marketplace 86 Advertisers Index 88 Cornerstones Of Compression The Heart Of The High-Speed Recip
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D A L L A S H O U S T O N L O S A N G E L E S O K L A H O M A C I T Y
Global Perspective
BY Roberto Chellini Associate Publisher
EOR Could Revitalize Middle Eastern Oil Industry > Qatar Pushes Ambitious Program
As a result of reduced oil and gas activity, Business Monitor International (BMI) expects Qatars hydrocarbon sector to stagnate and its contribution to the nations economy to continue to decline. Despite the slowing investment in Qatars upstream, the country still has plenty to offer. French major Total remains upbeat about prospects offshore Qatar and this year will conduct exploratory drilling with partner China National Offshore Oil Corp. on Block BC. An exploration and production sharing agreement signed with the Qatari government requires at least three exploration wells to be drilled this year. The first is due to spud soon, with results expected to be available before the end of the year. Totals efforts could therefore bring welcome upside potential to the countrys reserves and production outlook. Perhaps of greater importance is Qatars drive to move its oil and gas sector to the forefront of technology. In particular, as Qatars oilfields begin maturing, the nation is placing substantial focus on maximizing production from existing fields and exploring EOR opportunities. Both tactics could make a major contribution to increasing reserves and sustaining production over a longer period. Redevelopment efforts are already underway. Qatar Petroleum is budgeting US$13 billion to maximize production from Bul Hanine oilfield. While the project is only expected to add 50,000 bbl/d of output, it will extend production life by 25 years. Increased output is due in 2018. Meanwhile, Occidental Petroleum is working on a sixyear project to redevelop the Idd El Shargi field after signing an agreement with Qatar Petroleum in mid-2013. The US$3 billion project will add 200 production and injection wells. While the development is not expected to increase production, it should sustain oil production at around 100,000 bbl/d and extend field life. Total is also involved in Qatars production optimization drive. The company secured a 25-year extension to its license at Al Khalij field effective in January 2014. No redevelopment plans have been announced, but the terms of the new agreement require Total to take additional steps to maximize oil output. Because of these efforts, BMI expects Qatari oil production (including NGLs and other liquids) will be sustained above 1.7 million bbl/d over the next 10 years. CT2 8 COmPrESSOrtech2
dvanced enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has not been widely applied in the Middle East due to continuing strong levels of production and the additional costs of installing of high-pressure compressors, pumps and other equipment. EOR injects associated gas, water, carbon dioxide, steam, etc., underground in order to maintain pressure in the formation and/or fluidize the heavy hydrocarbons to enable their flow toward the production wells. Not only can this increase the rate of production, but it also can extend the commercial life of the oilfield. In some oil-rich nations, the high price of crude and steep depletion rates at giant, mature oilfields have pushed national oil companies to reconsider their investment plans. Oman has somewhat taken a lead in EOR in the region and the United Arab Emirates has implemented a project. Qatar is moving forward aggressively. In mid-January, Maersk Oil opened a digital core laboratory in Doha. The facility will put particular focus on researching EOR in carbonate formations and the marine environment. This should develop better technologies for reservoirs like Maersks Al Shaheen oilfield on offshore Block 5, which is one of the most complex carbonate structures in the world. The Middle East is the worlds largest carbonate oil-producing region. Historically, EOR technologies have been applied to sandstone formations, where they have largely been successful due to the relatively standard porosity throughout the geology. However, it has been challenging to apply the same techniques to carbonate reservoirs as they are generally more naturally fractured than sandstone. Fractures in a formation act as conduits to injected water, polymers or steam, often bypassing the target oil zone and reducing the efficiency of the EOR sweep. This research into subsurface chemistry and fluid flow relationships in carbonate structures will be essential to sustaining Qatars longer term oil output. Qatars hydrocarbon industry is heavily centered on the resources in the largest single deposit of gas in the world, the North Field. However, since 2005, the government has maintained a moratorium on new developments pending a study on field optimization and the geological impact of gas extraction. The final sanctioned project, the Barzan Gas Project, is due to come on stream in two phases this year and in 2015.
MARCH 2014
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Its all in the name.
Cooper-Bessemer is a registered trade name of Cameron Corporation, used under license by Rolls-Royce plc
A proud past leads to a new future. There may be a proud old name on the outside, but the driving force within the worlds best-engineered, most efficient, pipeline gas compressors is Rolls-Royce. The heritage name, Cooper-Bessemer, still carried by older machines, echoes the engineering excellence that has earned Rolls-Royce an unparalleled reputation for quality. Today, in a business where productivity and dependability mean so much, the unsurpassed engineering experience of the past makes Rolls-Royce the compressor name of the future.
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Meetings & Events

*Indicates shows and conferences in which COMPRESSORtech2 is participating
2/17/14 9:18 AM
MARCH
March 19-21 *China International Offshore Oil & Gas Exhibition Beijing Tel: +86 10 5823 6555 Web: www.ciooe.com.cn/2014/en March 23-27 Sour Oil & Gas Advanced Technology 2014 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Tel: +971 2 674 4040 Web: www.sogat.org March 24-25 *Gas Transport & Storage 2014 Berlin Tel: +44 20 7202 7690 Web: www.gtsevent.com March 24-27 *Gastech Seoul, Korea
Tel: +44 203 615 2872 Web: www.gastechkorea.com March 26-27 Georgian International Oil, Gas, Energy and Infrastructure Conference Tbilisi, Georgia Tel: +44 207 596 5135 Web: www.giogie.com
April 13-16 *Gas Processors Association Annual Convention Dallas Tel: +1 (918) 493-3872 Web: www.gpaglobal.org April 15-16 *Gas Compressor Institute Liberal, Kansas Tel: +1 (620) 417-1171 Web: www.gascompressor.info April 28-30 Black Sea Oil and Gas Forum Bucharest, Romania Tel: +44 203 615 2988 Web: www.blackseaoilgas.com
aPriL
April 7-9 *Gas Compressor Association Expo & Conference Galveston, Texas Tel: +1 (972) 518-0019 Web: www.gascompressor.org April 9-10 Turkish International Oil and Gas Conference 2014 Ankara, Turkey Tel: +44 207 596 5147 Web: www.turoge.com
April 28-May 2 *Gulf South Rotating Machinery Symposium Baton Rouge, Louisiana
For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com
MARCH 2014
10
COmPRESSORtech2
Are you satised with the effectiveness of your compressor packings? Are you happy with leaking gas? Are you satised with the durability of your packing rings? Are you comfortable with the impact your compressor may be having on the environment?
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2/17/14 9:19 AM
*Indicates shows and conferences in which COMPRESSORtech2 is participating
Tel: +1 (225) 578-4853 Web: www.gsrms.org
JUNE
June 3-5 *Sensor+Test 2014 Nuremberg, Germany Tel: +49 5033 9639 0 Web: www.sensor-test.de June 3-5 *Power-Gen Europe 2014 Cologne, Germany Tel: +44 1992 656 617 Web: www.powergeneurope.com June 3-6 Caspian Oil & Gas 2014 Baku, Azerbaijan Tel: +44 207 596 5000 Web: www.caspianoil-gas.com
Tel: +1 (403) 209-3555 Web: www.globalpetroleumshow.com June 16-20 *ASME Turbo Expo 2014 Dusseldorf, Germany Tel: +1 (404) 847-0072 Web: www.asmeconferences.org/ TE2014 June 24-26 Sensors Expo & Conference Rosemont, Illinois Tel: +1 (617) 219-8375 Web: www.sensorsmag.com/ sensors-expo June 25-26
MAY
May 5-8 *Offshore Technology Conference Houston Tel: +1 (972) 952-9494 Web: www.otcnet.org May 13-15 *Eastern Gas Compression Roundtable Moon Township, Pennsylvania Tel: +1 (412) 372-4301 Web: www.egcr.org May 13-15 Uzbekistan International Oil & Gas (OGU) Exhibition Tashkent, Uzbekistan Tel: +44 207 596 5144 Web: www.oguzbekistan.com
June 10-12 *Global Petroleum Show Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Energy Exposition Billings, Montana Tel: +1 (307) 234-1868 Web: www.energyexposition.com
For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com
MARCH 2014
11
COmPRESSORtech2
About The Business
BY Norm shade
Frigid Winter Challenges U.S. Gas growth, new infrastructure Industry > Production driving compression demand
infrastructure challenges were discussed during the Gas/ Electric Partnership conference in Cypress, Texas, on Feb. 5-6. A presentation by McKinsey & Co. showed 65 gas pipeline projects under construction, approved, filed or proposed in the U.S. Those included a mix of expansions and laterals, principally in the Appalachian region or routes to New England and the Midwest from the Marcellus area (See COMPRESSORtech2, January-February 2014, p. 40). Meanwhile, the long-established, long-haul pipelines from the Gulf Coast to the Northeast and Canada are underutilized. Some of those may be reversed or converted to liquid or ethane lines. McKinsey projects that Appalachian shale gas and associated gas elsewhere in the nation will drive U.S. gas production through this decade. Large quantities of Marcellus gas will flow out of the Northeast while associated gas from the Bakken Shale in the Williston Basin will increasingly displace Canadian gas that historically has supplied the Midwest market. Volumes from both will potentially flood Chicago and the Gulf South. Appalachian production from the Marcellus and Utica will continue to displace gas coming from the southwest. A presentation by the Wood Mackenzie consultancy showed that U.S. upstream capital investment, led by oil development, is almost 25% of the global total. It said that by 2020, output of tight oil will grow significantly, with the largest supplies coming from the Eagle Ford Shale, Bakken Shale and Permian Basin. This oil production also will boost the gas flow since those shales produce large volumes of associated gas. The pipeline infrastructure to take away all the Eagle Ford and Bakken associated gas currently is insufficient and flaring is prevalent. McKinsey predicts that the Permian gas flow will also be bottlenecked by next year. Speakers said conversions and repurposing of gas pipelines are proceeding very quickly; new laterals are taking longer. More underground gas storage or local liquefied natural gas storage facilities also may have to be considered to meet power generation demand peaks. This burst of production and pipeline growth is driving the need for new compressors as well as the refurbishment and resizing of existing pipeline stations in these regions, all of which is good news for the gas compression industry. CT2
n exceptionally cold winter in much of the U.S. has driven increased demand for natural gas. When a polar vortex struck the upper Midwest and Northeast in January, some areas experienced low gas pressures and near brownout conditions as pipelines strained to deliver enough gas to heat homes and produce electricity. In December, Williams Partners had reported record natural gas flows on its Transco interstate gas pipeline system, driven by demand for home heating and power generation in the eastern U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) data shows that gas storage levels have been below the recent five-year average since the beginning of January. Since October, net withdrawals from storage in the eastern U.S. slightly exceeded the previous record noted during the 2002-03 heating season. Henry Hub spot prices reached the highest level in four years, hovering in the US$4.50 to US$5.50/MMBtu range since January and spiking to US$7.90 on Feb. 5. Despite the surging winter demand, IHS Cambridge Energy Research Associates predicted in January that shale production would restrain natural gas prices to the US$4 to US$5/MMBtu range for at least 20 years. Even at the low end of the price range, the report said that about 900 Tcf (2.55 x 1013 m3) of unconventional gas could be economically produced, inferring that significant demand increases can be accommodated without requiring a substantially higher price. Ironically, much of the recent high demand and the resulting strain on the pipeline system have been in the eastern U.S., the region that has developed into the most prolific producer of gas in the nation. The EIA reported production from the Marcellus region reached 12 Bcfd (3.4 x 108 m3/d) earlier this year, more than six times the 2009 production rate. If the Marcellus Shale region were a nation, its natural gas output would rank third in the world, after Russia and the rest of the U.S. With supplies growing in new shale gas regions, inadequate oil and gas infrastructure continues to cause problems. Those
Norm Shade is senior consultant and president emeritus of ACI Services Inc. of Cambridge, Ohio. A 44-year veteran of the gas compression industry, he has written numerous papers and is active in the major industry associations.
MARCH 2014 12 COmPRESSORtech2
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MONITORING GOVERNmENT
U.S. LNG Exports Remain On The Departments permitting Back Burner > Energy continues at leisurely pace
BY PATRICK CROW
The report said, Our friends and allies around the globe desperately need a more stable, reliable, and affordable supply of natural gas, and American consumers and manufacturers need continued robust demand to bring additional resources into competitive production. This window of opportunity will not remain open indefinitely, therefore the committee is urging the Department of Energy to approve all remaining export licenses by the end of the year and is considering legislative action to modernize the process and remove barriers. Committee Chairman Fred Upton (R-Mich.) said, In essence were sending a friendly shot across the bow for DOE to take it up. Two key senators seem to be firing shots aimed at the bow. They are Mary Landrieu (D-La.), the new chairman of the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, and Lisa Murkowski (R-Alaska), the senior Republican on the panel. Landrieu recently ascended to the chair when Ron Wyden (D-Ore.), whose cautious resistance toward gas exports constituted passive opposition, switched to the chair of the Finance Committee. The Landrieu-Murkowski duo is a Washington energy lobbyists fantasy team. Both represent major producing states and hold key positions. Over the years, the Senate panel has been the most influential entity in the national energy policy realm. Landrieu supports the Our Energy Moment gas-export campaign. Murkowski recently issued a white paper urging the administration to lift the ban on crude oil exports and expedite LNG permitting. So from outward appearances, it might seem that momentum is building in Congress to force faster action at DOE. Well, not really. The recovery of the U.S. economy is partially due to surge in cheap shale gas production. The Obama administration recognizes that fact and has every incentive to keep natural gas supplies plentiful and cheap, especially with the congressional midterm elections approaching in November. No matter what House Republicans bluster, nor what Landrieu and Murkowski can push through their energy committee, Senate Democratic leaders can be expected to keep the lid on legislation to expedite LNG exports. CT2 14 COmPrESSOrtech2
welve months ago, this column discussed the glacial pace in approvals for liquefied natural gas (LNG) export permits at the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Little has changed since then, and that of course continues to be the problem. The shale gas boom has bestowed ample natural gas and gas liquids supplies upon the nation at bargain prices, much to the delight of the chemical industry and other hydrocarbon-intensive manufacturers (who predictably oppose LNG exports). With even greater shale gas production in prospect, entrepreneurs have proposed a number of projects to export domestic LNG into a thirsty world market. Given the long lead times required to build liquefaction plants, sponsors are clamoring for DOE approvals now. So far, the department has cleared six projects in the key category, exports to non-Free Trade Agreement nations, and about 25 are pending. In the past 12 months, DOE has approved only five permits. In reality, all 30 export projects wont go forward. Perhaps the market will be able to accommodate a half dozen; maybe a few more. Proponents argue thats not the point: DOE should approve the permits and let the market determine which projects bloom in the right place at the right time. Although associations representing gas producers have been pressing for LNG exports, an ad hoc coalition was launched in February with the same goal objective. The Our Energy Moment alliance is a convergence of producer associations, businesses and state economic development organizations. They are mostly based in Texas and Louisiana, where much of the surplus gas productivity is pooling. The group said LNG exports could generate up to US$47 billion in net benefits to the U.S. economy and create up to 450,000 jobs. It said exports would help reduce the U.S. trade deficit by as much as US$27 billion. It argued exports would have little impact on domestic prices, due to the mushrooming supplies now recoverable at low production costs. In the House of Representatives, the Energy and Commerce Committee recently issued a report urging the Obama administration to approve all of the pending LNG export applications by the end of the year.
MARCH 2014
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GE Acquiring Camerons Recip Division > Cameron may sell centrifugal business, too
BY PATRICK CROW
n Cameron employees assemble Superior

compressors at the companys Houston plant.
ameron has agreed to sell its reciprocating compression division to GE Oil & Gas for US$550 million and, at press time, was considering the sale of its centrifugal compression business. The companys recip business provides reciprocating compression equipment and aftermarket parts and services for oil and gas production, gas processing, gas distribution and independent power industries. The division, which generated sales of about US$355 million in 2012, has 900 employees and operates from 20
global locations. If U.S. regulatory agencies approve, the acquisition is expected to close during the third quarter. GE said the acquisition complements GE Oil & Gas existing highspeed reciprocating (HSR) business, which focuses on low-horsepower units that are used predominately in gas lift applications. Camerons recip portfolio will enable the company to offer higherhorsepower models used in gas gathering, processing and transmission. GE noted that high-speed recips are used in applications from gas gathering, gas lift and injection, as well as 16
transmission and storage. The development of shale oil and gas fields, particularly in North America, has increased demand for high-speed reciprocating compressors. It said that as shale continues to develop in other regions of the world, such as Asia and South America, the acquisition will position GE to serve the industry globally. Lorenzo Simonelli, president and CEO of GE Oil & Gas, said, The new (Cameron recip) business positions GE to more effectively focus on key downstream industry trends and to better anticipate customer needs. COMPRESSORtech2
MARCH 2014
Cameron said its after-tax proceeds from the sale would be US$400 million. The recip business had sales of US$355 million for the year ended Dec. 31, 2012. Citi is helping Cameron evaluate options for its centrifugal compression business, which had sales of US$365 million in 2012. Jack Moore, Cameron chairman and CEO, said, These actions will streamline the companys operations and are consistent with our strategy of building on our strong sales and order momentum in our core markets while selectively expanding product and service offerings in strategic growth areas. The proceeds from the transaction will provide us with greater financial flexibility and afford us the opportunity to drive additional value for our shareholders. Exploring strategic alternatives for the centrifugal compression business is part of our ongoing effort to optimize our asset base with a focus on our core markets. We are committed to directing resources to businesses where we have the best opportunities to achieve sales growth, higher margins and market leadership. Richard Stegall, president of Camerons reciprocating compression division, said, We have achieved good growth over recent years, and we anticipate that this trajectory will continue with the support of GE Oil & Gas. Camerons recip operations will become part of GE Oil & Gas recently formed Downstream Technology Solutions (DTS) business, which will supply equipment and services to the US$10 to US$11 billion downstream and distributed gas industry segments including unconventional oil and gas activities. Headquartered in Houston, DTS offers technologies and services including steam turbines, blowers, distributed gas solutions, reciprocating compressors, pumps, valves and distribution systems. The business also provides maintenance services and remote monitoring and diagnostics. GE said oil and gas is one of its fastest-growing businesses, with orders rising from less than US$1 billion
per year in 1994 to nearly US$20 billion today and profits growing at an average 16% over the past three years. Hasan Dandashly, DTS vice president, said, Camerons reciprocating compression division will become an important part of our downstream offering to customers. Its services and geographic presence will expand our distributed gas portfolio and enhance our shale capability and services expertise for our customers.
In addition to Camerons reciprocating compression division, DTS also will include the newly acquired Salof product lines of small-scale, modular liquefied natural gas plants for the rail, marine, trucking and industrial industries. In late January, Cameron reported 2013 net income of US$724.2 million, compared to US$750.5 million in 2012. Revenues were a record US$9.8 billion, up 16% from US$8.5 billion in the prior year. CT2
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Murphy, EControls Assimilation Pays example: meshed emissions, performance Dividends > One systems for gas compressors
n Enovation Controls Engine Integrated Control System helps companies meet emissions standards as well as optimize performance for their natural gas engines driving compressors. The system incorporates everything needed in one high-tech package designed specifically for selected engine models.
he business formed by the 2009 merger of FW Murphy, Tulsa, Oklahoma, and EControls, San Antonio, Texas, has taken the name of Enovation Controls to reflect the now fully integrated company. Enovation Controls is positioning itself as a global provider of engine and engine-driven equipment management and control products and services. The company serves markets that include natural gas compression and liquids, natural gas commercial vehicles, off-highway, material handling, recreational and commercial marine, power generation and agriculture. The privately held company employs 1000 people worldwide and was on track to exceed US$250 million in revenue in 2013. Board member Patrick W. Cavanagh is president and CEO. Enovation Controls combines Murphys line of controls and instrumentation with EControls engine control expertise to go beyond components to a fully integrated engine control and instrumentation provider, said Frank Murphy III, Enovation Controls executive chairman of the board. Murphy added that Enovation Controls would continue to promote and utilize the Murphy and
EControls brands while strengthening the companys positioning in the market. Although we officially merged four years ago, we wanted to be very careful and deliberate with our integration process in order to make sure we truly preserved the strengths both companies brought to the table, Murphy said. The Enovation Controls name now represents our fully integrated company as a single, focused team. By capitalizing on our synergies, Enovation Controls delivers the same products and services our customers have always known, along with the more fully integrated solutions our markets demand. In order to facilitate the companys approach to engine control, protection and monitoring, Enovation Controls is realigning its technical resources into Solution Groups to work more closely with the companys Natural Gas Production Controls, Display and Power Controls, and Engine Controls and Fuel Systems business segments. The goal in creating integrated teams of the companys product design and development engineers is for Enovation Controls to develop and deliver solutions to customers faster 18
than its competitors, said Kennon Guglielmo, chief technology officer. The Solution Groups are focused on the development of more integrated and tailored solutions for customers, to deliver improvements in engine management, fuel efficiency, reliability, drivability and emissions. A recent example of Enovation Controls approach to engine governance is its Engine Integrated Control System (EICS) to optimize emissions compliance and performance for natural gas compressors. EICS is a full-authority engine control system that incorporates ignition, air/fuel ratio and speed control along with diagnostics, sensors and catalyst into one package designed for specific engine models. The system includes the companys engine control modules, PowerView displays and related proprietary software that displays critical engine information. The system is precalibrated to meet emission and performance requirements for the application and typically requires no field calibration or adjustment. With the introduction of EICSequipped engines, customers have continued on page 20 COMPRESSORtech2
MARCH 2014
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n The EControls manufacturing and assembly operations in San Antonio, Texas, have been expanded and upgraded.
experienced short installation times with improved engine performance and fuel economy in the presence of load swings and changes in natural gas well flow, said Terry Baldwin, vice president of the Natural Gas Production Systems segment. Baldwin said EICS ability to monitor all integrated system components could simplify troubleshooting and reduce engine downtime while enabling customers to meet emissions regulations. Our customers are reporting a 20 to 30% savings in fuel and operating costs by utilizing the EICS system, Baldwin said, adding that over 1500 natural gas compressors have been retrofitted with the EICS. In addition to EICS, the merger has resulted in other synergies. EControls electronics manufacturing capabilities, which include in-house, surface-mount assembly lines, electronic qualityinspection equipment and direct relationships with electronic parts suppliers, are now used to improve the quality, cost and lead time of Murphybranded products. Enovation Controls has used this combination of capabilities to launch a generation of PowerView color and monochrome displays with new capabilities and price points. Another benefit of the merger, Murphy said, is that Enovation Controls has taken engine control module designs from EControls and transformed them into general-purpose controllers and I/O modules for off-highway and marine applications. These new modules have been combined with the next generation PowerView displays to form a package that is designed to work as a single system. The customer also can program these components as a single integrated system by using the proprietary PowerVision Configuration Studio development software. The combination of intellectual property from the two companies is also yielding value for Enovation Controls customers, Guglielmo said. The integration of the engine control, vehicle systems and dashboard displays can yield performance advantages that a collection of components from a variety of vendors cannot match, he said. The ability to cross over the boundary between vehicle systems and engine control is a unique Enovation Controls capability; a capability made possible by the merger. Some of Enovation Controls most promising growth opportunities are
in providing control and fuel system solutions for natural gas powered vehicles, Guglielmo said. Of the more than 1 million engine control systems Enovation Controls has shipped to date, more than 170,000 are found on heavy-duty natural gas fueled buses and trucks. Guglielmo said Enovation Controls expects the number of natural gas-powered vehicles to grow significantly in the U.S., China and worldwide. To that end, Enovation Controls has invested in the relocation and significant upgrades of its engine development facilities in San Antonio. It is spending another US$4 million (in addition to more than US$15 million already invested in China) in an engine development center in Hangzhou, China, that is scheduled to open at midyear. With these investments, Enovation Controls will be positioned to support the expected growth in the natural gas vehicle sector. The company has sales and manufacturing facilities in North America, China, Europe and India, and said it will continue to expand and invest its international operations. At Enovation Controls, were leveraging our synergies in order to expand our offering so that more customers can experience the benefits of a total engine control and instrumentation solution, Cavanagh said. However, we remain committed to providing our customers with the quality and service that earned us the business in the first place. CT2
n China is a major target for Enovation Controls global marketing effort. It has
an application engineering and sales operation in Shanghai and will expand its plant at Hangzhou, shown above, at midyear.
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The Importance Of Motor Dynamics In Reciprocating Compressor Drives > Exacting torsional analyses can ensure reliable drivetrains
BY SwamY SUbramanYam and GerHard KnOP
n NEAs products, including this 10,500 hp

