A PROJECT ON

MIGRATION OF LABOUR FROM INDIA

IN THE SUBJECT

Economics of Global Tra ! an Financ!

SUBMITTED B"

Si

#an$ Na%l! A&'(

MCom Par$)I in Ban*in% + Financ! UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Prof, Jos! A-%-s$in!

TO UNI.ERSIT" OF MUMBAI FOR MASTER OF COMMERCE PROGRAMME /SEMESTER ) II0 In BAN1ING + FINANCE "EAR2 '&34)35 S.1M6S NARSEE MONJEE COLLEGE OF COMMERCE +ECONOMICS .ILE PARLE /708 MUMBAI 9 5&&&:;,

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E.ALUATION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the undersigned have assessed and evaluated the project on < Mi%ra$ion of Labo-r from In ia = submitted by Si #an$ Na%l! student of M,Com, 9 Par$ ) I /S!m!s$!r 9 II0 In Ban*in% + Financ! for the academic year 2013-14. This project is original to the best of our kno ledge and has been accepted for !nternal "ssessment.

#ame $ %ignature of !nternal &'aminer

#ame $ %ignature of &'ternal &'aminer

Princi>al S#ri S-nil B, Man$ri

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DECLARATION B" THE STUDENT

!) Si #an$ Na%l! student of M,Com, /Par$ 9 I0 In Ban*in% + Financ! ) *oll #o.( "02+) <Mi%ra$ion of Labo-r from In ia= for the subject ork carried out by me under the guidance and ork is original and not submitted

hereby declare that the project titled

&,-#-.!,% -/ 01-2"1 T*"3& "#3 /!#"#,& submitted by me for %emester 4 !! of the academic year 2013-14) is based on actual any here else for any e'amination. supervision of Prof, Jos! A-%-s$in!. ! further state that this

5lace( .umbai

3ate( 26th /ebruary 2014.

#ame $ %ignature of %tudent #ame ( %iddhant #agle

%ignature ( 77777777777777777

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
" person al ays re8uires guidance and help of others to achieve success in his set objectives. %imilarly) it complete the project. ! am gratefully indebted to 5rof. 9ose "ugustine) my project guide for providing me all the necessary help and re8uired guidelines for the completion of my project and also for the valuable time that she gave me from her schedule. 1ast but not least ! am thankful to all my friends) his blessings ho have been a constant as not possible for me to complete my assignment. ho have helped me to ! am indeed very much thankful to all the people

source of inspiration and information for me. ! thank to almighty for sho ering

CONTENT
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Sr, No,

PARTICULARS

Pa%! No,

&3 &' &4 &5 &: &; &( &? &@ 3& 33 3' 34 35

INTRODUCTION LABOUR MIGRATION FROM INDIA EFFECTS OF LABOUR MIGRATION IMPACT OF LABOUR MIGRATION MAGNITUDE AND PATTERNS OF INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MIGRATION FROM INDIA MIGRATION OF SEMI S1ILLED AND UNS1ILLED LABOUR EMPO7ERMENT OF S1ILLED INDIAN MIGRANTS IN DE.ELOPED COUNTRIES INDIAN LABOUR MIGRATION TO THE GULF CHANGING PERCEPTIONS ABOUT MIGRATION FROM INDIA MIGRATION MANAGEMENT IN INDIA) RECENT INITIATI.ES GO.ERNMENT MEASURES AND PROGRAMMES FOR BETTER MIGRATION MANAGEMENT A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO) ECONOMIC IMPACT IN INDIA

&;)&( &? &@)33 3')35 3:)3( 3?)3@ '&)'3 '')'4 '5)': ';)'? '@ 4&)44 45)4: 4;

CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPH"