(7.8 MW) compressor train for natural gas storage, all undergo detailed torsional analyses, including motor dynamics.
nvestments in further developing the North American natural gas supply continued at a strong pace in 2013. Major investments are being made to process, transmit and store the new gas supplies. The need for highly accurate torsional analyses to produce the most reliable drivetrain is paramount to achieving best-in-class uptime. The use of electric motor-driven
compression continued to increase 2013, a trend which is primarily being driven by availability of electricity, cost of electricity, emissions regulations and the strategies of end users. When utilizing motor-driven drivetrains, proper torsional dynamics and system analysis should lead to: improved uptime due to much lower maintenance time, improved uptime due to decreas
Swamy Subramanyam is vice president of technical management and procurement at Neuman & Esser USA Inc. He holds a masters degree in mechanical engineering and has more than 20 years of experience in compressor application engineering and design of reciprocating gas compressor packages and associated equipment. He is a member of the GMRC Torsional Analysis subcommittee. Contact him at: ssubramanyam@ neuman-esser.com. Gerhard Knop is head of development projects at the Neuman & Esser Machine Factory in bach-Palenberg, Germany. He has more than 18 years of experience in numerical and analytical calculations, with a focus on drivetrain vibrations. He is member of the GMRC Torsional Analysis sub-committee and has a Dipl.-Ing.(FH) degree in mechanical engineering. Contact him at: gerhard.knop@neuman-esser.de.
ed torsional issues coupling alignment, resonance and vibration alarms, improved uptime due to increased equipment reliability. The following technical summary is based on a presentation that Gerhard Knop, head of development projects for Neuman & Esser (NEA), made at the 2012 International Rotating Equipment Conference in Dsseldorf, Germany. The paper reviewed the analysis and decisions that NEA takes to ensure that torsional designs for motor driven applications minimize unforeseen downtime. The impact of using a motor Because of their enormous torque variations, reciprocating compressors introduce torsional vibrations into the drivetrain that must be thoroughly continued on page 24 COMPRESSORtech2
MARCH 2014
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n This cutaway drawing shows a high

flexible (rubber in shear) coupling.
investigated by simulation before these machines are put into operation. In recent years, but interestingly, sometimes even today, the reacting torque of the driving induction or synchronous motor was considered to be constant at steady-state operation. This assumption most often leads to completely incorrect shaft torque dynamics and gives no information on electric current fluctuations. Both quantities, however, are the key design features of a drivetrain (API 618, paragraphs 7.1.1.7 and 7.1.2.6). Torque dynamics must be limited in order to: avoid coupling overloading or early rubber wear, avoid shaft fractures, avoid rotor and stator mechanical overloading. Electric current fluctuations must be limited to: avoid excessive loading and flicker, avoid thermal overloading of the frequency converter, semiconductor malfunction. The motor reactions on torsional vibrations can create highly amplified or attenuated shaft torque variations. This diverse behavior was modeled with a focus on induction motors, which are much more frequently used than synchronous motors. Why to consider motor dynamics in drivetrain simulations The introduction of motor dynamics into the drivetrain simulation is increasingly important and requires precise calculations and sophisticated simulation models for the following reasons: Higher compressor rotational speeds are being used, which increases the probability of torsional resonances. The use of speed controls continues to increase, which results in resonant conditions that need to be properly investigated.
Soft coupling and motor two friends The most amazing influence on the torsional vibration behavior of the motor dynamics can be observed at drivetrains being equipped with high flexible (rubber in shear type) couplings. When properly chosen, they would even attenuate the shaft torque loading to an almost constant value. Negative damping When using all-steel disc couplings, which are quite rigid, advanced analytical design approaches reveal that coupling and motor shaft torque variations go up significantly without much external excitation. Whether during start-up or steadystate, these self-induced vibrations are driven by feedback of the motor. Where positive damping results in attenuation of vibrations in resonance near condition, negative damping would amplify the vibrations due to unfortunate phase shift between excitation and vibration. Variable-frequency drives If a frequency converter is used, the motor air gap torque is affected by the respective frequency converter control methods. The options are: Control of motor current fluctuations. In this case, the motor air gap torque is smoothened in the same way as the motor current. If the control is fast enough, the behavior approaches that of a constant motor air gap torque. Control of the rotational speed fluctuations. In order to reduce speed variations, the motor air gap torque must vary accordingly. Therefore, smooth speed is achieved by varying current and shaft torque. Setting the control very slow so that no fluctuations are controlled down. In this case the motor behaves in the same way as if connected directly to the main power network, only with different frequency and voltage supply. As with connecting directly to the main power network, for variablefrequency drive (VFD) drives it is
Improved drivetrain simulations allow reduction of flywheel size and weight, which reduces compressor main bearing load, crank shaft bending load and lateral vibration tendency. More complete and sophisticated drivetrain simulations lead to increased reliability. It should be noted that the number of coupling or shafting failures due to complete simulation models (with motor dynamics) has gone down to practically zero. Motors react on torsional vibrations. If the torque of the compressor were constant, the motor air gap torque would be constant as well. However, the fluctuating compressor torque produces angular deflections of the rotor within its magnetic field and causes the motor air gap torque to change its height. The resulting motor air gap torque variations represent an external excitation, similar to compressor torque, and influences the torsional vibrations of the drivetrain. The coupling type has an immense effect on the motor air gap torque which reduces or increases torsional vibrations and shafting torque load depending on the given drivetrain configuration.
Recognized Leader
n This is an all-steel, disc-type coupling.
not only the dynamic shafting torque but also the motor electric current fluctuations that have to be considered during the drivetrain design. Conclusions It could be demonstrated that the motor dynamics represent the major influence on the torsional vibrations of drivetrains especially on the shaft torque loading and on electric current pulsations. The inclusion of motor dynamics in drivetrain simulations has increased equipment reliability. This has become even more important today, as modern compressor installations provide a stronger demand on calculation accuracy, due to better strength utilization. Therefore, the motor electromagnetics should always be included into the calculations. When using torsionally soft couplings, the torque loading value can become quite low due to the motor reaction. Motor and soft coupling represent a very good combination and produce robust systems that show only small torque pulsations at coupling and shafts. When torsionally rigid couplings like all-steel, disc-type couplings are used, self-induced vibrations may occur with sometimes harmful amplitudes. The resulting shaft and coupling torque variations can be multiples of the calculated values due to the false assumption of constant motor torque. At VFD, the frequency converter control method must be thoroughly chosen in order to promote or reduce the motor magnetic field influence, depending on the individual requirements. As a compressor and motor can only be simulated in a single combined model, compressor manufacturers must understand the dynamic motor behavior, allowing them to optimize the drivetrain on every relevant aspect such as proper motor inertia, coupling, flywheel and crankshaft designs. Neuman & Esser has developed expertise in evaluating motor dynamics for drivetrain simulations (especially motor electromagnetic characteristics), increasing the reliability of high-pressure reciprocating compressors used in gas applications. CT2 MARCH 2014 25
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COMPRESSORtech2
Motortech Adds High-End also expands offerings of Ignition Controllers > It fuel mixers
By IaN CamERON
n This is a grouping of VariFuel2s available from Motortech.
otortech has extended its range of high-end ignition controllers with two new series. They are the MIC3, which has 12 ignition outputs and 200 mJ of primary energy for small and mid-sized gas engines, and the MIC5 with 20 ignition outputs and 500 mJ primary energy for engines with up to 670 hp (500 kW). The Celle, Germany-based company said that high ignition energy, accurate spark timing and diversified online diagnostics can combine to improve engine efficiency, spark plug life and availability of the equipment under the strict emissions regulations. The controller is fully customer configurable via a laptop. Motortech has also extended its VariFuel2 air/fuel ratio mixer series with two new sizes to cover, or respectively overlap, a greater range of application areas. The main task of the gas mixer is to mix the fuel (gas) and air so that the gas engine achieves optimal combustion. MARCH 2014
The VariFuel2 is a high-tech, variable Venturi-type mixer that can constantly adjust to any fuel changes. It allows the engine to operate at its most efficient point. Series 100,140, 200 and 250 VariFuels are available for engines with an air requirement up to 176 Mcfh (5000 m3/h). Coupled to an air/ fuel ratio controller, lean-burn or stoichiometric, it precisely regulates the mixture and, according to the company, is suitable for applications with constant changes in the calorific value of fuel. It can be used with nearly all gas types, including natural, biogas, landfill, sewage, wood, wellhead or mine and it employs a high precision stepper motor drive with a reprogrammable controller board called VariStep. Various flow bodies and flexible inlet and outlet configurations allow fully flexible cross section adjustment. Motortech said the decisive optimization parameters are a high degree 26
of efficiency and low emissions that comply with relevant regulations. In the VariFuel2, gas and air are mixed based on the Venturi effect. Based on the suction vacuum of the engine, the air is sucked through the air inlet into the Venturi nozzle. The Venturi effect produces an underpressure at the narrowest point, sucking the gas in through the gas inlet. This way, gas and air are mixed and released at the Venturi outlet. Based on different design sizes and different flow bodies in the Venturi nozzle, it is possible to achieve various volume flows. Another recent Motortech product launch was a handheld device to support gas engine mechanics who are trouble shooting engine problems or going through preventive maintenance procedures. SparkView monitors the high voltage required by the spark plug when firing. To see a video of the SparkView application, go to: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=YcC94wnhzQc. CT2 COmPrESSOrtech2
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Dresser-Rand Makes Major Move Into completed for small-scale LNG Gas Liquefaction > Tests production system
BY JOE KANE
uefaction process piping to drop the pressure and reduce the temperature of the natural gas. The first phase of cooling is accomplished by the mechanical chiller, which uses an ammonia refrigerant loop and evaporative cooler. The integrated ammonia chilling system consists of an evaporative condenser and screw compressor that removes the heat of compression from the methane prior to expansion. The advantage of this first stage is lower cost and smaller footprint. The second phase of cooling is accomplished with the turboexpander. The expander wheel uses variable inlet guide vanes to control inlet gas flow and maximize efficiency, and is fitted with a gas seal and anti-surge control systems to assure reliable operation. Final subcooling is accomplished with a Joule-Thomson valve that rapidly expands natural gas and reduces temperature to below -250F (-157C). It is used to supply the final cryogenic heat exchanger with cooling medium. The conditioning module, also known as the molecular sieve, cleans and continued on page 30
n The compressor module contains a four-throw Dresser-Rand 7MOS4TM reciprocating compressor to provide all stages of compression and the interconnecting pipe to the process module.
resser-Rand has announced the successful operation of its newly developed small-scale liquefied natural gas (LNG) production system, named LNGo. We are very excited about this technology for small-scale LNG production, which allows for very small stand-alone plants that are portable and can be moved to support changing requirements and needs, President and CEO Vincent Volpe Jr. said. The standard LNGo plants are sized to produce approximately 6000 gallons (22,712 L) of LNG per day. Dresser-Rand designed, constructed and commissioned its demonstration plant, which in December reached a milestone with the initial production of LNG. Now, extended performance and endurance tests are being performed as the final step prior to full market release. According to Charles Ely, general manager of midstream SBU, the LNGo
system operates on the open-loop methane concept. The process is identified as a methane letdown cycle. The process module contains a mechanical chiller, turboexpander, JouleThomson valve, stainless-steel, brazed welded plate heat exchangers and liq-
n The LNGo system is shown with threedimensional CAD software created by the development team at Painted Post, New York.
MARCH 2014
28
COmPrESSOrtech2
n Dresser-Rands Guascor generator

set takes natural gas and converts it into electrical energy for the rest of the system to operate.
sep arates the incoming gas into two streams. The product stream, now free of H2O or CO2, is fed to a Dresser-Rand MOS compressor to begin the liquefaction process. The purge stream is essentially a waste stream that contains H2O, CO2 and heavier hydrocarbons that are not permissible for making LNG. It is blended with makeup natural gas and used to fuel the Guascor engine, avoiding additional gas treatment or cleanup. The power module contains a Dresser-Rand Guascor, 16-cylinder, four-cycle, turbocharged and aftercooled, rich-burn engine (rated 870 kW at 1800 rpm and bmep of 151 psi or 10.4 bar). Bore and stroke are 6.3 x 6.9 in. (160 x 175 mm) giving a displacement of 3436 cu. in. (56.35 L) and a compression ratio of 9.3:1. Rated emissions are 0.1/0.2/0.2 g/bhph (0.13/0.27/0.27 g/kWh) for NOx/CO/ HMHC. A fan-driven ambient air cooler is used to cool engine jacket and lube oil circuits. Dresser-Rands Enginuity PLC-based control system serves both the power module and the LNGo process. The power module also contains the motor control center (MCC). With an engine configured to handle natural gas within a lower heating value (LHV) range of 800 to 1150 Btu/ cf (29,800 to 42,870 kJ/m3), the power module provides power for the entire LNGo system. Fuel gas is a blended mixture of mole sieve purge (waste) gas and feed natural gas. The compressor module satisfies all four stages of gas compression re-
quired by the LNGo liquefaction system. Dresser-Rands four-stroke model 7MOS4 reciprocating compressor has a 7 in. (172 mm) stroke and bore sizes (C1/C2/C3/C4) of 10.5/10.5/17.5/11.5 in. (267/267/444.5/281.6 mm). Compression ratios of the four stages are (C1/C2/C3/C4): 3.25/3.5/2.74/2.85. The compressor features Dresser-Rands Magnum XF series valves for proven combination of efficiency and durability in high-pressure ratio applications. It uses nonlubricated cylinders to avoid process contamination and eliminate lube oil consumption. A waterglycol coolant is used to cool compressor cylinders, rod packings and the crankshaft and rod bearings lube oil is fed by a mechanically driven pump during normal operation and electric motor-pump during start-up. The compressor is driven by a 12pole, three-phase WEG induction motor rated for 750 hp (559 kW) at 480V. It includes VFD with harmonic filter. Our development process began in earnest less than one year ago, Volpe said. In this time frame, our or-
ganization has taken the process and designed, built and commissioned an entire plant, with a target capacity of 6000 gpd (2.2 kpd). This development cycle time to market is amazingly short, and is a tribute to our internal processes, as well as to the men and women of our development team, and our Painted Post, New York, operations. We are proud of our people and their outstanding efforts. On the commercial side, the company has been talking to potential clients for several months. Depending upon the nature of the application, these potential opportunities are broadly classified as modules that would either be for sale or for lease. For direct sale, Dresser-Rand provides the liquefaction process and associated ancillary gas processing equipment, a power module and full turnkey installation and commissioning. Dresser-Rand currently offers the LNGo system for direct sale but is evaluating other market strategies such as rental or lease options with market channel partners. For all users, Dresser-Rand can provide full turnkey installation and commissioning services, as well as routine operations, monitoring and maintenance contracts to ensure ongoing reliable and available operations. Upstream applications include, among others, the monetization of flared gas to increase revenues for oil companies and reduce their environmental impact, the production of stranded natural gas fields that are not close to existing pipeline infrastructures, on-site fuel supply for
n The liquefaction process module does all the cooling and subcooling
of the natural gas in the system.
MARCH 2014 30 COmPrESSOrtech2
n A simple schematic representation of the process shows the progress from input
natural gas to the output of LNG.
drilling and hydraulic fracturing equipment converted to run on LNG and applications for coal bed methane for fueling mining vehicles. Downstream applications include the production of vehicle-grade LNG, allowing LNG to compete effectively with diesel fuel on a cost-per-energy-content (Btu) basis. As LNGo plants enable the distributed production of LNG on a small scale, the technology eliminates the need for the costly trucking of LNG
long distances from large, centralized plants to LNG fueling depots, as is the practice today. Further, Dresser-Rand believes that its approach to short cycle time will enable LNGo plants to be installed and operating in months rather than years. The short cycle times will allow owners to see quick returns on their investment, as well as matching the supply and demand of LNG as local markets develop.
Driven by rapidly expanding global shale gas development and continued price differentials between natural gas and oil, Dresser-Rand predicts that the market for distributed, smallscale LNG production plants will grow from early adopters in North America to a broad, robust market for users around the world. North America is the most rapidly growing market. The substantial price disparity between diesel fuel and low-priced natural gas has oil-field service operators, oil and gas companies, shipping and delivery companies, and downstream fuel distributors/marketers across the region converting drilling rigs, industrial mining equipment, transportation fleets and retail fueling stations along the United States interstate highway system to LNG fuel. Dresser-Rand said orders booked for LNGo in the next several months will convert to shipments in 2014. As those units are placed into service and gain operating experience and runtime, the company expects the incoming stream of orders to grow over time. CT2
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In The Marcellus Shale
StriKEs GoLd
n Dearings plant has eight fabrication

bays with 180 tons (163 tonnes) of crane capacity and is being expanded to 12 large bays in 2014. The large package in the foreground includes a Waukesha 9390 gas engine, Ariel JGD/4 inlet gas compressor, and AXH air cooler.
D
MARCH 2014
Dearing Compressor has served the Appalachian Basin since 1945

By Norm ShadE
Richard (Rick) H. Dearing Jr., the current president and grandson of the founder, joined the company in 1985 after receiving petroleum engineering and MBA degrees. Rebecca Dearing Wall is the executive vice president, chief financial officer, sister and co-owner with Rick. She joined the company in 1981. The company has grown steadily since we purchased it from our father in 1996, Dearing Wall said. Dearing is established as a leader in the engineering, packaging and installation of quality compressor equipment. Rick Dearing said until about 2005, 32
earing Compressor and Pump Co. of Youngstown, Ohio, has found itself in the right place and the right time to supply the Marcellus and Utica shale plays. Albin P. Dearing III, who sold and serviced Gardner Denver industrial air compressors, formed Dearing in 1945. The family owned companys introduction to the oil and gas business came in 1960 by working on Gardner Denver oil rigs and compressors. This later led to an expansion into the natural gas compressor market within Ohio.
packages in the 100 to 300 hp (75 to 224 kW) range were common, and 500 hp (373 kW) was a big unit for the company. But customers demanded that we be able to do it all or we wouldnt get any of their other business, so we kept expanding to larger and larger units, Rick Dearing said. Until August 2006, Dearing operated in a 26,000 sq.ft. (2416 m2) facility with limited crane capacity. A 10,000 sq.ft. (929 m2) expansion helped the Appalachian Basin packager continue several years of steady growth. And then the Marcellus Shale emerged. Business COmPrESSOrtech2
COMPRESSOR
PACKAGER GUIDE
2014
www.compressortech2.com
Packager Guide 2014

Establishing a comprehensive listing of compressor packagers, their locations and package capacity ranges is an important service to the end users of this equipment. This addition of our services to the industry is based on several inquiries we received regarding compressor packagers. A listing of packagers follows, along with contact information, types of compressors offered and the capacity range of the packages they produce. An important note if your company is missing from this listing, please let us know, as it will be updated on a regular basis.
AG Equipment Co., Broken Arrow, Oklahoma. Principal contact: Kent Bright. E-mail: kbright@agequipmentcompany.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: 20 to 10,000 hp (15 to 7456 kW). ANGI Energy Systems LLC, Janesville, Wisconsin. Principal contact: Jared Hightower, vice president, domestic CNG Sales. E-mail: jhightower@angienergy. com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: 40 to 800 hp (30 to 597 kW). Abby Services Inc., Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. Principal contact: Don Fulmer, president. E-mail: sales@abbyservicesinc.com. Types of compressors: rotary screw, reciprocating, liquid rings and blowers. Capacity range: 3 to 500 hp (2 to 373 kW). ABC Compressors, Eibar, Spain. Principal contact: Javier Cuevas. E-mail: jcuevas@abc-compressors.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 70 to 1600 hp (50 to 1200 kW). Alegacy Equipment, Waller, Texas. Principal contact: Bo Pierce. E-mail: b.pierce@alegacy.biz. Types of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 30 to 400 hp (22 to 298 kW). Arrow Engine Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma. Principal contact: Terry Kerbo, general manager, compression. E-mail: tkerbo@arrowengine.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 25 to 300 hp (19 to 224 kW). Bidell Gas Compression, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Principal contact: Mat Clark, vice president, sales and applications. E-mail: mclark@bidell.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: up to 10,000 hp (7456 kW). Brahma Compression, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Principal contact: Phil Meloche, sales. E-mail: philm@brahmacompression.com. Types of compressors: blowers, vane and rotary screw. Capacity range: 5 to 400 hp (4 to 298 kW). Cameron, Houston. Principal contact: Mike Gerzina. E-mail: Mike.Gerzina@c-a-m. com. Type of compressor: reciprocating. Capacity range: 148 to 9000 hp (110 to 6711 kW). Cobey Inc., Buffalo, New York. Principal contact: Eric McKendry, director of marketing and sales. E-mail: emckendry@cobey.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating, screw, centrifugal, axial, with expanders and turbine-generator sets, lube oil systems. Capacity range: up to 30,000 hp (22,065 kW). Comoti Romanian Research and Development Institute for Gas Turbines, Bucharest, Romania. Principal contact: Marius Teodorescu, marketing and
michel.bezemer@conpacksys.nl. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 44 to 9383 hp (33 to 7000 kW). Custom Compression Systems, New Iberia, Louisiana. Principal contact: Bob Carter. E-mail: bcarter@customcompressionsystems.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 95 to 5000 hp (71 to 3728 kW). Dearing Compressor & Pump Co., Youngstown, Ohio. Principal contact: Richard H. Dearing Jr., president. E-mail: rick@dearingcomp.com. Types of compressors: rotary screw, reciprocating, blowers and liquid ring. Capacity range: 30 to 8000 hp (22 to 5965 kW). Dresser-Rand, Houston. Principal contact: Colman DeJong, VP of sales The Americas. E-mail: cdejong@dresser-rand.com. Type of compressors: centrifugal, reciprocating. Capacity range: 20,100 to 181,000 hp (15,000 to 135,000 kW). Elliott Co., Jeannette, Pennsylvania. Principal contact: Tom Brown, marketing manager. E-mail: tbrown@elliott-turbo.com. Type of compressors: centrifugal. Capacity range: 10,000 to 120,000 hp (7456 to 89,500 kW). Enerex Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Principal contact: Trevor Hunt, manager, Sales, Compression and Process. E-mail: thunt@enerflex.com. Houston, Texas. Principal contact: Peter Kourkoubes, manager, Sales, USA and Latin America. Email: pkourkoubes@enerflex.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: up to 10,000 hp (7456 kW). Enerproject SA, Mezzovico, Switzerland. Principal contact: Vito Notari, sales manager. E-mail: vito.notari@enerproject.com. Types of compressors: centrifugal, rotary screw and rotary vane. Capacity range: up to 4024 hp (3000 kW). Euro Gas Systems SRL, Targu Mures, Romania. Principal contact: Roger Wachter, general manager. E-mail: roger.wachter@eurogassystems.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: 100 to 5000 hp (75 to 3728 kW). Exterran Compression, Houston. Principal contact: Susan Nelson, marketing/ communications. E-mail: susan.nelson@exterran.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: 250 to 9000 hp (186 to 6710 kW). FIMA Maschinenbau GmbH, Obersontheim, Germany. Principal contact: Michael Loercher, sales engineer. E-mail: m.loercher@fima.de. Types of compressors: centrifugal and seal-less. Capacity range: 10 to 6800 hp (8 to 5000 kW). Flatrock Compression Ltd., Houston. Principal contact: Brian McDonald, president. E-mail: brian.mcdonald@flatrockcompression.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 26 to 500 hp (19 to 373 kW). Flogistix, Oklahoma City. Principal contact: Drake Andarakes, vice president of sales and marketing. E-mail: sales@flogistix.com. Type of compressors: rotary screw. Capacity range: 20 to 800 hp (15 to 597 kW). GEA Refrigeration Italy, Castel Maggiore, Italy. Principal contact: Ivano Camaggi, president, Power Technology Center. E-mail: ivano.camaggi@geagroup.com. Type of compressors: screw, reciprocating and centrifugal. Capacity range: up to 13,412 hp (10,000 kW). GE Oil & Gas, Florence, Italy. Principal contact: Sara Hassett, Communications Leader. E-mail: sara.hassett@ge.com. Type of compressors: centrifugal and axial compressors; integrated electric motor driven compressors; reciprocating and highspeed reciprocating compressors; gas and steam turbines, turboexpanders and hot gas expanders. Capacity range: 20,400 to 95,200 hp (15,000 to 70,000 kW).
sales manager. E-mail: marius.teodorescu@comoti.ro. Types of compressors: rotary screw, centrifugal and blowers. Capacity range: 30 to 2448 hp (22 to 3280 kW).
Com-Pac Systems Inc., Odessa, Texas. Principal contact: Jack Motley, president. E-mail: jackmotley@compressorpackaging.com. Types of compressors: rotary vane, rotary screw, and reciprocating. Capacity range: 25 to 4000 hp (19 to 2983 kW). Compass Compression Services Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Principal contact: Scott Douglas, vice president, sales. E-mail: sdouglas@compasscompression.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating, rotary screw and vane. Capacity range: 5 to 8000 hp (4 to 5965 kW). Compressor Systems Inc., Midland, Texas. Principal contact: Hank Sheeran, vice president, sales. E-mail: hank.sheeran@compressor-systems.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and screw. Capacity range: 26 to 8500 hp (19 to 6338 kW). ConPackSys, Dordrecht, Netherlands. Principal contact: Michel Bezemer. E-mail:
COMPRESSOR
GE Oil & Gas do Brasil Ltd., Rio de Janeiro. Principal contact: Rogerio Freitas da Fonseca, regional senior sales leader for Latin America. E-mail: rogerio.fonseca@ge.com. Type of compressors: high-speed reciprocating. Capacity range: 60 to 7200 hp (44 to 5371 kW). G.I. & E. S.p.A., Porto Recanati, Italy. Principal contact: Donatello Vocca, sales and marketing director. E-mail: donatello.vocca@gie.it. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 70 to 7000 hp (50 to 5000 kW). Great Plains Gas Compression Inc., Hugoton, Kansas. Principal contact: Terry R. McBride, vice president of sales and marketing. E-mail: tmcbride@greatplainsgas.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating, rotary screw, rotary vane, blowers, vapor recovery, CNG fueling stations, high spec, and electric. Capacity range: 5 to 5000 hp (4 to 3728 kW). HBR Equipamentos ltda, Sao Paulo, Brazil. Principal contact: Valdir Zuffo. Email: valdir@hbrarcomprimido.com.br. Type of compressors: rotary screw, reciprocating, centrifugal. Capacity range: up to 5000 hp (3728 kW). Henry Production Inc., Farmington, New Mexico. Principal contact: Sam Henry. E-mail: samh@hpi1.com. Types of compressors: rotary screw, reciprocating and scroll. Capacity range: up to 250 hp (186 kW). Howden Process Compressors, Renfrew, U.K. E-mail: (new systems) hpc@ howden.com; (service and parts) hpc.aftersales@howden.com. Type of compressors: screw. Capacity range: up to 6705 hp (5000 kW). Industrias Juan F. Secco S.A., Rosario, Argentina. Principal contact: Augusto F. Beni. E-mail: abeni@jfsecco.com.ar. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: up to 6500 hp (4846 kW). J-W Energy Co., Dallas. Principal contact: James R. Barr. E-mail: jbarr@jwenergy.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: 25 to 4500 hp (19 to 3355 kW). Kingsly Compression Inc., Cambridge, Ohio; Saxonburg, Pennsylvania. Principal contact: Jeffrey B. Sable. E-mail: jeffrey.b.sable@kingslycompression.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating, rotary screw. Capacity range: 5 to 1000 hp (4 to 746 kW). McClung Energy Services, Longview, Texas. Principal contact: Tim McDonald, production manager. E-mail: tim@mcclungenergy.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 50 to 400 hp (37 to 298 kW). Natural Gas Compression Systems Inc., Traverse City, Michigan. Principal contact: Bill Jenkins, vice president, sales. E-mail: jenkins@ngcsi.com. Types of compressors: rotary screw and reciprocating. Capacity range: up to 2500 hp (1864 kW). Neuman & Esser U.S.A Inc., Katy, Texas. Principal contact: Scott DeBaldo. Email: sdebaldo@neuman-esser.com. Type of compressors: horizontal, vertical and V-type reciprocating. Capacity range: up to 20,000 hp (15,000 kW). OTA Compression LLC, Irving, Texas. Principal contact: Vickie L. Gage-Tims, vice president, sales. E-mail: sales@OTACompression.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: up to 100 hp (75 kW). Palmero San Luis S.A., Buenos Aires, Argentina. Principal contact: Matias Maggi. E-mail: mmaggi@palmero.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating and rotary screw. Capacity range: up to 6500 hp (4846 kW). Propak Systems Ltd., Airdrie, Alberta, Canada. Principal contact: Ron Delisle. E-mail: rdelisle@propaksystems.com. Types of compressors: rotary screw and reciprocating. Capacity range: up to 10,000 hp (7456 kW). PSE Engineering GmbH, Hannover, Germany. Principal contact: Dirk Heyer,
division manager, compression systems. E-mail: info@pse-eng.de. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 100 to 10,000 hp (75 to 7456 kW). Reagan Power and Compression Inc. Broussard, Louisiana. Principal contact: Francis A. Orso, director of sales. E-mail: forso@reaganp ower.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating, screw (gas and electric motor driven); Capacity range: up to 10,000 hp (7456 kW). Safe, San Giovanni in Persiceto (BO), Italy. Principal contact: Michele Petraccone. E-mail: michele.petraccone@safe-ita.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 67 to 4700 hp (50 to 3500 kW). SAGE Energy Corp., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Principal contact: Trent Bruce. E-mail: trent.bruce@sageenergy.ca. Types of compressors: rotary screw and reciprocating. Capacity range: 30 to 5000 hp (22 to 3728 kW). S&R Compression LLC, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Principal contact: G. Durland. E-mail: gdurland@sandrequipment.com. Types of compressors: vapor recovery, screw and reciprocating. Capacity range: up to 400 hp (298 kW). SEC Energy Products & Services, Houston. Principal contact: Frank Northup, director, sales and marketing. E-mail: fnorthup@sec-ep.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 50 to 10,000 hp (37 to 7456 kW). Sertco, Okemah, Oklahoma. Principal contact: Matt Smith. E-mail: matt@sertco. com. Types of compressors: natural gas and reciprocating. Capacity range: 20 to 200 hp (15 to 149 kW). Siemens AG, Energy, Oil & Gas, Turbo Equipment; Duisburg, Germany (rotating equipment); Hengelo, Netherlands (packaging). Principal contact: Michaela Niss. E-mail address: michaela.niss@siemens.com. Type of compressors: turbocompressors. Capacity range: 6635 to 40,348 hp (4950 to 30,100 kW). Siemens Sp. z o.o., Elblag, Poland. Principal contact: Tomasz Grzegolkowski. E-mail: tomasz.grzegolkowski@siemens.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 670 to 10,700 hp (500 to 8000 kW). Siad Macchine Impianti S.p.A., Bergamo, Italy. Principal contact: Mauro Acquati, Compressor Division sales manager. E-mail: mauro_acquati@siad.eu. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 27 to 3220 hp (20 to 2400 kW). Solar Turbines Incorporated, San Diego. Principal contact: sales department, applications engineering. E-mail: powergen@solarturbines.com. Type of compressors: centrifugal. Capacity range: 13,097 to 77,707 hp (9800 to 57,900 kW). Speir Energy Solutions, Okemah, Oklahoma. Principal contact: Thompson Speir, owner. E-mail: thompson@speircompression.com. Types of compressors: reciprocating, screw, rotary. Capacity range: up to 75 hp (56 kW). Startec Refrigeration Services Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Principal contact: Mike Tearoe, vice president, corporate development, compression and process division. E-mail: mtearoe@startec.ca. Types of compressors: reciprocating, rotary screw and vane. Capacity range: 5 to 8000 hp (4 to 5965 kW). UE Compression LLC, Henderson, Colorado. Principal contact: Steven Tyler, sales. E-mail: styler@uecompression.com. Types of compressors: rotary vane, rotary screw and reciprocating. Capacity range: 50 to 7500 hp (37 to 5592 kW). Valerus, Houston. Principal contact: Maggie Seeliger, director of marketing. E-mail: mseeliger@valerus.com. Type of compressors: reciprocating. Capacity range: 75 to 5000 hp (56 to 3728 kW). VPT Kompresssoren GmbH, Remscheid, Germany. Principal contact: Carsten Kollenbach, sales engineer, export. E-mail: c.kollenbach@vpt-kompressoren.de. Type of compressors: screw. Capacity range: 7 to 5365 hp (5 to 4000 kW).
CTSSnet.net
COMPRESSION TECHNOLOGY SOURCING SUPPLEMENT
has skyrocketed since companies started drilling in earnest in the Marcellus Shale, Dearing Wall said. The company received its first Marcellus Shale compressor order for 15 units in early 2009. That year, it built 64
units averaging 868 hp (647 kW), with 45% of them electric motor-driven. Seeing demand growing rapidly, Dearing nearly tripled its plant space with a 60,000 sq.ft. (5574 m2) addition that was completed in July 2010.
This Waukesha P9390 and Ariel JGD/4 package was shipped in late 2013 to a Marcellus site in West Virginia. The engine was removed to reduce the shipment weight and height, which is a common requirement for large packages going to remote Appalachian Basin destinations. It provided 50,000 sq.ft. (4645 m2) of shop space and 10,000 sq.ft. (929 m2) of office and break area. The expansion quickly enabled more business as typical order sizes of four to six units were replaced with orders of eight to 15 units. In addition, there were more engine driven units, 69 and 79%, respectively, in 2010 and 2011, with average size growing to 1383 hp (1031 kW) in 2010 and 1530 hp (1141 kW) in 2011. In 2012, the company built 92 units averaging 1881 hp (1403 kW). Even though a number of large Caterpillar G3616 engine driven packages were built, electric motor-driven fuel gas boosters and gas plant residue compressors for the western Marcellus and Utica Shale resulted in a mix of 58% engine and 42% electric drive. We continued to see more continued on page 34 COmPrESSOrtech2
This Ariel KBZ/6 reciprocating compressor package was installed at a Marcellus wet gas-processing facility near Washington, Pennsylvania, in 2010. The cryogenic gas processing residue compressor is driven by a 5000 hp (3729 kW), 900 rpm, 4160V GE VFD capable electric motor.
MARCH 2014
33
n
electric-driven units in 2013 for Utica Shale gas plants, Rick Dearing said. Dearings primary market covers western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, western New York, Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. In 2012, we packaged units ranging from 40 to 5000 hp (30 to 3729 kW), Dearing Wall said. We dont want to box ourselves out of any market. We want small units too. We build air skids, and we see growing markets in vapor recovery units (VRUs) and compressed natural gas (CNG) compressors. With the acquisition of adjacent properties, the company now has 125,000 sq.ft. (11,613 m2) under roof on 16 acres (6.5 ha). Current capacity is 100 large units per year. Seeing more demand, the company is adding 20,000 sq.ft. (1858 m2) in 2014 to expand the parts warehouse and package pipe welding areas, moving them from the current fabrication plant to free more packaging space there. The facility has eight fabrication bays, although multiple small units can be built in a single bay. When the new MARCH 2014 addition is complete, fabrication capacity will grow to 12 large bays with 180 tons (163 tonnes) of crane capacity. The company has 190 employees. Other parts of the complex include an ASME coded pressure vessel shop, a hydrostatic test shop, a quality department and inspection area, a paint line for prepainting many items prior to assembly on the packages and a skid fabrication area. Some skids are subcontracted. Dearing offers packaged compressors for field gas gathering, gas processing plants, pipeline transmission, gas storage, VRU and CNG, including complete CNG stations with the dispensers and fuel management systems provided by a partner company. It also assembles air starting systems, including complete buildings, air drilling primary and booster compressor packages, and blower and vacuum packages for environmental services. In addition, the company provides pump packages for well servicing, salt water disposal and high pressure hydraulic applications. It delivered its first sour gas units last year. 34
This modular building, shown nearly complete at the Dearing plant in late 2013, contains a complete air system for a compressor installation. Included is a Gardner Denver rotary screw compressor, drier, controls, and all HVAC equipment and environmental controls.
Dearing is a distributor for Ariel, LeROI and Gardner Denver compressors. The company has packaged other compressors when specified by the customer. An engineering team of 14 to 16 provides custom designs for many applications. Packages are completely designed on Autodesk Inventor 3-D CAD. The companys factory-trained technicians provide assistance with installation, startup and training. We have based our reputation on service, reliability, integrity and innovation, and we have responsibly served our industrial and energy customers with dependable equipment and systems for compressed air, gas, process gas and hydraulic applications, Rick Dearing said. We match quality compressors, drivers and other equipment with engineering, design expertise, installation experience and quality service. CT2 COmPrESSOrtech2
THINK GERMAN, ACT LOCAL.

VIBRATIONS TROUBLING THE NATURAL GAS MARKET?
NEA UNDERSTANDS MOTOR DYNAMICS TO REDUCE DRIVE TRAIN VIBRATIONS
Motor dynamics have a major impact on torsional vibrations especially on shaft torque and electric current pulsations. Thats why for NEA it is mandatory to include motor electro-magnetic characteristics in drive drain simulations. NEA compressors are made in Germany, and we have local engineering, packaging, service and parts to deliver reliable, vibration free solutions.
BLUESTROKE COMPRESSOR SYSTEMS
NEUMAN & ESSER USA, Inc.

Located in Katy, Texas www.neuman-esser.com
Contact me for Latin and North America: Swamy Subramanyam Vice President of Technical Management and Procurement ssubramanyam@neuman-esser.com Direct Phone: +1 713-554-9636
NEA GROUP Headquarters in Germany
TECH Motor Dynamic Influence On Torsional Vibration method of estimating electromagnetic damping magAnalysis > A nitudes and their effect on torsional vibration response
BY ED HaUptMaNN, BiLL ECKeRt aND BRiaN HOWes
Editors Note: This article is based on a paper given at GMRCs Gas Machinery Conference in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Oct. 6-9, 2013. The authors wish to thank Andrew Mancini for his help in rerunning past analyses and Fabian Claussen for translating several references from German to English. netic fields. Past studies have typically included start-up of drive systems, estimation of the resulting transient motor torques, and dynamic effects such as limit cycles and drive instabilities (negative damping). As important as these past works are, the direct em effects on torsional vibration in a drive train have not been extensively explored. The importance of em effects can be shown by first referring to simpler mass-elastic models. Figure 1 shows an idealized two-mass torsional model of a compressor and motor rotor, with the addition of an em spring and damper acting between the rotor and stator.
corner
he steady-state torque and power output of a polyphase induction motor are the result of electromagnetic fields that act across the air gap between stator and rotor. If the rotor has a torsional vibration superimposed over the steady rotation, the same electromagnetic fields across the air gap can produce additional torques on the rotor, which act in the same way as a torsional spring or damper. These additional electromagnetic (em) effects are not usually included in standard torsional vibration analyses, as no analytical methods for estimating their magnitudes have been available to date. Such unsteady em effects have nevertheless been extensively studied in the past by direct numerical integration of the differential equations representing stator and rotor currents and their mutually induced stator and rotor mag-
Ed Hauptmann is director of engineering development for Lo-Rez Vibration Control Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. He has a Bachelor of Science in mechanical engineering from the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada and a PhD in applied mechanics from the California institute of Technology. Hauptmann has 35 years of experience as a torsional vibration consultant. Contact him at: ed@lo-rez.com. Bill Eckert is principal engineer for Beta Machinery Analysis Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He has a Bachelor of Science and a PhD in mechanical engineering from the University of Alberta. Eckert has extensive experience in finite element modeling of flexible rotors. Contact him at: beckert@betamachinery.com. Brian Howes is chief engineer for Beta Machinery. He has Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees in mechanical engineering from the University of Calgary. Howes recognized the problem matching actual torsional natural frequencies with predicted TNFs. This difference could not be explained until Dr. Knops paper was examined. Contact him at: (bhowes@betamachinery.com)
n Figure 1. This is an idealized two-mass model of a motor-compressor drive, with an additional spring and damper between the rotor and stator.
The additional spring and damper add a second vibrational mode, so that the system now has two natural frequencies, one above and one below the single mode frequency, as shown in Figure 2. Since coupling stiffness is often chosen to place the coupling mode frequency below the operating speed range (heavy line a in Figure 2), the additional em spring could well raise the higher natural frequency into the operating range (the right-hand dashed lines b in Figure 2). As an example, Figure 3 shows that for a coupling with stiffness lower than that of the em spring, kM kC, and depending on the ratio of motor to compressor inertias, 36 COmPrESSOrtech2
MARCH 2014
n Figure 2. Shown here are the torsional natural frequencies of a twomass model: curve (a), single frequency, and no em effect; curves (b) including em effects, with the higher natural frequency possibly raised into the system operating range. JM / JC, the upper natural frequency could be as much as 1.5 times higher than normally estimated. These unsteady em motor effects were described by Knop [1] in a 2012 EFRC presentation. The numerical examples given by Knop (ratio of rotor to compressor inertias, JM / JC, less than 1.0; ratio of em stiffness to coupling stiffness, kM / kC, greater than 1.0) are found in many European compressormotor drivelines, but are not as common in North American installations. For example, for a 1200 hp (900 kW), 1200 rpm motor driving a fourthrow compressor through a steelspring coupling, the ratio of motor to compressor inertia is approximately 1.85 and the ratio of em spring to coupling stiffness is approximately 0.8. Figure 3 shows that the (upper) natural frequency in this case would be raised by about 6% above that without including the em effect. Keep in mind that the above remarks are based on a simplified twomass model, with a constant value of em spring stiffness and no accounting of damping effects. In the following we present a way to develop estimates of em spring and damping magnitudes, and consider their effect on torsional vibration response for a range of typical North American motorcompressor installations. Estimating electromagnetic spring and damping values In the earlier reference cited, Knop [1], suggested that by linearization of the differential equations for the stator and rotor currents, analytical expressions continued on page 38 MARCH 2014
n Figure 3. The effect of including an em spring in the two-mass model (neglecting damping, and taking kM as constant) is demonstrated.
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could be generated for em spring and damping values. This would not allow study of certain dynamic aspects (limit cycles, negative damping), however practical estimations of torsional response in a wide range of driveline installations might still be made. Knop [1] proposed that the em spring stiffness kM, and damping dM \ could be expressed as: kM = (MSt /s){(v2TL) / [1 + (vTL)2] } Equation 1, dM = (MSt /s){1 / [1 + (vTL)2] } Equation 2. where: v = frequency of the superimposed torsional vibration, s = electrical supply frequency, MSt = a motor circuit constant with dimensions of torque, TL = a motor circuit electrical constant with units of time. No further information was given in Equation 1 or regarding how the expressions MSt and TL could be evaluated, nor was further information made available to us. To uncover the meaning and get estimates for the variables MSt and TL in Equations 1 and 2, we have referred to the fundamental analysis and equations in Jordan et al [2, 3], and have also carried out a further linearization analysis of expressions for spring and damping effects used in their studies. This involves considerable algebraic manipulation not worthy of inclusion here, and interested parties should contact the lead author for details. As a result, we have derived the following approximate equations for MSt and TL: with: TR = rated (full load) motor torque, TB = breakdown motor torque, sR = slip at rated load, then: TL (1/s)[1/(2sR)]( TR / TB ) Equation 3, and MSt /(sTL) (# stator poles)(TB ) Equation 4. Using Equations 3 and 4 in Equations 1 and 2 will allow ready estimations to be made of the em effect on torsional vibration in a range of drive installations. With the further substitution of: x = (vTL), Equations 1 and (2) become, kM = (# stator poles)( TB )[ x2 / (1 + x2) ] Equation 5, and dM = kM / (v2TL) = kM (TL) / (x)2 Equation 6. The main motor torque characteristics TB, TR and sR are either tabulated or readily available, but the time constant TL requires a further evaluation of Equation 3. Figure 4 shows estimates made using Equation 3 for two types of motors, with time constants TL ranging from 0.07 to 0.14 seconds for motors in the range of 670 to 2000 hp (500 to 1500 kW). MARCH 2014 38
n Figure 4. This shows the estimated time constant TL for typical