INTRODUCTION

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:uman migration is the movement by people from one place to another ith the intention of settling in the ne location. The movement is typically over long distances and from one country to another) but internal migration is also possible. .igration may be individuals) family units or in large groups.#omadic movements are normally not regarded as migrations as there is no intention to settle in the ne place and because the movement is generally seasonal. -nly a fe nomadic peoples have retained this form of lifestyle in modern times. "lso) the temporary movement of people for the purpose of travel) tourism) pilgrimages) or the commute is not regarded as migration) in the absence of an intention to settle in the ne location..igration has continued under the form of both voluntary migration ithin one;s region) country) or beyond and involuntary migration < hich includes the slave trade) trafficking in human beings and ethnic cleansing=. 5eople ho migrate into a territory are called immigrants) hile at the departure point they are called emigrants. %mall populations migrating to develop a territory considered void of settlement depending on historical setting) circumstances and perspective are referred to as settlers or colonists) hile populations displaced by immigration and coloni>ation are called refugees. 1abour mobility is one of the key features of economic development and its characteristics are closely tied ith the nature of this development. :istorically) development is associated ith unevenness and structural change) giving an impetus to the movement of orkers from one region to another) and from one sector to another. &ven ithin the macro-structural features hich determine the supply of) and demand for) certain types of migrant labour) the pattern of migration depends on a host of factors determined by labour market characteristics) together ith individual) household and community level features) and the e'istence of social net orks) among other things. These factors cumulatively determine the ?causes@ of migration. -n the other hand) labour migration plays a key role in influencing the pattern of development) through its impact on a host of economic and non-economic variables) both in the origin and destination areas. 1abour migration does not recogni>e bordersAbut borders) hether urban) state) or international influence migration through a host of policies and regulatory measures. " key distinction bet een internal and international migration is the e'istence of national regulatory frame orks such as immigration controls < hich leads to a distinction bet een regular and irregular migration=. 2ut regulatory frame orks and restrictive policies also operate ithin nation states. &arly development literature conceptuali>ed labour migration as occurring from the rural to urban) agricultural to industrial) and informal to formal sectors. :o ever) the orkforce pattern has changed across the orld in favour of the services sector) and the informal sector is more prominent today) both in developing and developed countries than it as t enty or thirty years ago. !n developing countries) the informal sector is no longer conceived as a temporary destination for migrants but in most cases) as a final destination. The <changing= structural features of orld capitalism have an important bearing on both internal and international migration. The theme on labour migration ill e'plore all types of labour migrationA internal) interstate) cross-border and international. !t ill encourage cross disciplinary studies and papers based on both field ork and secondary data. Be ould elcome papers hich e'plore not only economic issues but also historical) political) sociological and psychological factors affecting labour migration and the
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conse8uences of migration at more disaggregate levels) vi>.) for various socio-economic strata and segments of the population and for omen) men) the elderly and children separately) herever possible. The contributors should confine themselves to the issue of orker migration) as conventionally defined in %#" accounts) and to leave out those types of Cforced labourD migration) hich are not conventionally included in ork but are covered in international conventions on forced labour and trafficking. The paper contributors should not be concerned ith other forms of non-labour migration <such as refugee or student migration= or ith population mobility) hich is important for an understanding urban gro th. 0lobally) more people than ever seek better lives outside their home countries. 10 million /ilipinos live abroad and more than one million /ilipino leave the country each year to ork abroad. *emittances to the 5hilippines from around the orld continue to gro . 1abour migration is a national thrust for economic gro th and other countries see the 5hilippines as a model in regulating migration. -n the other hand) some migrant orkers are forced into ork against their ill. They are deceived about the nature of ork and receive ages that are less than hat is promised. .igrant orkers can be victims of forced labour and human trafficking. !n 200E) tripartite e'perts formulated and adopted the !1- .ultilateral /rame ork on 1abour .igration( non-binding principles and guidelines for a rights-based approach to labour migration. The /rame ork assists !1- partners to manage international and national labour migration. !t addresses major issues faced by policy makers and provides guidelines and principles on labour migration.