induction motors; data taken from published information [4], [5]. The dashed line is for reference only. For torsional frequencies, v of interest from 10 to 60 Hz, the variable x2 = (vTL)2 in Equation 5 can vary from approximately 20 to 2000, but the quantity [x2/(1+x2)] is always within a few percent of 1.0 and in such cases can be neglected. However, for very soft couplings between large motor-compressor setups, the frequency effect on kM, shown in Equation 5, can be significant and should not be neglected. Case studies Equations 5 and 6 have been used to make estimates of kM and dM in order to find how important em effects may have been in past torsional vibration studies based on conventional mass-elastic models (Figure 5). A representative sample of these studies is shown in Table 1, which summarizes the results for three types of installations: 1. Drive A; high power, 5000 hp (3728 kW), soft (rubber) coupling, (450 to 900 rpm), 2. Drive B; mid-range power, 1250 hp (932 kW), steel spring coupling, (1200 rpm), 3. Drive C; low power, 450 hp (340 kW), stiff coupling, mid-speed (720 rpm).
n Figure 5. This is the conventional mass-elastic model used for

the torsional vibration case studies in Table 1, with the addition of an em spring and damper acting on the rotor. COmPrESSOrtech2
Drive A
Compressor Speed Range (rpm) Ariel JGC/6 450-900
Drive B
Ariel JGK/4 1185-1192 SteelSpring
Drive C
Cameron MH64 716 Stiff: Disc pack
Coupling
Soft; rubber-in shear Cold Nominal Warm
kC kNm/rad 1st TNF, v0 Hz Motor Rated Power (kW) Line Frequency (Hz) Number Of Poles Rated Torque, TR Nm Rated Slip, sR - % Breakdown Torque, TB Nm Time Const., TL sec. xE = (vETL)* xE2 / (1 + xE2) kM kNm / rad dM kNms / rad kM / kC
136 5.58
106 4.93 Toshiba 3728 60 8 40,230 1.67 88,507 0.036
72 4.04
124 14.75 Reliance 900 60 6 7,210 0.67 16,593 0.086
15,117 77.98 WEG 336 60 10 4474 0.56 8948 0.118 8.88 0.987 88.4 0.133 0.0058 1.002
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3.40 0.92 651.8 2.03 6.15 1.66
3.40 0.92 651.8 2.03 9.05 1.86
10.8 0.991 98.7 0.07 0.80 1.089
v / v0
* Main excitation harmonic assumed to be 1 x run speed; vE = 94.25 rad/s for drive A.
n Table 1. This is a summary of em effects on some previous torsional vibration studies. The effect is pronounced for higher power installations with ultrasoft rubber couplings. Results of em effects on natural frequency (coupling mode) Table 1 indicates that for systems like C with stiff couplings, that is, kM << kC, em effects are relatively unimportant. On the other hand for systems like A with soft couplings, kM >> kC, the coupling mode frequency can be as much as 90% higher, much as predicted by Knop [1]. The variable stiffness characteristics of rubber couplings are a particularly important influence on the wide range of frequency estimates for this type of system. Intermediate systems like B are modestly affected. These results are also shown in Figure 6, where kM in the abscissa is calculated from Equation (5). Table 2 shows a summary of the torsional natural frequencies compared to the orders of run speed. As previously noted the largest shift in torsional natural frequency was for the Ariel JGC/6 with a very soft rubber coupling; the natural frequency was up to 1.86 times that without the em effects in the model. For this case, the torsional natural frequency was shifted enough to result in resonance at 1 x shaft speed at the lower end of the run speed range. continued on page 40 MARCH 2014 39
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given design operating conditions. However, if single acting conditions are considered (possibly as a result of a cylinder valve failure), the coupling vibratory torques and heat loads are predicted to be much higher when including em effects. In this case, the coupling heat load is approaching the manufacturers limit during the upset conditions. Table 3 shows a comparison of the predicted torques, design factors and heat loads for drive A (soft rubber coupling). The added em stiffness does have the potential to cause a resonant condition with resulting failures of driveline components during upset operating conditions. At this point, the authors are not aware of any actual cases where that has occurred.
n Figure 6. The representative em effects for the three different

types of drives are described in Table 1. The inertia ratio lines are taken from the two-mass model and are shown for reference only.
Predicted Natural Frequencies (Hz) Without em Stiffness 4.04 (Coupling Mode) With em Stiffness 2.61 (Rigid Body Mode) 7.51 (Coupling Mode) 0.35 1.00 0.17 0.50 0.54 0.27 Orders Of Run Speed At 450 rpm 900 rpm
Comparison with field data
n Table 2. A summary of em effects on the predicted torsional

natural frequencies of drive A (soft rubber coupling) is given. The addition of the em stiffness results in the coupling mode being resonant at 1 x run speed.
Compressor Vibratory Torque; lbf-in. Coupling Vibratory Torque; lbf-in. Coupling Heat Load (HP) Motor Shaft Stress Design (Bagci) Factor
n Figure 7. This shows rpm versus time for a 1000 hp (746 kW) motor driving a four-throw compressor through a steel-spring coupling, upper left, with em effects present; lower right, with the power off.
Design Operating Conditions No em Effect With em Effect No em Effect With em Effect 516,900 516,730 28,720 27,090 0.77 0.71 51.5 54.2
Upset Operating Conditions (Single Acting Cylinders) 512,440 513,300 77,500 125,980 3.19 4.67 11.3 15.3
n Table 3. This is a summary of how em effects alter the predicted

response of drive A (soft rubber coupling). In this case, the addition of the em stiffness and damping was insignificant for the design operating conditions, but important for upset conditions (particularly on the coupling vibratory torques and heat load). Results of em effects on system stress and torque levels For each of the previous design cases A, B, C, the predicted torques, stress design factors and coupling heat loads did not change to any significant degree during design operating conditions. This is because, although the system is now resonant with the coupling mode at run speed, there is very little 1 x torque demand from the compressor due to the staging and double acting loading for the MARCH 2014 40
n Figure 8. This graph shows measured TNF during run-up (with em effects present), versus predicted TNF, including em effects. Proximity to the 45 dotted line indicates good agreement. Open markers are for predicted TNF without em effects.
Field measurements of torsional resonance are made conveniently during start-up or shutdown sweeps of a system. In many cases, such sweeps produce significantly different results: during run-up, em effects are present, while during rundown (with power off), they are not. This difference is graphically illustrated in Figure 7, which shows rpm measured on a 1000 hp (746 kW) motor driving a four-throw compressor through a steel spring coupling. During run-up a TNF is indicated at 615 rpm, while during rundown the TNF is shown at approximately 500 rpm. COmPrESSOrtech2
We have compiled a few field measurements made during run-up (with em effects) and compared them with predictions made, including em springs and dampers, in a full torsional analysis of the system. Figure 8 shows that the predicted and measured values fall close to the dotted 45 line, indicating good agreement. The solid symbols show measured versus predicted results when em effects are included in the analysis. The omission of em effects is particularly significant with very soft couplings. Conclusions The electromagnetic stiffness and damping effects on torsional vibration can be estimated by Equations 5 and 6. The predictions agree reasonably well with field measurements in a few cases known to us. Systems with very soft couplings can be extremely sensitive to the em effect, particularly during upset conditions. Steel spring couplings may have their coupling mode frequency shifted upward by 8 to 10%, while stiff couplings are not significantly affected. Reasonable preliminary estimates of the importance of em effects in a particular system can be made by taking the following steps: 1. Combine the inertias on either side of the coupling to form a simple two-mass model and note the inertia ratio. 2. Evaluate the abscissa in Figure 6, that is; # poles x breakdown torque/coupling stiffness.
3. Enter these values on Figure 6 to find how much the natural frequency might be affected. This is a very conservative estimate; very soft couplings might have much greater frequency shifts and in those cases, calculate kM from Equation 5. Further field measurement of the coupling mode natural frequency for fixed speed induction motors is needed to confirm the validity of the approach used to develop Equations 5 and 6. Such field work requires advanced measurement and data processing techniques. The authors plan to carry out such work, which will be reported in a future paper. CT2 References [1] Knop, G.; The importance of motor dynamics in reciprocating compressor drives, EFRC, Dsseldorf, 2012. [2] Jordan, H.; Mller, J; Seinsch, H.O.; About Electromagnetic and Mechanical Transient Processes with Three-Phase Drives (translated from German); Wiss. Ber. AEG-Telefunken 53, 1979, 5. [3] Jordan, H; Mller, J.; Seinsch, H.O.; The Behavior of Three Phase Asynchronous Motors in Torsionally Elastic Drives (translated. from German); Wiss. Ber. AEG-Telefunken 53, 1980, 3. [4] Siemens, Three-phase induction motors, Catalog D 84.1, 2009. [5] ABB HV induction motors, technical catalog for IEC motors EN, September 2011-3.
Flowmeter Can Be Sized For Any Engine > New CCC tool will help operators comply with emissions rules
pliance, the FM 50 is useful for applications where a compressor is using a bi-fuel gas substitution system. In such a case, the FM 50 provides measurements of the fuel flow and cost-saving estimates. For a gas turbine with a low NOx combustor, the FM 50 can measure the flow to each part of the combustor and provide that data to the turbine control system for determining efficiency. The release of the CCC product follows proposed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards issued last September to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from new and existing power plants. According to the proposed rule, new large natural gas-fired turbines would need to meet a limit of 1000 lb. (454 kg) of CO2 per MWh, while new small natural gas-fired turbines would need to meet a limit of 1100 lb. (499 kg) of CO2 per MWh. New coal-fired units would need to meet a limit of 1100 lb. (499 kg) of CO2 per MWh, and operators would have the option to meet a tighter limit if they choose to average emissions over multiple years. The agency is also developing standards to address carbon emissions from existing power plants. They are due by June 1. CT2
n The FM 50 flowmeter from Continental Controls Corp. is shown installed on a gas engine application.
ontinental Controls Corp. (CCC) has introduced the FM 50, a flowmeter that can be sized to measure flow and fuel consumption for nearly any reciprocating gas engine or small- to medium-sized gas turbines. The venturi-based FM 50 provides near instant flow momentary measurements, as well as measurements either averaged or totalized over a period of hours, days or months, the company said. The device provides a true mass flow calculation that corrects for temperature or pressure inconsistencies, resulting in an accuracy of 3% of reading or 0.5% of full scale, whichever is greater. The measurement tool, which was specifically designed for single engines, works with engines and gas turbines from 100 to 10,000 hp (75 to 7457 kW). The basic design of the FM 50 remains the same, no matter the size engine or turbine it is installed
on, and the unit is sized to match the needs of a particular engine. Features of the flowmeter include a pressure drop of 2 psi (0.14 bar), a response time under 10 ms, and a turndown ratio up to 20-1. CCC also calibrates the meter, which automatically makes adjustments to re-zero the transducers each time the meter is powered down. The 8 in. (20.3 cm) device can be dropped into a 2 in. (5 cm) inlet pipe rather than having to re-pipe the inlet and find a way to fit a larger meter in around existing equipment, the company said. The FM 50 comes with a heated, backlit display built into the body, allowing the device to operate in extreme subzero temperatures. Data can be stored locally on a USB portable drive or can be communicated via CAN J-1939, Modbus, Ethernet, satellite or cellular modem, or through the included 2.6 GHz wireless radio. In addition to environmental com42
n The FM 50 flowmeter is designed to measure flow and fuel consumption for gas engine and turbines.
COmPrESSOrtech2
MARCH 2014
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Friction-Surface Coatings In Dry Running Recips > An assessment of the benefits and risks
BY NoRbeRt FeiSteL
TECH
corner
ue to increasing demands on the reliability of process gas compressors, measures to protect the counter-body surfaces of the sealing and rider rings are becoming increasingly important. In this regard, the influences of different coatings on the processes involving dry-running friction contact are not clear. Bench tests with dry-running sealing systems have revealed notable changes in surface texture, typically accompanied by severe wear of the sealing elements after just 500 hours of testing in the case of some coatings, despite high hardness values significantly in excess of 1000 HV. In addition to surface topography, the chemical resistances of the various coatings appear to be an important factor influencing the formation of transfer film. Especially with high-pressure loads, all coatings recommended for use in corrosive media achieved poorer wear rates compared to nitrided-steel piston rods. Introduction The application of coatings to prevent damage during compression of corrosive gases has proven successful over many years. Due to ever-increasing demands on the reliability of process gas compressors, coatings are now also being used increasingly in the absence of corrosive media to protect surfaces subjected to tribological loads. API 618 [1] recommends wear-reducing coatings for piston rods, regardless of the base material. A wear-resistant coating inside the cylinder might also become necessary in case of a high load exerted on the sealing system, a use of piston and rider rings with abrasive fillers, or a presence of abrasive contaminations in the gas. Todays complex set of requirements concerning the use of coatings in process gas compressors and involving, in particular, a diversity of gases, gas mixtures and impurities, are met through numerous combinations of coating materials and processes.
Especially in the case of dry-running reciprocating compressors, the interactions taking place between the friction pair and ambient medium must be considered, too. The coatings surface texture, of importance to stable dry-running conditions, also raises questions about optimal parameters and feasibility. To be taken into account furthermore is the large bandwidth of parameters influencing production of the desired coating quality. Coatings requirements A sound knowledge of materials as well as detailed information regarding the load parameters involved are needed to determine the most appropriate combination of coating material and procedure for a given application. High corrosion resistance and/or high wear resistance are required depending on the specific application. The maximum permissible layer thickness which already precludes individual coating processes or at least necessitates use of a special intermediate layer is of importance depending on whether a new coating or repair of a worn component is involved. In addition to the piston rods outer coating, the diameter of the cylinder to be coated on the inside can range from less than 1.96 in. (50 mm) to more than 39.3 in. (1 m). Finally, also to be considered in the case of oil-free compression is the suitability of the friction surfaces coating for dry-running operation with a broad spectrum of filled plastic materials. Corrosion resistance Coatings of the highest possible chemical resistance are used to avoid damage to the metallic friction surfaces inside the cylinder and the piston rod during compression of corrosive gases such as chlorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide, etc. Especially ceramic coatings such as chromium (III) oxide (Cr2O3) have proven suitable for such applications for many years. In addition to ceramics, hard-metal coatings are being used increasingly for compression of corrosive media. In the most common variant of friction-surface coating comprising tungsten carbide in a cobalt matrix, however, the base cobalt constitutes a weakness in terms of corrosion resistance. To mitigate this drawback, about one-third of the me46 COmPrESSOrtech2
Norbert Feistel has a degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Karlsruhe and a doctorate from the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. In 1988, he joined the R&D group of Burckhardt Compression in Winterthur. This paper was presented at a conference of the European Forum for Reciprocating Compressors on Sept. 27-28, 2012, in Dsseldorf, Germany.
MARCH 2014
tallic cobalt matrix is replaced with chromium. In reciprocating compressors, these WC/CoCr coatings quickly proved successful in many applications involving corrosive media. Another very corrosion-resistant variant of a hard-metal coating is chromium carbide in a matrix of nickel and chromium. Suitable especially for hightemperature applications, this wear-resistant layer has performed well in the chemical and aerospace industries, and is also used now as a friction-surface coating in compressors. Ceramics and hard metals suitable for corrosion protection are usually applied through thermal coating. Due to the nature of this process, however, thermal spray coatings always exhibit a porosity whose degree is influenced, in particular, by the type of process employed. The porosity ranges from 0.5% in the case of very dense layers to more than 2%. Through these pores and microcracks in the spray coating, corrosive media can penetrate as far as the substrate. To prevent this kind of underlying corrosion, it is necessary to implement additional measures such as surface sealing, thermal aftertreatment by means of self-fluxing alloy powders, or use of a dense, corrosion-resistant intermediate layer between the base material and coating. Intermediate layers comprising, for example, nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys or chemically deposited nickel are employed as diffusion barriers. Available finally as an alternative coating process is high-temperature CVD, in which repeated spraying and annealing of a ceramic suspension followed by sealing also makes it possible to create a layer almost free of pores. Wear resistance Dry-running materials with abrasive fillers such as ceramics, glass or carbon fiber can already cause severe wear-related damage on counterbody surfaces made of cast iron. If abrasive gas contaminations such as aluminum oxide are involved additionally, the wear resistance limits MARCH 2014
of even high quality nitrided steel are rapidly exceeded [7]. Even hard chrome coatings offer no protection here. The only remedy in this case is to use a coating with a significantly higher wear resistance. The highest possible degree of hardness, in particular, is usually favored during selection of this kind of wearprotection coating. Thin layers deposited using the PVD or CVD process, and possessing a maximum thickness of only a few micrometers, theoretically offer a very good performance. The well-known titanium nitride layers are specified to have micro hardness values of over 2000 HV. The extremely hard diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings have significantly higher micro hardness values of 4000 to 6000 HV. However, high hardness values alone are no guarantee of adequate protection for the base material, for example, if requirements for bonding strength are not met so that the layer fails by flaking during operation. In addition to ceramic coatings with a high hardness of about 2000 HV, some hard-metal coatings have proven themselves superbly during operation with the aforementioned alumina particles present in the gas flow. Though a hard metal comprising 88% WC and 12% Co has a hardness of just 1300 to 1400 HV, the heterogeneous structure of this sintered composite of hard carbides in a soft metal matrix has proven to be wearresistant even in the presence of very hard gas impurities. Coating quality Requirements for the quality of a friction-surface coating are described by coating specifications, which stipulate agreed limiting values for the layers composition, thickness, hardness, porosity, tensile adhesive strength, etc. In fact, however, a coatings properties depend on a variety of further parameters. In the case of thermal spraying, for example, the coatings quality is also influenced to a large extent by the process, spray gun, fuel, continued on page 48 47
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COmPrESSOrtech2
application rate, etc. In dependence on these boundary conditions, the coater selects a powder of the most appropriate particle size. Despite a constant powder composition, any change to these parameters can significantly affect coating quality, as Figure 1 already shows in terms of the differences between the structures of two WC/Co coatings applied using different processes.
defined by means of a spraying instruction, in addition to defining a coating specification [2, 3]. Suitability for dry-running Practice has shown that cast iron or nitrided steel as the counter-body material in dry-running applications achieves a very good service life for the sealing and rider rings. At least the same expectations are placed on friction-surface coatings. The requirement to produce a functional friction pair from various available dry-running materials is therefore a key criterion that significantly restricts the choice of available coatings. Key requirements for friction-surface coatings intended for dry-running can generally be described as follows: R esistance to local, high temperatures above 572F (300C) Highest possible thermal conductivity Favorable properties for formation of a stable transfer film Favorable influence on tribochemical processes The thermal conductivity values of eligible friction-surface coatings might differ notably from those of conventional metallic counter-body materials. For instance, carbon-based coatings exhibit significantly better values. WC/Co coatings also have a very good thermal conductivity. Ceramics range from materials with excellent thermal conductivity, such as silicon carbide, to insulators (e.g., zirconia). An optimal roughness range instead of an extremely smooth surface has proven successful during dry-running [7]. Appropriate precise surface finishing by means of grinding, lapping, honing etc., is required after the application of the coating. At present, it is unclear whether proven roughness values for metallic counter-body materials can be implemented for specific coatings, and whether the resultant combinations have optimal effects. Attention must also be drawn to the fact that tribochemical processes take place during dry frictional contact, significantly influencing friction and wear, and can thus have a positive effect, for example, through formation of a protective layer on the sealing elements running surface [6]. However, adequate empirical data regarding tribochemical interaction with a variety of combinations of filled plastic materials and gases are not available for all coatings. Especially in the case of ceramics with a low chemical activity, as well as coatings with pronounced anti-adhesive properties, such as hard chrome and composite materials made of nickel-phosphorus with embedded PTFE particles, significant differences to conventional metallic counter-body materials can be expected. Particularly with regard to coatings containing PTFE, it is necessary to note that they are not identical to the tribochemically modified transfer film formed during operation, and therefore do not advance the process of transfer film formation, but instead can affect it negatively. Friction-surface coatings in practice The aforementioned requirements for friction-surface coat48 COmPrESSOrtech2
n Figure 1. WC/Co coatings applied using a detonation process

(bottom), and using high-velocity oxygen fuel spraying (HVOF) [9]. The coating applied using a detonation process has a much coarser structure, with carbide sizes ranging from 10 to 25 m (Figure 1, bottom), whereas a WC/Co coating of a nearly identical composition applied by high-velocity oxygen fuel spraying (HVOF), exhibits a very fine structure with carbide sizes ranging from just 4 to 5 m [9]. Process-specific variations in the coating quality are not always avoidable in practice. From a critical value onward, the internal coating of a cylinder of a small diameter can no longer be applied using the process, spray gun or powder particle size optimal for a piston rods outer coating, for example. To achieve reproducible coating qualities, it is therefore essential that all process parameters, the preparation of the substrate surface and the aftertreatment of the coating are MARCH 2014
ings in dry-running reciprocating compressors are now met mainly by hardmetal and ceramic layers applied by a thermal spray process. This method offers the greatest variation in terms of coating materials as well as layer properties and thicknesses, thereby holding a lot of potential, especially for the repair of worn friction surfaces. Hard metals are handled differently than ceramics, however. Thus, hard metals are now favored increasingly as piston-rod coatings. For instance, their lower impact sensitivity compared to ceramics has a positive effect highly valued during everyday handling. In addition, hard-metal powders applied using the HVOF technique can be used to produce very dense, lowporosity layers. Spraying of ceramic layers requires higher temperatures, achievable by plasma processes. However, smaller spray-gun dimensions here also make it possible to realize internal coatings of cylinders with a diameter of slightly less than 1.96 in. (50 mm). Optimized multicomponent systems are also continually broadening the scope of applications for ceramic coatings. An alternative process to thermal coating of cylinders with small diameters is the high temperature CVD method. Despite the additional costs, the application of friction-surface coatings in reciprocating compressors has
increased significantly. For example, coated piston rods are increasingly replacing nitrided piston rods, which were still widespread until a few years ago, especially in dry-running applications involving low loads. When investing in such surface finishing, however, customers expect added value in the form of notably longer lifespans of the coated components. Operational experience with coatings has shown that demands placed on them, especially in terms of increased wear protection compared to uncoated friction surfaces, are usually fulfilled in a most excellent manner. However, practical experiences with the performance of dry-running packings in practice have been mixed. In applications involving pressure differences in excess of about 290 psi (20 bar), packings occasionally had a very short service life, the piston rod exhibiting conspicuous, very smooth surface areas. Figure 2 shows the average wear rate of all sealing elements forming part of dry-running packings of a hydrogen compressor with a pressure difference of 783 psi (54 bar). Evidently, the wear rate deteriorates continuously despite constant conditions for assembly and operation of the packings, until premature failure of the fourth sealing system. Each packing was operated on the same continued on page 50
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n Figure 2. Average wear

rates of four sets of packing rings for sealing a piston rod coated with hard metal.
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rod with a hard metal coating, which was in excellent condition except for a low roughness along the packing rings friction path. Interactions Insights into the phenomena observed on coated piston rods in practice were to be provided by bench tests on a dry-running compressor. For this purpose, the compressors 216 in. (550 mm) long tail rod with a diameter of 1.96 in. (50 mm) was coated with the hard metal WC/Co using both the detonation as well as the HVOF process. For comparison with the two chromiumfree coatings, the hard metal WC/CoCr containing chromium was applied to another piston rod, also using the HVOF process. Finally, a quaternary ceramic consisting of aluminum oxide, chromium oxide, zirconium oxide and titanium oxide was included in the test series. A piston rod made of nitrided steel served as a reference for a metallic counter-body surface. An arithmetical mean deviation of the profile Ra in the range from 0.20 to 0.30 m was specified for all surfaces (Table 1). A suction pressure of 232 psig (16 barg), final pressure of 580 psig (40 barg) and average piston velocity of 10.4 fps (3.18 m/s) were specified as the load parameters for the tests conducted with dry nitrogen. Used in each case was only one sealing element comprising PTFE/PPS polymer blend in a cooled packing, to ensure clearly defined conditions during subjection of the piston rod to friction power. The PTFE/PPS polymer blend selected for the packing rings and filled with graphite and carbon fiber [7] has proven to be nonabrasive in many applications, even in combination with cast iron of a low hardness.
Counter-Body Material Coating Process Hardness HV0.3 Ra [m] Rz (DIN) [m] Rk [m] Ratio Rk / Rz Rmr [%] Nitrided WC/Co WC/Co Steel 731 0.237 1.797 0.773 0.430 31.29 HVOF 1128 0.263 2.093 0.840 0.401 46.86 WC/ CoCr Ceramic Plasma 926 0.280 2.487 0.303 0.122 82.12
n Figure 3. Temperatures measured in the sealing elements chamber, for piston rods coated with WC/CoCr and WC/Co using the HVOF process. is clearly visible in comparison with the surface in its new state (Figure 4). There was another temperature rise later on, and the test eventually had to be cancelled after 424 hours due to high leakage. The piston rods friction surface was polished smooth and glossy (Figure 4, bottom). Such steep rises in temperature to values above 212F (100C) were not observed in the other tests. Here, the chamber temperatures remained stable in the range between 140 to 158F (60 to 70C) after running in. Figure 3 therefore only shows the temperature profile of the piston
Detonation HVOF 1156 0.223 1.793 0.667 0.372 53.47 1279 0.277 1.957 0.933 0.477 32.15
n Figure 4. Friction surface of a

piston rod coated with WC/CoCr in the new condition (top), after an operating period of 270 hours (center) and after 424 hours (edge length 300 x 225 m).
n Table 1. Hardness and roughness values of the tested counterbody materials. Each test was to have a duration of 500 hours, though this was not possible with the WC/CoCr-coated piston rod. In this case, test had to be interrupted due to a sudden rise in the temperature of the sealing elements chamber (Figure 3). The removed sealing element had been thermally damaged by the excess temperature, and therefore had to be replaced with a new one. On the piston rod, the roughness in the region of the sealing elements friction surface had declined significantly; this MARCH 2014 50 COmPrESSOrtech2
rod coated with WC/Co (HVOF process) for the purpose of comparison. Especially during the running-in period of a dry-running friction pair, surface topography is altered through breakage of roughness peaks, deposition of wear particles and reorganization of surfaces, even on extremely hard counterbody materials. Because these effects can vary highly along the friction surface, roughness measurements in this region usually provide results that fluctuate greatly. Consequently, zones exhibiting minimal roughness were sought and evaluated on the surfaces of all piston rods. Comparing the thus obtained arithmetical mean deviation of the profile Ra to the values in the original state reveals a reduction in the case of all surfaces, except the ceramic coating (Figure 5). On this coating, formation of the transfer film even led to a slight increase in the Ra value. Especially evident is the reduction in roughness on the WC/CoCr-coated piston rod, although it turned out to have the highest hardness values (Table 1). The two chromium-free, hard-metal coatings and even the nitrided steel exhibit a much smaller drop in Ra values. A further result shown in Figure 6 comprises the wear rates of the sealing elements operated on the various surfaces under otherwise identical
conditions. The lowest value was obtained in the test of the ceramic-coated piston rod. Very good results were also obtained with the two chromiumfree, hard-metal variants. The wear rates of the sealing elements are also significantly lower than that of the nitrided steel surface. The highest wear rate was established in the test of the WC/CoCr-coated piston rod involving high chamber temperatures at times, and revealing the greatest drop in the Ra value. Influencing parameters Although a functional design of counter-body surfaces is of particular importance for the dry-running friction pair comprising soft and hard, the surface of the hard counter-body material is usually described only by specifying a permissible range for the Ra value. Ignored in this case is the known fact that the arithmetical mean deviation of the profile Ra is totally unsuitable for characterizing surfaces, as it does not permit any distinction between different profiles. Peaks and valleys are treated equally during determination of the Ra value. The arithmetical mean deviation of the profile is therefore only suitable as a quality control parameter if the character of the roughness is known, continued on page 52
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n Figure 5. Ra values
measured on the friction surfaces of different counter-body materials, compared with the original finish in each case.
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n Figure 6. Wear rates of a single packing ring in dry nitrogen on

various counter-body materials. i.e., whether a fissured or plateau-like surface is involved, for example [8]. Several surface texture parameters permit a characterization of surfaces and therefore serve to supplement the results of an Ra measurement. This is achievable, for example, by means of the following parameters: Ratio of core roughness depth Rk to average roughness depth Rz (DIN) Ratio of average peak-to-valley height Rp to average roughness depth Rz (DIN) Relative material ratio of the profile Rmr Especially in the case of the porous ceramic coatings applied using the plasma process, the surface after comple-
tion of processing might be characterized by a plateau-like roughness profile comprising a high proportion of valleys attributable to the pores (Figure 7). However, the upper limit of the permissible Ra value is often exceeded by this kind of surface. While an inadmissibly large Ra value of a profile with a pronounced proportion of peaks leads to high abrasive wear on the soft dry-running sealing element, it is not necessarily a drawback in the case of a plateau-like roughness profile. A quick initial conclusion about the nature of the roughness profile can be drawn from the ratio between the core roughness depth Rk and the average roughness depth Rz (DIN) [8]. In practice, surfaces achieving a value of less than or equal to 0.25 in terms of this ratio have also proven successful in dry-running if their Ra value exceeds the permissible upper limit (Table 1). Conclusions about the characteristics of the various piston rod surfaces can also be drawn from the material ratio of the profile Rmr indicated in Table 1. In each case, the material ratio was determined with a reference line c0 shifted by about 2% with respect to the highest peak at an profile section level of c1 = Rz/4. A comparison between the Rmr values of the three hardmetal layers reveals that the material ratio of the WC/CoCrcoated piston rod is significantly lower than that of the two chromium-free variants, and only slightly higher than the
n Figure 7. Porous
surface of a ceramic applied using a plasma process (bottom) compared to a nitrided steel surface (edge length 300 x 225 m).
n Figure 8. Different surfaces after processing of a WC/Co coating

and a WC/CoCr coating (bottom) [9]. MARCH 2014 52 COmPrESSOrtech2
minimum value of 31.3% ascertained for the nitrided-steel piston rod. The highest value of 82.1% was obtained with the ceramic coating. Hardness as average from 10 measurements, roughness parameters as average from 6 measurements by profile method [4, 5]. A comparison of the surface topographies of both layers applied by means of the HVOF process reveals that the piston rod coated with WC/ CoCr has a coarser structure (Figure 8, bottom). Powder with a particle size of -45 +15 m was employed for both hard-metal variants; as a result, the carbides present in the WC/ CoCr coating and sized about 3 m were slightly smaller compared to the sizes of 4 to 5 m in the chromiumfree coating. The differences in surface topographies observed after processing can therefore hardly be explained by their structure, but rather by the different composition of the matrix material and the resultant material properties. Whereas the cobalt content of the chromium-free variant is 12% by weight, it drops to 10% by weight in the WC/CoCr-powder, and is supplemented there by a chromium content of 4% by weight. The chromium content has a negative effect on the composites toughness, apparently making it difficult to produce a surface profile with a high material ratio, and resulting in the observed coarse surface topography [9]. An analysis of the test results obtained with the ceramic coating and the two chromium-free WC/Co coatings shows that plateau-like surfaces with the greatest possible material ratio offer favorable conditions for dryrunning. Plateau-like structures can be realized, for example, by levelling the roughened profiles peaks using a suitable superfinishing process, thereby creating a surface with a dominant proportion of valleys. Influence of coatings on the performance of dry-running sealing systems The single-ring test results conMARCH 2014
Counter-Body Material Coating Process Rmr, original finish [%] Ra, original finish [m] Ra, friction surface [m]
Nitrided Steel 33.89 0.220 0.157
WC/Co WC/CoCr HVOF 64.36 0.227 0.140 HVOF 40.60 0.170 0.102
CrC/NiCr HVOF 43.58 0.237 0.077
n Table 2. Roughness
values of the counterbody materials tested in dry hydrogen.
cerning the influence of various coatings surface texture on the performance of dry-running sealing sys-
tems were studied in more detail in a hydrogen compressor. continued on page 54
53
COmPrESSOrtech2
For this, the piston rods possessing a diameter of 1.96 in. (50 mm) were coated with both hard-metal variants with and without a chromium content using the HVOF process, and their surfaces furnished with highest possible material ratio Rmr in an additional superfinishing process. Table 2 shows that this was achieved more successfully with the chromium-free coating. To counter the conspicuously high roughness loss on the WC/CoCr-coated piston rod, slightly lower Ra values in the range from 0.15 to 0.25 m were selected for all surfaces. A conventionally finished piston rod made of nitrided steel again served as a reference for a metallic surface. A suction pressure of 203 psig (14 barg), final pressure of 580 psig (40 barg) and average piston speed of 1.5 fps (3.41 m/s) were specified for the tests, conducted in the first stage of a horizontal compressor that was operated with dry hydrogen with dew point of about -85F (-65C). The piston rod sealing system in each case comprised a cooled packing of six packing rings made of a PTFE/ PPS polymer blend. An operating period of 500 hours was planned for each test. In this series of tests, too, the WC/CoCr-coated piston rods behavior was conspicuous. Though the test in this case did not pose any problems, the average wear rate of the six packing rings was more than twice that of the chromium-free variant, and higher by about one-third even compared to the result obtained for the nitrided-steel piston rod (Figure 9), despite the higher material ratio Rmr. Accordingly, laboratory analyses were conducted to reveal whether friction and wear are influenced not only by different surface topographies, but also the different compositions of the two hard-metal variants via tribochemical interactions between the friction pair and the ambient medium [9].
However, investigations carried out using energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and micro-probe analysis (WDX) revealed no differences, such as a depletion of oxygen or chromium, between the coatings used and original areas. Nor was there any change in the layer structure near the surface. The test series was nonetheless supplemented by a further hard-metal coating that, like WC/CoCr, is highly resistant to corrosion. Though the average wear rate of the sealing elements operated on this CrC/NiCr-coated piston rod is somewhat lower than the result obtained for the WC/CoCr coating, it is still significantly higher compared with the values obtained for the chromium-free hard-metal variant and the nitridedsteel piston rod. In addition, the friction surface of the CrC/NiCr-coated piston rod exhibited a significant decrease in Ra value from 0.237 to just 0.077 m (Table 2). This loss of surface roughness was accompanied by formation of a striking, silver-colored layer on the sealing elements friction surfaces (Figure 10).
n Figure 10. Silver-colored layer on the friction surface of a dryrunning packing ring after operation on a CrC/NiCr-coated piston rod. The quaternary ceramic that successfully passed the single-ring tests also has an excellent corrosion resistance. Due to the very good results obtained at a final pressure of 40 barg, this coating was to subsequently prove its dry-running suitability under a significantly higher load comprising a suction pressure of 580 psig (40 barg) and a final pressure of 1450 psig (100 barg) in the hydrogen compressors second stage. The sealing system employed here comprised a cooled packing with a total of 10 packing rings made of a PTFE/PPS polymer blend and optimized for this application. Already during the test, unfavorable operating characteristics were indicated by conspicuously high temperatures on the piston rods surface and at the outlet for leakage gas and cooling water. The average wear rate of the sealing elements operated on the ceramic coating is more than twice the value obtained for a conventional piston rod made of nitrided steel (Figure 11). This poor result was confirmed in a repeated test. 54 COmPrESSOrtech2
n Figure 9. Average wear rates of packings in dry hydrogen on

various counter-body materials. MARCH 2014
At variance to the compact structure of the transfer film observed in all other tests, both tests here revealed a large amount of loose, powdery particles on the ceramic coatings surface. Summary and conclusions Despite high hardness values significantly in excess of 1000 HV, the arithmetical mean deviation of the profile Ra of some hard-metal coatings dropped by more than 0.1 m in the region of the sealing elements friction surface after only 500 hours. This change in surface texture was typically accompanied by high wear rates on the packing rings, thereby confirming the observations made in practice. Differences in roughness loss indicate an influencing role played by the composition and structure of the hardmetal composite. For example, hard-metal coatings with a pure cobalt matrix exhibited a considerably smaller decline in roughness than those with a matrix material containing chromium. Another important factor influencing roughness loss is the counter-body surfaces topography. The tests showed that plateau-like surfaces with the highest possible material ratio Rmr offer favorable conditions for dry-running, besides reducing roughness losses.
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n Figure 11. Average wear rates of two packings operated on a
ceramic coating in comparison to a nitrided-steel piston rod. Coating composition turns out to play an influential role here too, a generation of such surfaces with the highest possible material ratio Rmr being more successful in the case of WC/Co coatings than in the case of the two hardmetal variants WC/CoCr and CrC/NiCr. These WC/Co coatings possessing a high material ratio continued on page 56 MARCH 2014 55
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Rmr also exhibited lower wear rates compared with the tests of a conventional piston rod made of nitrided steel. A quaternary ceramic tested as an alternative to hard-metal coatings, and possessing a significantly higher material ratio Rmr yet due to its porous surface topography, achieved the best test results with a final pressure of 580 psig (40 barg). After the load pressure was increased to 1450 psig (100 barg), however, the ascertained wear rates were reproducibly worse compared to the result obtained for the nitrided-steel piston rod. Large amounts of loose particles on the counter-body surface suggest that the corrosion-resistant ceramic coating adversely affects a formation of transfer film. In addition to surface topography, variations in chemical resistance among the coatings therefore also appear to be an important factor influencing wear characteristics. Especially with high-pressure loads, all coatings recommended for use in corrosive media achieved poorer wear rates than a nitrided-steel piston rod, despite higher values for the material ratio Rmr. CT2 Notation PTFE Polytetrafluorethylene PPS Polyphenylensulfide CVD Chemical vapor deposition PVD Physical vapor deposition HVOF High velocity oxygen fuel DLC Diamond-like carbon Ra Arithmetical mean deviation of the profile (AA, CLA) Rz (DIN) Average roughness depth Rk Core roughness depth Rp Average peak-to-valley height (Rpm) Rmr Relative material ratio of the profile c0 Reference level c1 Profile section level References [1] American Petroleum Institute, Reciprocating Com-
pressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, API Standard 618, Fifth Edition; Washington, D.C. 20005, December 2007. [2] DIN EN 15311 Thermisches Spritzen Bauteile mit thermisch gespritzten Schichten Technische Lieferbedingungen B euth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin, Juni 2007 [3] D IN EN 15648 Thermisches Spritzen Bauteilbezogene Verfahrensprfung Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin, April 2009 [4] DIN EN ISO 3274 Geometrische Produktspezifikation Oberflchenbeschaffenheit: Tastschnitt-verfahren Nenneigenschaften von Tastschnittgerten Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin, April 1998 [5] DIN EN ISO 4287 Geometrische Produktspezifikation Oberflchenbeschaffenheit: Tastschnitt-verfahren Benennungen, Definitionen und Kenngren der Oberflchen-beschaffenheit Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin, Juli 2010 [6] Tomschi, U.: Verschleiverhalten von Trockenlaufwerkstoffen fr Abdichtelemente in Kolben-kompressoren Dissertation Universitt Erlangen-Nrnberg, 1995 [7] Dry-running sealing systems in practice new challenges by new materials, Feistel, N.; fith EFRC-Conference, Prague, Czech Republic 2007, p. 51-62 [8] Volk, R.: Rauheitsmessung Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin Wien Zrich, 2005 [9] Khnert, B.: Schichtbeurteilung von Kolbenstangen
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Solving Compressor Impeller Rub Problems During Mechanical dissipation improved, impeller expansion limited Run Tests > Heat by shifting molecular weight of compressed medium
o validate the rotor dynamic design of centrifugal compressors, mechanical run tests generally are conducted in OEM test facilities. In a nutshell, the test validates the critical speed calculations and amplitudes in steady state (four hours at maximum continuous speed) and transient conditions (while passing through critical speed). The agenda generally follows clause 4.3.6 of chapter 1 and clause 4.3.1 of chapter 2 in API 617, 7th Edition. The intent of this test is to ascertain rotor stability without it being influenced by process gas. Some OEMs follow this procedure using a partial vacuum as a medium. Some end users insist that a partial vacuum be used to ensure that fluid medium does not influence the results. The common understanding was that mechanical run tests are to be conducted in partial vacuum by a leading OEM and some of the more capable end users. A recent issue changed this philosophy regarding running of a mechanical run test. This article investigates the issue in simple form and provides a means to mitigate the problem with technical backup. The machine in question is a single-shaft multistage centrifugal compressor handling hydrocarbon gas in a back-to-back design. It has three impellers at each section with a suction impeller of high-quality, super-duplex alloy material. The gas handled is a hydrocarbon gas with molecular weight of 18, compressor speed is 10,800 rpm, impeller diameters are 21.2 in. (540 mm) for stages 1, 2 and 3 and 24.8 in. (630 mm) for stages 4, 5 and 6. Interstage labyrinths are stainless steel because of the presence of mercury and CO2 in the process gas. First incident The subject was undergoing a four-hour mechanical run test as per end user approved and API 617-based procedure. During this test, when approaching maximum continuous speed, vibration amplitude shot up from 7 to 40 m at NDE side. During rundown, it even reached 80 m pk-pk (higher than the trip limit set). It was decided to dismantle the bundle as telltale evidence of rub was shown in the form of a phase-amplitude
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plot taken during that period. The horn shape of the peak at critical speed suggests a possible rub as shown in Figure 1.
n Figure 1. This is the phase-amplitude plot during rub.
n Figure 2. Damage occurred in the impeller eye labyrinth area.