LABOUR MIGRATION FROM INDIA

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%tudies on migration have been very fe in !ndia because) historically speakingF migration has never been considered an important demographic issue due to the small volume of internal migration relative to the total si>e of the population <2ose) 1GH3) 13+=. :o ever) these small4scale internal migrations ithin the sub4continent ere replaced by large4scale e'ternal migration hen the partition in 1G4+ created !ndia and 5akistan. Bithdra al of the 2ritish from !ndia and the partition ere associated ith a massive transfer of population estimated at 14.E million bet een the short span of 1G4+4E1 <Iosinski and &lahi) 1GHE) 44E=. !mmediately after the partition) about E million :indus and %ikhs left 5akistan for !ndia and about 6 million .uslims moved into 5akistan from !ndia <&lahi and %ultana) 1GHE) 22=. "s this politically4triggered e'change created very serious and long4term problems of refugee settlement and integration) the prospects of intra4south "sian migration to and from !ndia gradually became more and more limited after independence.4!n contrast) voluntary migration) attributed mainly to economic and social factors) although modest compared to that related to political cause) continues and seems to be on the rise. The principal flo s have been the follo ing( a= !mmigration to 2ritain) hich as a traditionally favoured destination for temporary migration and) later attracted permanent settlers representing various social strata. b= The three traditional settlement countries) "ustralia) ,anada) and the J%" became more attractive destinations once their highly selective immigration policies ere modified. These developed countries) later joined by the JI and other &J countries attracted the highly skilled orkers from !ndia. c= " ne destination) that rapidly gained popularity) has been the .iddle &ast <Ieely) 1GH0F &cevit) 1GH1) Beiner 1GH2=. The oil4rich countries mainly attracted semi4skilled and unskilled labour on a temporary circulating basis <2irks and %inclair 1GH0=. %ome south4east countries like .alaysia became such destination later on.

EFFECTS OF LABOUR MIGRATION

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The possible impacts of migration on poverty are bracketed by t o e'tremes) might call the KoptimisticK and KpessimisticK scenarios. An O>$imis$ic .i!A

hich

The optimistic scenario is that migration reduces poverty in source areas by shifting population from the lo -income rural sector to the relatively high-income urban <or foreign= economy. !f income in the migrant-source economy does not fall <or falls only slightly= in migration;s ake-e.g. if the marginal product of migrants; labour prior to migration and the capital migrants take ith them are small-the loss of population to migration raises the average incomes of those left behind. !n the destination economy) although migrant earnings may be lo er initially than those of non-migrants) the earnings trajectory of migrants may be steep) particularly if migration positively selects individuals on the basis of skills) entrepreneurial ability) etc. !f this is the case) then relatively high poverty rates among immigrants at their destinations may be ephemeral. !ncome remittances by migrants contribute directly to incomes of households in migrantsource economies. -fficial !nternational .onetary /und <!./= estimates placed total orker remittances plus compensation of employees at LGE thousand million in 1GGH <the most recent year for hich these numbers are available=) far e'ceeding official development assistance. This figure understates remittances) hich include in-kind and clandestine transfers. !nternational migration represents only a small share of total orld migration < hich also includes internal migration=. !t is not clear hat share of total remittances the receipts from migrants abroad represent. #onetheless) household surveys typically find that remittances account for an important share of total income in less developed country <13,= rural areas) and the little information available suggests that they constitute a large share of migrant earnings) as ell. !f migrants originate disproportionately from poor households) remittances may directly reduce poverty in migrant-source areas. .igration and remittances also may contribute indirectly to incomes at migrant origins and destinations) in myriad ays. !n the imperfect market environments characteri>ing 13, rural economies) they may loosen li8uidity and risk constraints on production in migrant-source households <see the ne economics of labour migration) belo =. &'penditures by remittancereceiving households may create income multipliers in migrant-source economies) perhaps increasing income in non-immigrant households. &ven if migrants do not originate from impoverished households) the indirect effects of remittances) through e'penditure linkages) may nonetheless favour the poor. "t migrant destinations) the arrival of immigrants may increase local economic activity and create or preserve good jobs for local residents) possibly including poor natives) by creating economies of scale and multiplier effects. Jsing single-e8uation models and census data from Jnited %tates metropolitan areas) a number of studies in the 1GH0s concluded that immigrants have fe age-depressing or unemployment-increasing effects in local labour markets. !nstead) immigrants ere found to have positive impacts on employment and ages in the urban labour markets they entered.