Using a fishbone analysis tool after this failure, it was shown that rotor-stator clearance was correct as per API 617 requirements. Alarm and trip settings were correct to prevent incipient rub. These included setup, the chemical and mechanical properties of the impellers, post-weld heat treatment procedures of impellers and measured rotor and gas path radial and axial clearances. All were found to be correct. The OEM undertook the replacement of the subject impeller and in parallel increased the clearance between impeller eye and labyrinth by 100 m to avoid rub. The calculated efficiency was now just at the guaranteed point. Second Incident After the replacement and subsequent modification, another mechanical run test was conducted on rotor No. 2. continued on page 60 58 COmPRESSORtech2
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Similar rub was observed at maximum continuous operating speed. The test was aborted. Upon dismantling the rotor, similar rub with a lower severity was observed.
The OEM procedure was to use a partial vacuum media and lubricant media used for dry-gas seals was air. It is known that 70% of seal air goes to the process stage based on differential pressure. Hence, air being at higher pressure than partial vacuum, it could easily ingress into the clearance between labyrinth and impeller eye and cause a windage effect. Local windage can cause high local heating. This leads to thermal expansion of the impeller hub and labyrinth. Consequently, they tend to come closer. In a vacuum, heat dissipation is much less by convection. Air, too, is a poor conductor of heat.
n Figure 3. Graph shows rotor mode shape X NDE side, Y DE side of compressor rotor.
An analysis of failures with observations that were probably overlooked by the OEM: 1. It was observed in both cases of damage; most severe was the first stage, 19.7 in. (500 mm) diameter impeller. This part is lightly loaded with respect to the drive end part. (It has three 630 mm diameter impellers, balance drum and coupling half.) During the witnessed mechanical test, the DE vibrations were higher than NDE side due to high centrifugal forces of comparatively high diameter impellers (540 mm/630 mm). In spite of comparatively high vibration at the DE side, rotor rub occurred in the NDE side only. 2. The ratio of clearance shown in the lateral critical speed analysis did not suggest any probability of rotor rub at the first critical speed, which was confirmed in test run-up mode and orbit plots. 3. If the second critical speed was getting excited due to some unknown reason, the second stage suction impeller should have rubbed before the first stage suction impeller based on mode shape and their comparative amplifications, as shown in Figure 3. In reality, operating mode shape is a linear combination/ interpolation of the first and second critical speed mode shapes. 4. The geometrical differences between the first stage impeller and second stage suction impeller were: First stage impeller 540 mm diameter, 0.065 flow coefficient. Second stage impeller 630 mm diameter, 0.025 flow coefficient. The high flow coefficient clearly indicated that eye opening diameter was bigger in the first suction impeller than the second stage suction impeller. Diametrical clearance between impeller neck and labyrinth were 0.027 in. (700 m) for all impellers. RCV analysis and vibration amplification factor showed that even at trip level, the rotor cannot rub on stationary close clearance parts. Only an unexplained local heating and thermal expansion could have lessened the clearance and initiated rubbing. The bearing pad temperatures record did not show any local heating (Morton Effect). The attention shifted to close clearance labyrinth seals as the interstage HC seal was found new and intact. MARCH 2014 60
n Figure 4. This shows the test medium and seal-gas path with
windage location. This observation led to further calculation. Super duplex alloy material has a mean coefficient of thermal expansion a of 13.1 x 10-6 mm/C. Both stages of super duplex alloy material impellers have the same diametrical clearances, 0.027 in. (700 m). For example, the initial outside diameter of the impeller eye is X mm = 0.00X m if measured in ambient temperature of A in C. During the test, if the local temperature (at impeller area) goes up to B, in C due to windage and improper heat dissipation. The final diameter after circumferential expansion may be calculated as: d1 = d0 (dt a + 1) = 0.X [(B - A))x 13.1) + 1] = Z mm Where d1 is the final diameter after thermal expansion, d0 is the original diameter and dt is the temperature differential. Expansion was substantially higher for the first-stage impeller (higher flow coefficient) and was higher than that of the second-stage suction impeller (lower flow coefficient). So, if the shaft displacement reading at the probes is M microns, which is far less than the API 617 criteria of 25 m, still the impeller eye can rub with the labyrinth if the COmPRESSORtech2
shaft vibration amplitude plus thermal expansion is greater than as built clearance. To confirm that local heating and subsequent thermal expansion has an undesirable effect, the OEM conducted an FEA of the first stage suction impeller using the mechanical properties measured in an experimental test. This was done to evaluate the possibility of radial deformation at the impeller eye during full speed and over speed in a bunker. Measured values were a very close match with FEA calculation results, which suggested that bore/eye radial deformation does not occur that might have led to impeller/labyrinth rub. Solution/corrective action Based on the previous, it was evident that localized heat generated must be removed. This was to be done by using a medium which does not influence the rotor behavior by damping and the intent of the mechanical run test is not compromised. Hence a gas mixture of molecular weight in MRT 8.805 (80% He + 20% N2) with suction pressure of 14.5 psia (1 bara) and discharge pressure of 23.2 psia (1.6 bara) was selected. There was almost no change in compressor loading from the previous test. The gas mixture entrapped between labyrinth and impeller eye had a higher Nusselt number than air so heat generated due to windage dissipates faster. The Nusselt number, Nu, is the dimensionless parameter for fluids characterizing convective heat transfer. It is defined as:
Nu = a. L / l. Where a is convective heat transfer coefficient, L is representative dimension of a conduit/pipe, and l is the thermal conductivity of the fluid. Nusselt number is a measure of the ratio between heat transfer by convection (a) and heat transfer by conduction alone (l/L). Regarding the rotor dynamic changes due to use of this gas mixture it was concluded that: 1. There will be no shift in rotor critical speeds (minimum to maximum bearing stiffness). 2. Force coefficients are a function of shaft diameter at labyrinth, width of labyrinth, clearance of labyrinth and kinematic viscosity and density of gas. The gas mixture, MW, suction pressure and flow is so low that it will not affect the rotor behavior. The rest of the parameters are based on rotor construction and fixtures. 3. Alford Forces are a function of power, density ratio, impeller diameter, minimum width of gas passage in bundle and rpm. As mentioned in point 2, the power and density ratio is in the very lower side. Hence it will not affect the rotor by aero cross coupling forces. Based on the above understanding, an internal test with 80% He and 20% N2 with molecular weight of 8.8 was conducted. It was successful in all aspects. Later, a complete set of four compressors were tested with the same modified procedure and tests were successful in all aspects to the satisfaction of the OEM and end user. CT2
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Recip Compressor Performance, Safety Predictions for Control Panels > Real-time monitoring is often not enough
Editors Note: This was derived from a paper published on the COMPRESSORtech2 website (www.compressortech2.com) under Featured Articles.
BY DWAYNe A. HicKmAN
eal-time modeling of performance and safety allows the PLC to predict healthy unit performance and to identify where it is safe to run that unit ahead of time. Real-time monitoring reviews unit performance based on actual unit operations (healthy or damaged) but generally provides no insight of what actions as safe to take other than announcing alarms and shutdowns. The first is required action; the second is desired. There are three general methods of modeling reciprocating compressor performance and safety prediction commonly used in unit control panels: Fast and Easy, Covers 90% of Concerns, and Covers Everything according to the Compressor Manufacturer (OEM). Compressor station supervisors need to know which method is implemented in each control panel (UCP), as anything inferior to the OEM method could lead to compressor damage. Many compressor stations have UCPs based on the Fast and Easy method. This method is often implemented by System Integrators (SI) whose programmers curvefit a handful of calculated points, and then apply a few generic rules (such as maximum pressure differentials and maximum compression ratios) to keep units running and safe. This simple method typically does not preestimate interstage pressures before load steps are changed, or look ahead to determine if changing
unit speed creates pin reversal issues. For simple, single-stage, doubleacting units that operate over narrow ranges without having too much cylinder clearance applied, this approach is not completely without some merit. It is commonly implemented in UCPs for many slow-speed, transmission and gas-gathering applications. The real problems begin when this Fast and Easy method is applied to more generic units and/or wider operating ranges with the belief that this simple method is actually safe to use for all applications. Its not. The Covers 90% of Concerns method involves more calculations regarding unit performance and safety, and is the most frequently used method by experienced end users and their selected experienced SIs. The calculations and methods for determining safe operating limits are more robust, better understood and are based on actual modeling equations that calculate performance in real time versus a static curvefit approach.
Dwayne A. Hickman is director of software development with ACI Services Inc. He taught university math and computer science courses for 13 years and has been in the reciprocating compressor industry for the past 20 years.
Here, thermodynamics are considered, interstage pressures are reasonably predicted rod loads are better predicted, and the ability to model both double-acting and single-acting compressor modes is standard. This approach works well for gas gathering, gas boosting, transmission, injection, withdrawal and even some process services. For slow-speed units, legacy compressor manufacturers typically reviewed the operating ranges (often indicated on units nameplating) for complex issues like internal rod loads, pin loading forces, degrees of pin reversal and crank pin forces. As such, control panels could effectively ignore those issues and just concentrate on overload, high pressures, static (gas force) rod loads, low volumetric efficiencies and high discharge temperatures. The problem with this method begins when it is applied to high-speed units under the belief that a slowspeed method is generically valid for high-speed units. Unfortunately, its not. The OEM-based method covers unit performance and safety according to all OEM limits and methods. While this seems like the obvious choice to implement, a higher level of modeling complexity may come with a premium price. Furthermore, how does one model unit performance and safety for each OEMs line of compressors if that knowledge is not readily available? And, how can one expect a low-level (and computationally slower) PLC to handle the complex mathematical methods that take even a high-end desktop PC a few seconds to compute? Fortunately, the industry does offer a couple approaches to satisfy these concerns. One approach is via unit-specific continued on page 64 COmPRESSORtech2
MARCH 2014
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n Figure 1A. This chart shows safety based on rod loads determined by dynamic internal gas pressures and inertia, and crank pin forces (as specified by OEM).
PLC algorithms based on OEM performance and safety limits programmed directly into the UCP. Another approach is via use of an add-on micro-controller that computes complex performance in real time using the actual OEMspecified equations and methods. Using the correct OEM methods for performance and safety is important for safety, warranty and optimization. OEM-X does not warranty its units based on OEM-Ys method of modeling mechanical issues like rod loads, crank pin forces, and gas thermodynamics. Its warranty is based on its modeling methods. Consequentially, if the wrong OEM method is applied, the potential outcomes are: The results closely match the OEMs results. Good luck, head to Las Vegas and buy a lottery ticket but even a broken clock has the correct time twice each day. The results create a conservative operating map. That is, the calculations prevent the unit from running in areas that it could safely operate. This means that the unit is likely not always optimized and
thus not delivering maximum flows and revenues. The results allow the unit to operate in unsafe areas. The UCP calculations indicate that certain areas in the operating map are safe, when in fact, according to the OEM, operating the unit in those areas results in specific safety limits being exceeded the worstcase scenario for safety. The results are conservative in some areas of the operating map while allowing unsafe operations in other areas. This is likely the common case for many current PLC implementations of compressor performance and safety in UCPs limiting the available operating map on one hand and unknowingly exposing the unit to cumulative and potentially catastrophic damage on the other hand. Todays modern, high-power reciprocating engines and motors usually include an OEM designed, developed and approved control panel with the purchase of the driver. This OEM control panel maximizes the drivers ability while also maintaining proper safety
based on current operating conditions and it can also act independent of the UCP, if necessary, to shut down the driver if serious issues are identified. The equivalent of a driver OEM control panel does not readily exist for reciprocating compressors. This leaves control, performance prediction, safety prediction and dynamic compressor reconfiguration left to the end user, the packager or a thirdparty automation company. Since two very expensive pieces of equipment must be coupled together (a driver with a compressor) along with other numerous auxiliary items, control concepts necessary for a wide variety of reciprocating compressor applications makes it difficult for a single set of control logic to address all situations. However, it is quite possible for two complimentary and interactive control panels (one for the driver and one for the compressor) to coexist with the UCP. With todays open distributed control architectures, this is a very reliable approach. For some situations (e.g., gas gathering) only a few system elements, such as speed governors, suction pressure regulators and recycle valves, are automated and thus controllable by a control panel. Some standardized UCPs are encoded with generic control logic for these three basic devices, allowing the UCP to adjust one, two or all three types of devices to keep the unit running within the end users requirements. This type of solution works well when the only issues of concern are overload, low suction pressures, high discharge pressures and maintaining desired flow rates. Nevertheless, since operators can still manually adjust manual variable volume clearance pockets (VVCP) to set head end clearances, add/ remove valve spacers or pull valves to deactivate ends, all combinations of pressures vs. speed vs. suction gas temperatures vs. end clearance settings vs. ends deactivated must be reviewed beforehand. This is required to make sure that running the unit in one of the potential hardware configurations cannot lead to mechanical failure. Areas that lead continued on page 66
MARCH 2014 64 COmPRESSORtech2
62 nd Annual Gas Compressor Institute

Seward County Event Center 810 Stadium Rd. Liberal, KS
APRIL 14-16, 2014
Seward County Event Center u 810 Stadium Road u Liberal, KS

For 62 years, The Gas Compressor Institute has provided unique educational opportunities for the petroleum and natural gas industry. Schedule of Events
Monday, April 14
Exhibitor setup8 a.m.6 p.m. 11th Annual Breeze Masters Scramble Tee times10 a.m.2 p.m. Welcome Reception68 p.m. Great Plains Gas Compression Crawfish Boil, 210 E. 1st St., Hugoton, KSsponsored by Great Plains Gas Compression
APRIL 14-16, 2014
Why Attend?
Attend cutting-edge technical programs designed expressly for field-level employees. Share practical information and experiences with specialists and colleagues. See the latest equipment and services in the extensive exhibit hall with over 100 exhibitors. Test your golf skills at the 11th Annual Breeze Masters Scramble Golf Tournament.
Tuesday, April 167 a.m.4 p.m.

Alignment Gas Lift High Speed Round TableEngines/Emissions 101 Kansas/Oklahoma Air Regulation Kansas Updates Screw Compressor Maintenance Vapor Flash Recovery Social Networking Reception4:306 p.m.
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For more information or registration, exhibitor and sponsorship opportunities, call 620-417-1170, email b&i@sccc.edu or visit www.gascompressor.info.
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n Figure 1B. Specifications are given

for three-stage compressor tested.
to violations of the OEMs safety limits must then be locked out from allowable operations. Consider a typical two-stage, twothrow, high-speed unit running from 50 to 150 psig (345 to 1035 kPag) suction pressure, 800 to 1100 psig (5516 to 7584 kPag) discharge pressure, 1100 to 1500 rpm, suction gas temperatures ranging from 40 to 90F (4.4 to 32.2C), VVCPs on both stages and a need to pull suction valves from the first stages head end at times. A review should be made that covers approximately 2 to 16 million distinct operating points before any UCP is allowed to arbitrarily adjust speed or suction pressure. Unless the UCP has been reviewed for all possible combinations before it was allowed to control the unit, how can one be confident that there are no areas where the panel may turn down the driver speed in an effort to control low suction pressure only to put the unit in pin nonreversal conditions that burn up bushings and possibly destroy crossheads, rods, pistons or even crankshafts? And if those fail, then there exists the possibility of a fire, an explosion, loss of station operations and even injury or loss of life. And if such failures were to occur, who would accept responsibility: the end user for not requiring the prechecks across their entire operating range, the packager for not requiring the checks from the UCP provider, the control panel provider, or the compressor OEM? It is not in the best interest for any MARCH 2014
party associated with the design, installation and operation of the compressor to have that unit fail. OEMs build robust hardware to meet the challenges of end user applications. However, all mechanical systems have limits. Reciprocating compressors often run under conditions of high stress on the components. OEMs design their units to handle those high stresses. But if the unit is operated in conditions that exceed allowed limits, then damage can occur. Continued running of the unit under excessive forces weakens the components. Thus, the unit may fail later even when it is running within OEM specifications effectively making the units safety unpredictable. That is not a good situation for anyone, especially the operators. End users and packagers certainly expect that any installed UCP would act to protect the compressor unit, the station and personnel, and not arbitrarily adjust control valves, actuate unloading hardware or change speed in such a manner that the mechanical forces acting on rods and pins exceeded allowed OEM limits damaging or potentially destroying the compressor. Therefore, end users and packagers must make sure that their expectations are clearly specified in UCP requests (via in-house or third party): provided UCPs must protect the unit according to all of the OEMs specifications for safe operations. SIs want their installed UCP to be able to properly start up the unit, 66
safely operate it and properly shut down the compressor according to the OEMs specifications. While OEM manuals provide a lot of useful information in regards to lubrication rates, warmup time periods, etc., acquiring actual OEM equations and methods is not so straightforward. Most compressor OEMs provide high-end, Windows-based performance modeling software for determining if a specific condition is safe or not. However, they do not generally provide all of the actual equations and modeling methods for others to duplicate the OEMs calculations and methods. Many OEMs have openly released sanitized versions of their modeling equations.This is a good start, but SI programmers still do not have all of the data and methods to be 100% compliant with that OEMs safety requirements. Typical critical methods not released by OEMs are equations or methods related to: thermodynamics, degrees of pin reversal, pin loading forces, expected interstage pressures, dynamic cylinder end internal pressures and internal gas force plus inertia rod loads. Nevertheless, SI programmers are being asked to fully incorporate OEM safety limits for each OEM based on that OEMs developed methods to determine unit safety. Consequently, an SI must: go to the OEM for guidance; ask the end user what methods they want to implement; or work with an OEM-approved, compressor performance expert. continued on page 68 COmPRESSORtech2
Gulf South Rotating Machinery Symposium

April 28 May 1, 2014
Baton Rouge, LA.Crowne Plaza Executive Center
Experience. Learn. Grow.

The GSRMS Symposium provides education and training to improve the compression and rotating machinery industry though workshops, hands-on technical courses and tutorials.
Hands-on technical course training and tutorials covering topics, including: SEMS (Safety Environmental
Management Systems) Turbo Machinery Reciprocating Engines & Compressors Cranes Pumps Centrifugal Compressors Diesel, Gas, & Bi-fuel Engines Generation Control Systems Diagnostics & Reliability Emissions Alignment Compressor Auxiliary Equipment & Components
Course presenters include representatives from the industrys leading companies, including Southwest Research Institute, Ariel Corp., Sinor Engine, CPI, Solar Turbine, M&J Valve, Conoco Phillips, FW Murphy, Cameron Compression Systems, Ludeca, Hytorc, Simmons Plating & Grinding, Governor Control Systems, Inc., RuhRPumpen, John H. Carter, and Total Specialties, Inc.
Who should attend:

Rotating and static equipment engineers Maintenance managers, coordinators and planners Engineering managers Equipment operators Technical specialists Reciprocating machinery analysts
View the full agenda at gsrms.org
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n Figure 2A. This table shows safety based on rod loads based on static gas pressures (using old, inappropriate rod load methods). Green area represents all load steps predicted to be safe at all speeds, and all suction gas temperatures.
n Figure 2B. This table shows safety based on rod loads based on static gas pressures (using old, inappropriate rod load methods). When overlaid on actual OEMs safety map, the majority of the predicted safe area is not always safe. In this case, the unit can fail due to crank pin forces being exceeded at various speeds for various load steps.
MARCH 2014 68
The first option makes the most sense, as the OEM knows more about its equipment and safety limits than anyone else. However, asking for OEM guidance can be awkward since while OEMs want end users to control their compressors safely, OEMs also need to protect their proprietary methods (developed via costly R&D) that may give them certain advantages over their competitors in select areas (e.g., process markets). Furthermore, some items, such as gas thermodynamic routines used in OEM software, cannot run efficiently on PLCs, and the OEM may not even have access to the complex source code for those routines to provide the automation programmers. The second option, asking the end user for guidance, works better with slow-speed units (less than 500 rpm) as end users have had many years of experience with slow-speed units to develop and perfect how they want those units modeled. But even reapplication of slow-speed units to different operating ranges from which they were originally applied causes concern. Also, many of the slow-speed, end-user performance gurus have retired, leaving a void in many end users knowledgebase of compressor performance and safety prediction. The third option, consulting with compressor experts, is what most end users are opting for in todays highspeed compressor era. As such, end users often direct packagers and/or automation specialists to consult with specific experts to create appropriate models for the UCP. A compression expert will know the calculation differences between the various OEMs rod load and pin load calculation methods. They can review thousands to millions of operating points so as to prereview where the compressor may experience problems. They can calculate valve losses similar to each OEMs method, and they know how to predict interstage pressures and safety issues for all hardware unloading configurations (load steps) before any physical hardware is changed. The end-all expert for a compressors performance and safety is the COmPRESSORtech2
OEM of that compressor, as the OEM determines the limits, the methods for predicting forces and stresses, and the modeling equations used. Thus, any selected compressor expert should have an excellent working relationship with the compressor OEMs. In regards to performance and safety modeling, where does the compressor OEMs responsibility begin and end? In short, they cannot reasonably expect anyone to be able to model and safely control their compressors without full disclosure of all limits involved in protecting the unit, and all methods for calculating those limits. However, these disclosures do not necessarily have to be made public thus revealing proprietary information. That is, the OEMs can work with a few trusted companies with whom they maintain secrecy agreements. These select companies can then employ the correct methods and limits and develop simplified equations and methods for the PLC programmers on a per-job basis, providing the desired safety for that specific unit, yet without disclosing proprietary OEM methods. This approach works well for many PLC programmers as it reduces the number of calculations needed to model the unit. The main drawback is that this approach can potentially reduce the size of the allowed safe operating map. That is, in favor of simpler modeling equations and limiting constraint equations, the prospective operating map where the compressor can safely run may be reduced by 5 to 50%. Why? To keep the modeling equations as simple as possible, often the worst cases are considered when creating the array of constraint equations needed to keep the unit safe. Overly conservative constraint equations can effectively reduce the allowed operating map, and hence the operational flexibility often needed by the end user to fully achieve its goals. Well, at least thats the way it has been up until about 2012. Now, a growing number of current OEMs (Cameron/ Ajax, GE Oil & Gas, Knox Western, LeROI Gas Compressors and Arrow Engine) have incorporated their full set MARCH 2014
ing performance and safety limits for of compressor performance and safety those OEMs. As expected, the UCP limits into an actual micro-controller add-on also provides methods for a add-on for UCPs. Thus, the UCP can host of legacy OEMs. now achieve the exact same perforHaving an approved third-party SI mance and safety checks that those handle the controls of the compressor OEMs Windows-based performance makes sense. Customizing the actual modeling software packages provide. UCP to best meet the needs of the Most other major high-speed OEMs station can lead to optimal use of the have provided many of their modeling equipment. UCP logic should not be equations and safety check methods confused with compressor performance so that the micro-controller add-on provides similar results when calculatcontinued on page 70 Water Contamination Reliable_Layout 1 1/21/2014 4:09 PM Page 1
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n Figure 3A. This table shows safety based on rod loads based on adjusted static gas
pressures (using another OEMs method, which is inappropriate since the calculation method is not appropriate for the limits used). The green area represents all load steps predicted to be safe at all speeds, and all suction gas temperatures.
n Figure 3B. This table shows safety based on rod loads based on adjusted static gas pressures (using another OEMs method, which is inappropriate since the calculation method is not appropriate for the limits used). When overlaid on actual OEMs safety map, the majority of the predicted safe area is not always safe. In this case, the unit can fail due to crank pin forces being exceeded at various speeds for various load steps.
MARCH 2014 70
and safety. The latter is a basic necessity for the former. UCP logic deals with what do I want to achieve? and what sequence of events, actions and time delays are required to try to achieve those goals? Calculating compressor performance and safety predictions by a real-time, micro-controller add-on provides answers to the UCP questions: If the compressor were to run under the proposed operating conditions, what hardware configurations would be safe? And for the ones that are safe, how much load is required? How much flow is predicted? How efficient is the unit at those conditions? And, does the compressor need to be shut down for any safety reasons? SIs of reciprocating compressors are challenged to design, code and test the control logic for properly starting compressors, safely operating them across a defined operating map, and properly shutting them down. Part of most control logic involves adjustments to operating speed, adjustments to suction pressure regulators, actuation of unloading hardware and control of recycle valves. Often, SIs and end users assume that because there is a plethora of pressure, temperature and vibration sensors installed throughout the system, that issues would be caught by those sensors a bad and potentially dangerous assumption. Very few reciprocating compressors actually have real-time internal pressure sensors. Standard pressure sensors only measure the suction and discharge pressures nearby the cylinder flanges. These are useful for checking against low- and highpressure limits, but not directly useful for OEM models that base rod loads on dynamic internal pressures. Discharge temperature sensors can catch high discharge temperatures, but only if the discharge valves open and release the hot gas. Deactivated ends and ends operating in very low suction volumetric efficiencies do not lead to hot gases exiting out the discharge valves. As such, internal temperatures can climb to 350, 400, 500F (175/204/260C) and hotter. Eventually, valves, packing and rings will fail, COmPRESSORtech2
leading to consequential and potentially catastrophic damage. Thus, a few sensors cannot make up for not implementing the correct performance and safety models in the PLC any expectation otherwise can be a dangerous choice. Figure 1A shows the Safe Operating Map of an OEMs three-stage compressor (see specifications in Figure 1B) across a suction pressure range of 0 to 100 psig (0 to 690 kPag), a discharge pressure range of 100 to 1000 psig (690 to 6895 kPag), a speed range of 700 to 1000 rpm, six load steps and suction temperatures for the three stages varying from 100 to 140F (38 to 60C). The Safe Operating Map is generated after reviewing over 8.5 million distinct operating points using the OEMs exact methods for calculating safety issues. Red areas are where the unit cannot safely operate regardless of what load step is used and regardless of what speed the unit is running. Yellow areas reflect where some combinations of load step and speed can be used to safely operate the unit while other com-
binations remain unsafe. Green areas reflect when all load steps are safe at all speeds. The key issues noted on the graphic are: C: Crank Pin Forces Exceeded, R: Rod Load Forces Exceeded, U: Gas is Throttling through one of the stages, and O: Unit is Overloaded. Excessive crank pin forces can damage the crankshaft, and excessive rod loads can damage the piston, rod, crosshead and even crankshaft. Either one can lead to catastrophic damage to the unit. Figure 2A shows the same compressor, but this time it is being modeled by standard compressor performance and safety calculations one would find by searching the Internet, or in older compression theory textbooks. Notice that Figure 2A shows no areas of excessive crank pin forces. And, areas marked as rod load concern (R) are quite different than those indicated in Figure 1A. Figure 2B overlays Figure 2A over Figure 1A with some translucency. The blue boundary line helps to highlight where the non-OEM, generic method would indicate to the end user and the UCP that the unit is safe even
though the unit may very well be under excessive stresses. Figure 3A shows the same compressor, but this time it is being modeled by a different OEMs equations and safety limits. Again, notice that Figure 3A shows no areas of excessive crank pin forces. And, areas marked as rod load concern (R) are quite different than those indicated in Figure 1A. Figure 3B overlays Figure 3A over Figure 1A with some translucency. The blue boundary line helps to highlight where the alternate-OEM method would indicate to the end user and the UCP that the unit is safe even though the unit may very well be under excessive stresses. That is, for some combinations of load step and speed, the unit is safe, while for other combinations of load step and speed the unit is unsafe. Since the earliest control panels, end users held high hopes that UCPs could keep their units safe, but knew, due to limitations in computing power, that some safety items were not being continued on page 72
checked. However, since at least 2004, any new UCP is expected to correctly know when it is safe and unsafe to operate the unit being controlled. Knowingly operating compressors in unsafe areas is unacceptable. Unknowingly operating them in unsafe areas also is unacceptable. Operating a compressor by using overly conservative methods and thus restricting its operating map (lost revenues, potentially higher emissions, more shutdowns, more wasted energies from pressure throttling and recycling, etc.) is better, but not ideal. Operating a compressor by implementing that compressors OEM methods is ideal. End users expect maximum use of their compressors, which includes safely covering the widest operating map, running the unit most efficiently and accurately predicting load, flow and unit safety. If the unit is going to be controlled by a UCP, then automation specialists should be required to integrate into their control logic the proper OEM-approved methods for determining unit safety. Anything short of full implementation of the OEMapproved performance and safety methods is not an acceptable best practice for todays control panel. Finally, many optimization and/or monitoring service companies provide valuable information and insight into the fleet of compressors being modeled. These service-based companies take operating data from the field, run the data through a series of calculations, trend the data, compare to historic values and generate reports. However, just like automation companies, too often inappropriately applied equations are used, thus potentially rendering the information from those reports anywhere from meaningless to misleading, and even possibly dangerous. The concluding rule to use for end users is clear and simple: When automating a unit, or adding it to a monitoring service, make sure that your selected vendor applies the correct OEM safety and performance methods when modeling the unit. Ask for it. If the bidding vendor cannot provide it, then select a vendor that can. CT2 MARCH 2014
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Emissions Analyzer
E Instruments has released the E5500 portable emissions analyzer for industrial flue gas.
Motortech has developed a new temperature sensor compatible with Caterpillar GS3500 series gas engines. The sensor is an alternative to Caterpillars P/N 3832989/2419591 and serves as a replacement without modifications, according to Motortech. The temperature sensor P/N 56.01.092-28 is compatible with Caterpillar gas engines G3508, G3508B, G3512, G3512B, G3516, G3516B and G3520B, the company said. www.motortech.de
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The user can choose several electrochemical gas sensors O2, CO2, CO, NO, NOx and SO2. Temperature measurements for flue gas and air, as well as the differential temperature, are standard features. An internal pressure sensor is designed to allow the analyzer to measure pressure and stack draft. Gas velocity can be measured using the differential pressure and an optional pitot tube. The standard EGAS software package offers the ability to save and graph data in real time in the field with a laptop or in a laboratory with a PC. The device can be configured with low-range NOx sensors with 0.1 ppm resolution, the company said. www.e-inst.com
Ludeca has introduced tab@lign, a tablet-based application for pumpmotor alignment, which combines the Prftechnik laser measurement technology with a tablet and smartphone devices. Three steps enter dimensions, rotate shafts and display measurement result are all thats needed for the app to align horizontal machines, the company said. Other features include active clock measurement mode, Bluetooth capability, the ability to measure, correct and save soft foot results, live mode for realtime corrections and preassembled brackets for quick mounting. The tab@lign app runs on Apple and Android mobile devices. It can be downloaded free from the Apple App Store or Google Play. www.ludeca.com 72
Temperature Measurement System

Photon Control Inc. has released the PalmSense2, a portable, handheld fiber optic temperature measurement system. The PalmSense2 is designed for high temperature RF environments or EMI applications in labs and field service. The portable nature of the device, as well as its 24-hour battery life (in continuous use mode) allows the user to move while taking measurements. The PalmSense2 features a temperature range up to 842F (450C), accuracy of 32.09F (0.05C) (probe dependent) and resolution of 32.02F (0.01C). The PalmSense2 can be paired with both contact and immersion temperature measurement probes. www.photon-control.com COmPRESSORtech2
Recent Orders
MAN Diesel & Turbo
MAN Diesel & Turbos first hermetically sealed compressor to be installed in the North Sea will go to Det Norske Oljeselskaps Ivar Aasen production platform. The high-speed, oil-free, integrated motor (HOFIM) compressor unit is similar to MANs subsea compressors currently under system integration tests in Norway. The order for Ivar Aasen consists of a multistage radial compressor (1x100%) arranged in tandem configuration around a centrally positioned 12,740 hp (9.5 MW) highspeed electrical motor. MECOS, which MAN acquired in early 2012, provided the integrated active magnetic bearings. The HOFIM unit will be delivered to the module packager SMOE Pte Ltd. in Singapore, which is building the Ivar Aasen platform. In 2016, the module will be towed to the Norwegian North Sea.
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The stories listed below recently appeared on the COMPRESSORtech2 internet page. Visit www.compressortech2.com to read the complete articles. Subscribers to the digital magazine can simply click on the headline. GE To Acquire Camerons Reciprocating Compression Division Cat Issues Upgrade For G3516 LE Engines Emerson Introduces Vapor Recovery Units Valerus Gets Work On Two Stations Bolivia To Get GEs ICL Compressors GE Starts Downstream Tech Solutions Valerus Compression Services Renamed Axip Compressor Stations Lambasted At Meetings Cameron May Sell Centrifugal Business MAN Compressor Set For Norway Field U.S. Gas Storage Withdrawals Set Record
Caterpillar Global Petroleum has added stainless-steel fluid ends to the Cat XD line of well stimulation pumps and fluid ends. These fluid ends are compatible with all Cat XD Series components. Benefits of the stainless-steel fluid ends include improved corrosion resistance, reduced incidents of cracking due to corrosion and improved durability, the company said. www.catoilandgasinfo.com continued on page 82
Valerus Field Solutions

Valerus Field Solutions has received a US$62 million contract to provide engineering, procurement, construction and commissioning of two compressor stations in Doddridge County, West Virginia, for Crestwood Midstream Partners. The Marcellus Shale facilities, each rated at 120 MMcfd (3.4 x 10.6 m3/d), are scheduled for completion in 2014. The turnkey compressor stations will together include more than 35,000 hp (26 MW) of compression, inlet separation and filtration, gas dehydration, power generation and distribution and station instrumentation and controls. Kentz Corp. Ltd., the holding company of the Kentz engineering and construction group, completed its US$435 million purchase of Valerus Field Solutions in January. The remaining Valerus contract services and aftermarket service businesses have been renamed Axip. CT2 MARCH 2014
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73
COmPrESSOrtech2
PRIME
MOVERS
Laborde Products
Laborde Products Inc., headquartered in Covington, Louisiana, has opened a division Laborde Equipment Services (LES) in San Antonio, Texas. The facility provides service to the San Antonio metro area and the Eagle Ford Shale market. The 18,000 sq.ft. (1672 m2), 3 acre (1.2 ha) facility has a 15 ton (13,608 kg) overhead crane capacity. LES provides service for all makes of diesel and gas engines and enginedriven equipment, as well as hydraulic and electrical service. It also stocks and provides parts for a broad range of support. Roger Markwardt heads the division. He has more than 30 years of experience in the diesel engine and rental industries. Laborde Products has also operated a branch location in Channelview, Texas, for the past seven years. free centrifugal air and gas compressors, has expanded into Southeast Asia by establishing an office in Selangor, Malaysia. Led by Greg Baldwin, director of Business Development for Southeast Asia, the office will seek to expand partnerships. FS-Elliott also has offices at Basingstoke, U.K.; Houston; Jubail, Saudi Arabia; Los Angeles; Mangalore, India; Shanghai; and Taipei, China. Concurrent with the investment, Chris Smith joined the company as president and CEO and Gerry Conroy in the newly created role of senior vice president of products and portfolio. Smith was formerly CEO of Cygnet Software, a provider of natural gas SCADA products and services. Conroy was vice president of global products at P2 Energy Solutions. Detechtion founder Brian Taylor, previously president and CEO, will become chairman of the board. Andrew Miles will continue as senior vice president of operations.
Detechtion Technologies
Detechtion Technologies has received an undisclosed investment by Element Partners, a growth equity fund focused on energy and industrial technology companies. Detechtion provides software-based optimization and fleet monitoring serv ices for about 20% of the active compression horsepower in North America and manages assets for 15 major gas producers.
Dresser-Rand
Dresser-Rand has joined Gaelectric, a renewable energy firm, in the development of its compressed air energy storage (CAES) site near Larne, Northern Ireland. They also formed an alliance to develop other European CAES projects. When completed, the 300 million Larne facility will comprise a 268 MW
FS-Elliott
FS-Elliott Co., a manufacturer of oil-
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COMPRESSORtech2
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Phone: 262-754-4100 E-mail: mgraesing@dieselpub.com
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twin powertrain storage and electricity generation facility. Target commissioning date is 2017. Dresser-Rand will provide project management, scheduling and technical support services through the planning phase of the Larne project, including front end engineering and design in 2014. power, 1340 bhp (1 MW) at 1400 rpm, and fuel tolerance while increasing altitude and turndown capability. New components in the kit include a two-stage aftercooler, venture fuel mixer, turbochargers, oil cooler, air cleaners, gas shutoff valve and software. Existing engines must have the ADEM A3 engine control module, air fuel ratio control (AFRC) and a NOx sensor. Upgrade kits also are available to bring engines up to this configuration.
Wood Group GTS

Wood Group GTS has appointed Mike Fisher as president of its U.S. oil, gas and industrial services (OGIS) business. This is a new position for the Houston-based business that provides maintenance, repair and overhaul for Solar Mars, Saturn 10, Centaur 40, Centaur 50 and Taurus 60 gas turbines, which are used primarily by the oil and gas industry. M. Fisher Fisher joined Wood Group in 2005, working initially in Venezuela where he managed a two-year project to increase the reliability, performance and uptime of the Solar and Siemens turbine fleets on Lake Maracaibo for PDVSA, the Venezuelan national oil company. He subsequently served within the operations group for power plant services and most recently has been vice president of Solar operations within OGIS.
Monico
Monico Inc. has promoted Bill Dicken to technical support manager. He will oversee phone support, field service and the completion of special configuration projects. Dicken has 17 years of experience working with RollsRoyce engines, with 12 spent in customer service for aviation gas turbine engines.
Axip Energy Services

Valerus Compression Services LP selected Axip Energy Services LP as the new name for its Contract Services and Aftermarket Services business, which began operating as a stand-alone company on Jan. 3, following the sale of Valerus Field Solutions LP. Axip is focused on delivering service-based offerings for customers, including contract compression, contract production and processing solutions, fee-based gathering, processing and pipeline solutions and aftermarket field services globally. Axip also retains the Command performance optimization offering, which was released to the market in late 2013. Axips 700 employees include Valerus contract services and aftermarket services personnel plus relevant support services personnel. The current Valerus Compression Services management team will continue with Axip and oversee the transition and growth of the company.
Caterpillar Oil & Gas

Caterpillar Oil & Gas has released a low-emission upgrade kit for select G3516 LE petroleum engines used in gas compression applications. The upgrade kit allows operators to modify existing engines to a lower emission configuration, enabling operation at 0.5 or 1.0 g/bhp-hr NTE NOx levels. Caterpillar said the upgrade is an economic, minimally invasive solution that allows the engine to offer the same MARCH 2014 75
Einstruments.indd 1
COmPrESSOrtech2
3/7/13 9:49 AM
TECH Case Study: Intake/Exhaust Silencer Redesign Research Institute solves Mitigates Noise > Southwest problem of airborne pulsations from
compressor station
BY EUgeNe BUDDY BroerMaN, RaY DUrke aND RicharD BaLDWiN
corner
Editors Note: This article is based on a paper given by the authors at the Oct. 6-9, 2013, Gas Machinery Research Council meeting at Albuquerque, New Mexico.
outhwest Research Institute (SwRI) was contracted to investigate complaints of rattling and shaking of windows, doors, cabinets, etc., from residents near a gas transmission station. Compression at the station was provided by two models of integral compressors: Ingersoll Rand KVG (10-cylinder) and KVS (12-cylinder) units and by two gas turbine-driven centrifugal compressors. Field tests were conducted to identify the sources of the neighbors complaints and to aid in development of modifications to reduce complaints. This article presents field testing activities to verify the excitation sources, a pulsation analysis to develop modifications for reducing offending pulsations, and follow-up field tests for verification. The subject problem is somewhat unique in that the complaints of rattling are vibration-related, but the primary driving source is inaudible pulsations produced in the engine intake and exhaust manifold piping.
Field testing to identify problem sources In an effort to characterize the local complaints, sound pressures and vibration measurements were recorded at nearby home sites and outside the compressor building as the operating conditions of each type of compressor was varied. Vibration measurements were recorded on the foundation of the residences as well as in the ground near each home to assess the potential of vibration transmitted from the compressor station. In summary, it was found that ground-borne vibration was not present. Airborne sound pressure measurements identified a peak occurring near 12.5 to 13 Hz at the residences and near the compressor building as seen in Figure 1. This frequency is below the range of human hearing, but was considered a likely source of rattling. The noise measurements were made in engineering units of Pascals due to the low pressure levels. One Pascal (Pa) is equal to 0.000145 psi (0.000009 bar).
Eugene Broerman is a senior research engineer with Southwest Research Institute (SwRI). He holds a bachelors degree in mechanical engineering from Texas A&M University-Kingsville. He has been involved with reciprocating compressor pulsation control research work since 2004. Contact him at: eugene. broerman@swri.org. Ray Durke is a senior research engineer with SwRI. He has more than 30 years of experience with vibration-related problems. He has a bachelors degree in mechanical engineering from Texas A&M University and a masters from the University of Texas at San Antonio. Contact him at: ray.durke@swri.org. Richard Baldwin retired from SwRI in 2012 and is an engineering consultant. He has experience with pulsation, vibration, corrosion, and reliability problems in plant systems. He has a bachelors degree in engineering from Trinity University and a masters from Georgia Institute of Technology. Contact him at: engineerbaldwin@ satx.rr.com
n Figure 1. Graphs show sound pressure data recorded at residence with 4 KVG, 2 KVS and turbine operating. In order to identify the sources of the airborne pulsations, testing was conducted with various units operating over a range of conditions to track the pulsations near 12.5 Hz. Field measurements showed that the elevated pulsations near 12.5 Hz corresponded to 2.5 times (2.5x) the running speed of the KVG units. 76 COmPrESSOrtech2
MARCH 2014
When the engine running speed was varied over the operating range of 300 to 330 rpm, the 2.5x component in the sound and pulsation data tracked speed and varied from about 12.5 to 13.75 Hz. A summary of those pulsation measurements near 2.5x is presented in Table 1. The testing effort identified the KVG units as the primary source of the elevated 2.5x energy and eliminated the KVS units and the turbine-driven units as potential sources.
n Table 1. Noise Pressures (Pascals, pk-pk) Detected near 2.5x at

various test locations.
n Figure 3. Schematic shows engine exhaust manifold.

Airborne sound pressure measurements near the inlet duct to the engines could not distinguish whether the source was from the intake or the exhaust. A pressure measurement taken inside the inlet duct shows high pulsation at 2.5x the running speed and much lower amplitudes at several harmonics of running speed as displayed in Figure 2. The indication is that at least a portion of the noise at the residences originates from the inlet duct.
n Figure 4. This graph shows the pulsation spectra recorded in the exhaust manifold.
From the summary of pulsation amplitudes in Table 2, note that the 2.5x pulsation amplitudes measured in the exhaust piping are thousands of times more than that measured at the residences.
n Table 2. This is a summary of maximum 2.5x pulsations measured in the exhaust manifold.
n Figure 2. Pulsation data recorded in Unit 4 intake duct showing 2.5 multiple pulsations.
Field testing to map air intake and exhaust pulsations A separate testing effort was conducted utilizing high temperature transducers to measure pulsations in the engine inlet and exhaust manifolds in order to define pulsation characteristics contributing to the high 2.5x pulsations and to provide data for correlation with an acoustic model of the intake/exhaust manifolds. A schematic of the exhaust system is provided in Figure 3. The pulsations at 2.5x the running speed dominated the spectrum and reached a maximum at the capped end of the manifold, location P9, as seen from the data in Figure 4. MARCH 2014 77
n Figure 5. The engine intake manifold schematic is shown.

continued on page 78 COmPrESSOrtech2
The inlet manifold is represented in Figure 5 and is a somewhat more complex piping system. The field measurements identified a strong acoustic response at 2.5x running speed that contains a pulsation maximum at the capped end of each cylinder bank (test locations P5 and P8), and a minimum near the header between the cylinder banks (between test points P3 and P6). Spectra pulsation plots of data recorded inside the intake manifold show the 2.5x pulsations present over the speed range, which is similar to the pulsation data measured in the exhaust system. A summary of the maximum pulsation amplitudes near 2.5x is provided in Table 3. The pulsation amplitudes in the intake manifold are lower than those in the exhaust by about a factor of three. Data from the field studies was used for calibration of an acoustic model of the manifold systems. Comparisons of the field measurements with the model predictions are included in subsequent sections.
near 2.5x running speed and to investigate potential modifications for pulsation mitigation. The extent of the piping included in the modeling is summarized in Figures 3 and 5. A summary of model results are presented in the following sections. Exhaust manifold model The pulsation model of the exhaust piping indicated that an acoustic response was present in the system near 12.5 Hz. A pulsation maximum was predicted at the capped end of the header and lower amplitudes near the stack. The red plot in Figure 7 shows model predictions of the pulsation in the stack for the existing piping system. The spectrum is dominated by the response peak near 12.5 Hz
n Figure 7. The graph shows predicted pulsations in the exhaust stack.