A P!ssimis$ic .i!A
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/or each optimistic vie summari>ed above) there is a pessimistic counterpart. !n general) the most pessimistic studies on migration-development interactions in source areas appeared in the 1G+0s and 1GH0sF research findings on this topic ere more optimistic in the 1GG0s. 2y contrast) studies of impacts of immigration on host economies) largely optimistic in the 1G+0s and 1GH0s) have become more pessimistic in recent years. !n order for migration to raise per-capita incomes in migrant-source economies) it is necessary for income not to fall-or else to fall only slightly- hen migrants leave. 5essimistic studies argue that this is generally not the caseF migration reduces income in migrant-sending areas because the marginal product of the migrant;s labour is large prior to migration and migrants take productive capital <including human capital= ith them hen they go. !ncome remittances by migrants only partially compensate for these lost-labour and lost-capital effects. !n this pessimistic scenario) poverty may increase if migrants originate from poor households) or if the labour of poor villagers-on their o n or on others; farms-becomes less productive as a result of the lost migrants; labour <and capital=. /rom the point of vie of the source region) migration represents a Klabour e'port)K and remittances are payment for that e'port. The availability of lucrative migration opportunities for some households may have a K3utch diseaseK effect on source economies) as local production activities compete ith migration for limited labour and other resources. :ouseholds and individuals participating in migration benefit <other ise) it is not clear hy they ould participate=. :o ever) these beneficiaries of migration may not include the rural poor. !f migration is costly and risky) at least initially) migrants may come from the middle or upper segments of the income distribution in the source areas ) not from the poorest households. !f migration adversely affects local production) the incomes of the poor may fall) both relatively and absolutely. 9ust as migrant remittances may generate positive income multipliers in source economies) decreases in production and income may create negative multipliers and even a do n ard spiral in local economic activity) adversely affecting the poor. *emittance-receiving households may not spend their income on goods or services offered by poor villagers) thereby limiting migration;s potential to alleviate poverty through local e'penditure linkages. "t migrant destinations) immigrants may compete ith at least some orkers in local labour markets) and native orkers may respond to the arrival of immigrants by moving to less immigrant-impacted labour markets. The KflightK of native orkers from immigrant-impacted labour markets tends to diffuse migration;s impacts across regions and make it difficult to identify immigration;s effects on employment and earnings. !n the Jnited %tates) immigrants are concentrated at the bottom <and also at the top= of the skill spectrum <they are underrepresented at the mid-skill levels=. Those ith fe skills may compete ith lo -skilled native orkers) ho are most likely to be poor. Bri %in% $#! !B$r!m! The true impacts of migration are likely to be found not at one e'treme or another) but some here in bet een. " nascent body of migration research in recent years suggests that the interactions bet een migration and key economic variables) both at migrant origins and destinations) are multifaceted) representing a comple' mi'ture of KoptimisticK and KpessimisticK outcomes. /or e'ample) recent studies find that migration has both negative Klost-labourK and positive remittance effects on source economies. !n the Jnited %tates) ne research indicates that the impacts of immigration are comple') operating through indirect channels largely ignored by past research. #e research methods generally are re8uired to
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uncover interactions bet een migration and economic changes at migrant origins and destinations. %ome insights into migration-poverty interactions may be gleaned) mostly indirectly) from the e'isting literature. #evertheless) almost no studies e'plicitly address this topic) and an agenda for future research is clearly needed. The overarching goal of this paper is to summari>e the state of kno ledge and provide a basis for identifying a future research agenda on migration) ith a focus on poverty. The remainder of this paper is organi>ed into three sections. %ection 2 presents a brief overvie of rural out-migration and international migration) their dimensions and basic characteristics. %ection 3 summari>es theories of internal and international migration and e'amines evidence on migration;s impacts in source and destination areas. The migration literature is vast) and the aim throughout is to selectively synthesi>e rather than offer an e'haustive revie of migration research. " more detailed revie of migration research appears in a longer version of this report <Taylor) 2000=. %ection 4 presents a discussion of migration and rural poverty and priorities for future migration-and-poverty research.

IMPACT OF LABOUR MIGRATION

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Im>ac$s b!Con $#! mi%ran$ #o-s!#ol The migration and remittance effects discussed above) as comple' as they may seem) represent only the direct or first-round impacts of migration on source economies. ,hanges in production and e'penditure patterns in migrant-source households transmit the impacts of migration to other households inside and outside the rural economy. .igrant households may be closely integrated ith local product and factor markets) supplying inputs to local production and demanding locally produced non-tradables. !n this case) changes in migration and remittances may affect local prices) production) and incomes) including for nonimmigrant households. "s a result) many and perhaps most of the impacts of migration and remittances are found in households that do not participate directly in migration. " number of studies utili>ing micro economy- ide modelling techni8ues e'plore the role of migration and the impacts of economic integration policies on incomes) employment) and e'penditures in migrant-sending regions. /indings from these studies point to four broad conclusions regarding impacts of migration and remittances in migrant-sending regions( /irst) migrant remittances create income and employment multipliers in migrant-sending villages and to ns) and the si>e of these multipliers can be large. /or e'ample) a L100 increase in remittances from the Jnited %tates led to a L1+H increase in total income in a migrant-sending village in .e'ico <"delman) Taylor and Mogel) 1GHHF for evidence from other countries see Taylor) 2000=. 2oth the magnitudes of remittance multipliers and the distribution of income gains across household groups and production sectors are sensitive to rural economic structures. %econd) in general) the more closely integrated migrant-sending villages and to ns are ith outside markets) the smaller the village or to n income multipliers resulting from migrant remittances. Through trade) the impacts of remittances on local economies are transferred to other parts of the country <or orldN=) and studies focussing on individual migrant-sending communities) like studies focussing on migrant-sending households) miss many) if not most) of migration;s impacts. !t is likely that a large part of the benefits from migration become concentrated in regional urban centres of migrant-sending countries) even if the remittances) themselves) do not go there initially. Third) the multiplier effects of remittances upon incomes in migrant-sending areas appear to depend critically on the supply response of local production activities. They are smaller hen agricultural supply response is inelastic. This highlights the importance of policies to remove technological constraints on production) promote investment) and develop markets as a means to make remittances more productive in migrant-sending economies <see e.g. studies by 1e is and Thorbecke) 1GG2) for Ienya ) %ubramanian and %adoulet) 1GG1) for !ndia and 5arikh and Thorbecke) 1GG6) for 5akistan=. /ourth) migration may compete ith local production for scarce family resources) at least in the short run. .igrant-sending economies reorgani>e themselves around migration) adjusting to the loss of migrants; labour and the receipt of migrant remittances. !n the long run) remittance-induced investments may compensate for negative lost-labour effects) increasing local production and incomes-including incomes of the poor. The effects of migration on rural poverty depend critically on ho remittances and the losses and gains of human resources through out-migration are distributed across households) on production constraints facing different household groups) and on e'penditure linkages ithin the rural economy.
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.icro economy ide models highlight the importance of having local capital markets that can make remittance-induced savings in migrant households available for investing by others in the local economy. -ther ise) individual households are constrained to self finance their investments) and the possibility of some families speciali>ing in migration hile others speciali>e in productively investing remittance-induced savings is ruled out. Im>ac$s on mi%ran$)#os$ !conomi!s &conomic and fiscal impacts of immigration have been the subject of a prolific literature and on-going controversy among researchers) both in the Jnited %tates and in other major immigrant-receiving societies. </or a number of e'amples) see Taylor) 2000.= !n the Jnited %tates) the immigration debate has been bracketed by t o e'tremes. The optimistic vie is that immigrants bring valuable human capital ith them to the Jnited %tates. <This mirrors the pessimistic brain-drain perspective prevalent in emigration countries.= !mmigrants are economically mobile) ith an earnings trajectory that is steeper than that of other ise similar native-born orkers. They complement native orkers in ays that stimulate economic gro th and create jobs. /inally) their e'penditures generate income multipliers that revitali>e the economies in hich they settle) including distressed urban neighbourhoods. The other e'treme contends that the human-capital benefits from migration are declining over time) as more lo -skilled immigrants arrive on Jnited %tates shores. "s a result) immigrants are increasingly locked into poorly-paying jobs) ith fe prospects for mobility) an earnings trajectory that is flattening out over time) and limited potential for setting in motion economic-gro th multipliers. They compete ith other) lo -skilled Jnited %tates orkers and create fiscal burdens associated ith their lo incomes and large family si>es. " number of studies in the 1GH0s produced optimistic conclusions about the effect of immigration <number of foreign-born in the decennial census= on ages and unemployment in Jnited %tates metropolitan areas. They found fe age-depressing or unemploymentincreasing effects of immigration in local labour markets. !nstead) more immigrants ere found to have positive impacts on employment and ages in the urban labour markets they entered. .ore recent studies suggest that the impacts of immigration are more comple') operating through indirect channels largely ignored by 1GH0s research <2orjas <1GG4=) Taylor and .artin) 1GGH=. #ative orkers ho compete ith immigrants may move to less immigrantimpacted labour markets) diffusing migration;s impacts across labour markets and making these impacts difficult to 8uantify. &mployment stimulates immigration) but the arrival of ne orkers into local labour markets) in turn) may stimulate employment) by suppressing real ages for local orkers and discouraging the adoption of labour-saving production practices) or alternatively) by creating positive employment multipliers. Taylor and .artin <2000= e'amine the interrelationship bet een J.%. farm employment and immigration) and its implications for poverty and elfare use. They estimated a simultaneous-e8uation model ith data from a national random sample of census tracts for the 1G+0) 1GH0 and 1GG0 census years. The findings reveal a circular relationship bet een immigration and farm employment that reduced both poverty and elfare payments during the 1G+0s. :o ever) this virtuous circle as reversed in the 1GH0s) hen more farm jobs ere associated ith more immigration as ell as more poverty and elfare.