Modifications to reduce pulsations by changing the manifold length, adding orifice plates, and providing an acoustic filter installed as part of the silencer were investigated. The operating company desired the most reliable solution, which was an acoustic filter designed into the silencer to attenuate pulsations associated with 2.5x engine running speed and higher harmonics.
n Table 3. This is a summary of maximum 2.5x pulsations measured in the inlet air manifold.
n Figure 8. This exhaust piping pulsation summary gives predictions and field data. (Reference Figure 3 for test point locations.)
n Figure 6. The pressure transducer installed at the end of the

manifold (test point P5). Figure 6 shows an example installation of a pressure transducer in the intake manifold at the capped end of the cylinder bank near cylinder one, test point P5. Pulsation model An acoustic model of both the inlet and exhaust manifolds was developed to explore the sources of the energy MARCH 2014 78 Figure 8 shows pulsation amplitudes near 12.5 Hz predicted by the model in red for the existing manifold and in blue with the new silencer installed. Field measurements acquired at four locations in the manifold piping, indicated by stars, show good correlation with the model and field data. The important aspect of the design is the predicted amplitudes in the exhaust stack are reduced by a factor of about eight with the new silencer installed. It was assumed that the primary coupling of the excitation energy near 2.5x running speed to COmPrESSOrtech2
the atmosphere occurs at the exhaust stack outlet. A spectral plot of pulsation predicted in the stack is shown in Figure 7, where the red line is the model prediction of pulsations with the original silencer and the blue line is the predicted amplitude with the new silencer installed.
n Figure 9. Drawing shows

the new exhaust silencer to attenuate 2.5x pulsations.
n Figure 10. This gives the predicted pulsations at the intake manifold.
The acoustic mode shape of the pulsation response in the inlet manifold model is provided in Figure 11 for the cylinder bank of cylinders six through 10. The model predictions (shown as a red line) match the field data (plotted as red stars) fairly closely and show a pulsation maximum at the closed end of the cylinder bank and a minimum near the inlet.
n Figure 11. This intake piping pulsation summary shows predictions and field data. (Reference Figure 5 for test point locations.) Acoustic modifications were investigated to mitigate the 2.5x pulsations, which included orifices to damp the resonance, a piping length change to shift the frequency of the response, and the addition of side branch resonators to absorb the pulsations. A more reliable modification to provide pulsation attenuation for airborne pulsations from the inlet piping was developed. The design utilized an acoustic filter with an inlet silencer similar to that developed for the exhaust system. The acoustic filter was designed to attenuate the 2.5x engine pulsations upstream of the silencer that would pass into the atmosphere. A drawing of the new inlet silencer design is provided in Figure 12. Pulsation predictions within the intake piping with the silencer installed, the blue line in Figure 11, do not vary significantly from pulsations in the original manifold model (the red line in Figure 11). However, the objective of the new inlet silencer is to attenuate the pulsations near 2.5x that pass into the atmosphere. Therefore, the key pulsation data is at the inlet to the intake system. The predicted pulsation spectra at the 10 in. inlet piping can best be seen in Figure 10 for both the original piping (in red) and with the new silencer installed (in blue). Adding the new silencer to the acoustic model results in a reduction of continued on page 80 79 COmPrESSOrtech2
Replacing the existing silencer with the silencer presented in Figure 9, results in predictions of significant reduction of 2.5x running speed pulsations in the piping downstream of the filter; therefore, installation of the new silencer should reduce the pulsations that couple into the atmosphere at the end of the stack. Inlet manifold piping The pulsation analysis of the engine inlet air piping indicated that an acoustic response should be expected in the system near the top range of 2.5x running speed. The acoustic resonance is associated with the length of piping from the capped end of the cylinder six through 10 bank to the capped end of the cylinder one through five bank. The response predicted at the inlet to the original intake system is given in red in Figure 10. As shown, the response amplitude is significant from approximately 11 to 15.5 Hz. Field data matches relatively well with the model predictions, showing higher 2.5x pulsations at higher running speeds. MARCH 2014
the 2.5x pulsations by approximately 2:1 at the inlet to the intake system. These predictions are an indication that the pulsations transmitted into the atmosphere at the engine intake will be significantly reduced.
The test results indicate that the sound pressures at 2.5x are lower with the new silencers by factors of about 3:1 near the compressor building, 2:1 at Home 2, and about 6:1 at Home 3. With the lower levels present, the sound pressure measurements are more erratic and can be affected by local noises. Figure 13 shows spectral plots recorded at Home 2, while Figure 14 shows sound pressure measured in the compressor station. The data distinctly indicates that the new silencers attenuate the 2.5x sound component, and also show the presence of more random low-level sound pressures present over the lower frequency band.
n Figure 12. This drawing is the new inlet silencer.

Field test to verify model prediction Field measurements were recorded with the recommended inlet and exhaust silencers installed on one unit to verify performance prior to installation on all six units. Field measured pulsations in the intake and exhaust piping systems are summarized by the blue stars in Figures 8 and 11. Pulsation amplitudes at the inlet and outlet of the intake and exhaust systems, respectively, were significantly reduced after the new silencers were installed, as predicted in the pulsation modeling. Field sound measurements were recorded at locations similar to those recorded in the previous field tests with microphones located outside the compressor building and at Homes 2 and 3 to assess the effects of the new silencers. Table 4 provides a summary of the measurements and shows a significant decrease in the 2.5x pulsations with the silencers installed.
n Figure 13. This graph is of the sound pressure spectra at Home 2.
n Figure 14. This shows sound pressure spectra at the compressor station. Based on the results of the tests, the decision was made to install the silencers on the remaining units. A follow-up field study was performed to evaluate the system when all six units were fitted with the new silencers. Sound data was measured at the station and at two home sites. A reduction of at least 2:1 was measured at the compressor station, a reduction of more than 6:1 at one home site, and a reduction of approximately 5 to 30% at the second residence. It is not clear why the noise measured at one of the nearby 80 COmPrESSOrtech2
n Table 4. These sound pressures were at 2.5x at noted test locations.

MARCH 2014
home sites was not significantly reduced by the installation of the new silencers; however, it is clear that the 2.5x pulsations transmitted into the atmosphere were reduced significantly by the installation of the newly-designed silencers. Summary The key points of the field investigation, pulsation analysis, and follow-up testing were: Initial field tests to address community annoyance complaints identified airborne sound pressure peaks occurring at homes near the compressor station that corresponded to 2.5x running speed of one type of compressor unit. Although the 12.5 to 14 Hz frequency was well below the range of human hearing, this lone peak in the sound spectrum was considered the most likely cause of the rattling and shaking complaints. Pulsation measurements inside of the engine intake and exhaust manifold piping revealed strong pulsations at 2.5x running speed and was shown to be the source of the elevated sound pressure energy detected at the local houses. The field data provided correlation for acoustic models of the air ducts that identified acoustic responses in both the intake and exhaust manifold piping. A n acoustic model of the exhaust gas manifold identified a quarter wave pulsation response in the piping system. Of several potential design modifications, the most reli-
able option for reducing the pulsations transmitted into the atmosphere was replacement of the existing silencer with a low-pass acoustic filter type silencer designed to attenuate the 2.5x running speed pulsations (and higher frequency pulsations). This design was predicted to provide a reduction of about 8:1 in the 2.5x pulsations as measured in the exhaust stack. Acoustic modeling of the engine intake manifold indicated that a half-wave acoustic resonance existed in the system near the 2.5x frequency. A low-pass silencer was designed to attenuate the 2.5x pulsations similar to that of the exhaust system. A maximum reduction of about 2:1 in the 2.5x pulsations was predicted at the inlet. Field measurements conducted with the new silencers on one unit revealed that the sound pressure spike near 2.5x was eliminated. The measured reduction of the 2.5x pulsation amplitudes varied from a factor of 2:1 to 6:1 as measured near the compressor building and at two nearby homes. Field tests conducted with the new silencers installed on all six units revealed that the sound pressure spike near 2.5x was eliminated at measurement locations in the compressor station and at one of the home sites. At a second home site, a 2.5x sound pressure spike remained. Since the sound pressure spike was eliminated in the compressor station and at one home site, questions remain regarding another potential sound source. CT2
MARCH 2014
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Graphite Metallizing Corp. has released its Graphalloy bearings and wear rings, which are designed to address pumping problems caused by low viscosity, light hydrocarbon liquids such as natural gas liquids (NGL), LNG and CO2. Graphalloy bearings are used in horizontal and vertical pumps. The nongalling, self-lubricating features of Graphalloy allow pumps to continue working even when experiencing run-dry, flashing or cavitation, the company said. According to Graphite Metallizing, light hydrocarbons can be difficult for metallic bearings because the hydrodynamic film provided by these lowlubricity fluids is unable to provide enough lubrication, which can lead to metal-on-metal contact, galling or seizing of the pump. Using Graphalloy bearings and wear rings allows tighter clearances, improving reliability, lowering vibration and increasing efficiency in vertical and horizontal pumps, the company said. www.graphalloy.com
tion facilities. The fixture is intended to replace traditional fluorescent and HID lighting fixtures, and is also available for nonclassified general purpose industrial applications. Featuring 106 lumens per watt, the SafeSite LED linear fixture is available in 2 and 4 ft. (0.6 and 1.2 m) models with a weight of 11 lb. (5 kg). The 100 to 277 Vac linear fixtures also feature an integrated wiring box to provide access for making electrical connections in a separate compartment. The SafeSite is L70 rated for more than 100,000 hours and features a T4a temperature rating of 40 to 65C (-40 to 149F). www.dialight.com
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Global Sales Group has introduced its engine oil drain valve for industrial engines and construction equipment. The EZ Oil Drain Valve replaces the traditional oil drain plugs. The nickel-plated valve features a ball valve mechanism for leak-proof operation, an O-ring seal and rubber lever cover. Once installed, users only have to turn the lever to drain oil, and turn it again to close it, the company said. A hose may be attached to the nipple end to drain the oil away from the engine. www.ezoildrain.com MARCH 2014
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Clark-Reliance Corp. has released a new protective shield for use on armored glass, liquid level gages. Safe View shields protect nearby operators from high-pressure leaks, and can be retrofitted to Jerguson brand level gages, as well as many others, the company said. Made of Lexan polycarbonate, Safe View shields are available in lengths to fit flat glass gage styles. www.clark-reliance.com
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ence in the oil and gas industry, the software provides thousands of ways to examine data and generate analyses to inform better decision-making and increase competitive edge, the company said. www.visageinfo.com dependently tested and certified to EN1822:2009. Key features include interchangeable components; FRAM-Clench, an inner and outer clenched liner that provides a mechanical lock without damaging the liner surface; and FRAM-Bead, a technology that maximizes dust-release space to prolong the life of the filter. www.framindustrial.com
Turbine Filters
Champion Laboratories (Europe) Ltd. has launched its FRAM Industrial E10 filter line, designed for gas turbines.
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H. G. Schaevitz LLC Alliance Sensors Group has expanded its line of sensor support electronics with the release of the M-100 series singlechannel digital process meter. The M-100 digital meter is designed for measurement applications that display an analog sensors output or the output of most types of thermocouples. It offers a 0.3 in. (7 mm), four-digit
Featuring a 100% synthetic media constructed from polyester and polyethylene, the filter has been in-
LED display with 16-bit resolution in a 1/32 DIN size that can be mounted. It also can be calibrated to display an analog sensors dc voltage or current output in engineering units, or temperature in Fahrenheit or Celsius. The M-100 meter comes with peak-hold functions standard, along with internal relay contacts for set-point control of an alarm or annunciator. It also features the ability to retransmit a 4 to 20 mA analog signal to a control system or data logger. www.alliancesensors.com
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SPECIAL FEATURE:
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2014
Cornerstones Of Compression story continued from page 88

CT Valve Application Limits Size Range
(Relates to diameter of the seat land area)
2.65 to 8.70 in. 5075 psig 2175 psi 0.11 in.
65 to 221 mm 350 bar 150 bar 2.8 mm 2000 rpm
Maximum operating pressure Maximum differential pressure Maximum lift Maximum speed
Compressor suction and discharge valves are highspeed check valves that seal gas inside the cylinder during gas compression and expansion. The valve plates open when the gas pressure on one side overcomes the spring forces and the pressure on the other side. Conversely, the plates close when that pressure is no longer high enough to resist the spring force and the pressure on the back side of the plates. This action happens many times each second (e.g., 5 at 300 rpm and 30 at 1800 rpm). Early compressors operated at low speeds using valves with concentric rings, reeds, channel plates or other approaches with multiple coil springs. Most U.S. compressor manufacturers at the time, e.g., Ajax, Cooper-Bessemer, Superior, Worthington, Clark and Ingersoll Rand (IR), made their own valves. As higher-speed gas engines were developed, compressor manufacturers responded with separable compressors to match these newer, more cost-competitive drivers. HCA supplied high-speed plate valves 800 rpm IR RDH and RDS frames, as well as the Knight KOC and the EI and Gemini compressors. These were mostly called CGD valves, which employed metal plates with a unique double damping system. But the incumbent valve technology threatened to limit the size and speed of compressors. The valve lift (plate opening distance) for steel plate valves was limited by a number of factors including impact forces during opening and closing events where two hard and rigid surfaces collide. The high cost of steel valve plates also made them increasingly unattractive to compressor operators. Another problem was that when the steel plates failed, broken pieces could damage the valve seat and render it unrepairable. While steel valve sealing elements (plates, rings, channels, strips) had served as workhorses for valve plate technology since the early 1900s, in the late 1970s and early 1980s (then) relatively new nonmetallic valve plates, were proving to be much better and more reliable. The nonmetallic valve plates not only cost less, they were more resistant to fatigue and could accommodate higher lifts that increased the valve flow area and reduced valve losses. And the likelihood of severe valve seat damage was much less in the event of failure of the nonmetallic plates. U.S. reciprocating compressor manufacturers were beginning to embrace the separable compressor concept and were looking to push from the high speed of 800 rpm to unheard of speeds as high as 1800 rpm to match the emerging gas engines. This new requirement pushed the MARCH 2014 87
Hoerbiger R&D group in Vienna to investigate alternative valve designs, taking advantage of the new nonmetallic valve plate materials. The result was a compressor valve concept never before seen by the reciprocating compressor industry. The valve, designated CT, was designed from the ground up. It was never intended to be used with steel sealing elements and because of this the valve designers were able to offer significant increases in valve lift area. The new design used a thin 0.079 in. (2 mm) polyether ether ketone (PEEK) plastic plate with a steel cushion plate and a wafer spring that also helped eliminate the phenomenon then recently recognized as stiction. Stiction is a phenomenon that can occur in lubricated compressors when the valve plate comes into contact with either the seat lands or the guard and where a film of lubrication can cause a delay of the opening or closing event of the valve plate. This delay can result in the premature failure of the valve plate due to higher impact forces. The wafer spring, fitted between the guard and the steel cushion plate in the CT valve, worked beautifully in breaking the stiction effect. The CT valve had another very unique feature. Rather than having the closing springs dispersed throughout the valve guard, all the springs were arranged very close to the outside diameter of the valve guard. This allowed the valve plate to deflect from the inside out, keeping the valve plate in a flatter opening position and stabilizing the opening impact as the outside diameter of the valve plate tended to see the highest opening impact. The design lessened these typical high opening impacts, allowing the valve plate to last longer under extreme operating conditions, especially in the new short-stroke, highspeed compressors. Few people understood the impact that this breakthrough would have on the compressor industry. Hoerbiger put some out on test and sold a few. Cooper was developing a new 1200 to 1500 rpm Superior RAM compressor in 1985 and first applied the new CT valve. At about the same time Ariel, which was developing ever-larger compressors, started applying them in its JGR and then the newer JGK models. Soon the valves were being used in Gemini and EI compressors as well. A number of developments occurred as the CT valve evolved over the years. Plate thickness was increased to 0.157 to 0.236 in. (4 to 6 mm), and the steel cushion plate was eliminated. PEEK was brittle in cold weather startups, so nylon plates were offered. Soon, taking advantage of new material technologies, a special MT material was developed that was closer to the strength and high temperature capability of PEEK and the low temperature flexibility of nylon. Truly a game changer that enabled the successful application of modern high-speed separable compressors, the CT valve remains the heart of most natural gas compressors operating today. It is produced in a range of sizes and used in most gases, including sour gas. CT2 COMPRESSORtech2
C ornerstones Of Compression
n The CT valve is a critical component for tens of thousands of high-speed

separable compressors operating today.
The Heart Of The HighSpeed Recip > Hoerbiger CT valve was a game changer
BY NOrm ShaDE
n 1895, Hanns Hrbiger developed an innovative valve for reciprocating compressors. His steel plate valve overcame all the disadvantages of other common valve designs at the time. In 1900, Hrbiger, together with engineer Friedrich Wilhelm Rogler, founded an engineering office in Budapest, which they relocated to Vienna in 1903. Hanns Hrbiger devoted himself to continually enhancing the steel plate valve he had invented and patented. His office issued licenses for use of the technology to business partners domestically and abroad. In 1925, the engineering office became Hoerbiger & Co. trading company. In 1931, Alfred Hrbiger, oldest son of Hanns, started the in-house production of valves. 88
Between 1925 and 1945, 171 patents were granted for Hoerbiger & Co. for inventions and developments in the field of compressor valves and controls. After the destruction of the Vienna production plant during the last year of World War II and the sudden passing of Alfred Hrbiger, his wife, Martina, managed to rebuild the plant. Martina Hrbiger was a take-charge entrepreneur who oversaw the development of a worldwide company over many decades. Hoerbiger Co. expanded sales throughout much of the world and by the end of the 1950s had developed its own distribution system in North America. Hoerbiger Corp. of America (HCA) was founded in 1963 and the development of a production operation followed, led by Hubert Wagner. continued on page 87 COMPRESSORtech2
MARCH 2014
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CONTROLS REcIP MODELING RUB PROBLEmS MARCH 2014

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Customers: Challenge: Result:

Flexible, reliable compressor designs for extended, cost-efcient operations.

They turned to Elliott

for reliable compression solutions.

The world turns to Elliott.

Theres A Reason Why Its Called A Compressor Package

740.397.0311 | 35 Blackjack Rd Mount Vernon, OH 43050 | www.arielcorp.com

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JoE KaNE CompREssoRtech2 Founder

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Roberta Prandi Via Fitta, 21a I-38062 Arco, Italy

Bo Svensson, Field Editor/Business Manager Dunderbacksvagen 20 612-46 Finspong, Sweden

evolving solutions around your world www.c-p-i.com

Dedicated To Gas Compression Products & Applications

22 The Importance Of Motor Dynamics In Reciprocating Compressor Drives

www.compressortech2.com Follow Us @ COMPRESSORtech2

MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDE PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

BY Roberto Chellini Associate Publisher

Its all in the name.

Trusted to deliver excellence

BCD Packing Ring - leading operators and OEMs conrm:

Meetings & Events

*Indicates shows and conferences in which COMPRESSORtech2 is participating

Tel: +1 (225) 578-4853 Web: www.gsrms.org

June 10-12 *Global Petroleum Show Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Energy Exposition Billings, Montana Tel: +1 (307) 234-1868 Web: www.energyexposition.com

About The Business

MARCH 2014 12 COmPRESSORtech2

Maximize the Performance

Natural Gas Engine

Intelligent Ignition Control System

Visit us at GCA April 6-9, 2014, Galveston, TX Booth #320

Contact us today to find out how to ignite your engine: 918-317-2627

The Perfect Mix

Call your nearest MOTORTECH Sales Partner:

Martin Machinery L.L.C. Phone: 1-800-436-9190 sales@martinmachinery.com

Reagan Power & Compression LLC Toll free: 1-800-264-7767 www.reaganpower.com

Cypress Engine Accessories Phone: 1-281-256-9100 www.cypressengine.com

WPI Phone: 1-888-458-0448 www.wpi.com

Distribution partner for DENSO spark plugs

MOTORTECH Americas, LLC | www.motortech.de | www.motortechamericas.com

n Cameron employees assemble Superior

Johnson Matthey Modulex, the Standard in Catalytic Converters:

Reduce 99% of NOx, CO and HCs Superior

MARCH 2014 17 COMPRESSORtech2

Making Alternative Power a Reality

2014 Cummins Inc., Box 3005, Columbus, IN 47202-3005 U.S.A.

MARCH 2014 20 COMPRESSORtech2

Bringing energy and the environment into harmony.

BY SwamY SUbramanYam and GerHard KnOP

n NEAs products, including this 10,500 hp

Trust the #1 online monitoring system for mission-critical equipment

Who monitors the most reciprocating compressors?

n This cutaway drawing shows a high

MARCH 2014 24 COMPRESSORtech2

n This is a grouping of VariFuel2s available from Motortech.

Leading the way in