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!n 1GG0) the Jnited %tates ,ongress appointed a ,ommission on !mmigration *eform to revie J.%. immigration policies and la s and to recommend changes. !n 1GGE) the ,ommission re8uested that the #ational *esearch ,ouncil convene a panel of e'perts to assess the demographic) economic) and fiscal ramifications of immigration in the Jnited %tates. The panel as asked to provide a scientific foundation for policymaking on specific issues and a background for the ,ommission;s deliberations. This panel established a record of key findings on demographic) economic) fiscal) and social impacts of immigration in the Jnited %tates) including( 1. .igration ill play the dominant role in Jnited %tates demographic gro th bet een no and 20E0) accounting for t o-thirds of that nation;s total population increase and significantly altering the country;s age distributionF 2. "lthough there are inners and losers ) immigration yields net economic gains for Jnited %tates residents) but these gains are small relative to the total Jnited %tates economyF
3. !mmigrants; fiscal impacts are negative at the state and local levels but positive at the

federal level) and fiscal costs are concentrated in a fe states and localities) resulting in conflicts over ho should bear the fiscal costs of immigration2F and 4. %ocial integration of immigrants and their descendants into the Jnited %tates and the effects of immigration on host-country institutions are e'traordinarily comple' and vary across immigrant groups.

MAGNITUDE AND PATTERNS OF INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MIGRATION FROM INDIA

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0lobal migration( The facts and figures ,urrently) nearly 1G1 million people are estimated to be international migrants) including 11E million) or 60 per cent in developed countries and +6 million) or 40 per cent in developing countries)1 making one in every 3E persons on earth an international migrant) up from one in every 40 in 1G6E<Table 1 $ /igure 1=. "lthough the share of migrants in global population is not high) it is ackno ledged that their presence and visibility in economic) social) demographic and political terms is 8uite substantial <!1-) 2004bF !-.) 200EF .aimbo and *atha) 200EF -&,3) 2006F J#) 2006a=.The annual average gro th rate of the migrant stock has been accelerating) increasing from 1.4 per cent during 1GG0-1GGE to 1.G per cent in 2000-200E. 2et een 1G6E and 1GHE) the average annual flo of international migrants as 1.E million people) hich more than trebled in the ne't 20 years <1GHE-200E= to nearly E million per year.These figures reflect the number of persons living outside their country of birth. 5opulation censuses) hich usually record the countryof birth of the persons they count) provide the basic information leading to these estimates. /oreignborn persons are migrants because they must have moved at least once from the country of birth to the country here they live. 2ut the foreign-born need not be foreigners. /oreignborn persons may be citi>ens at birth by) for instance) being the children of citi>ens of the country here they live) or they may be naturali>ed citi>ens <J#)2006a= %ource( 2ased on &stimates of the number of international migrants by se' sho that the volume of international migrants has been nearly e8ual for both men and omen. !n 200E) female migrants constituted about half of the total migrants stock <4G.6 per cent= of all international migrants) up from about 4+ per cent in 1G60. !t is striking to note that in the developed countries) female migrants have outnumbered male migrants since 1GG0. :o ever) in developing countries) and especially in the 0ulf ,o-operation ,ouncil <0,,= countries they are particularly under represented. !n fact) recent estimates reveal that females constitute barely 2G per cent of the total migrant stock in the 0,, countries..igrants are admitted in different countries under diverse categories like( migrant orkers)migrants admitted for family reunification) students and refugees. Though a large number of foreigners are admitted in categories other than migrant orkers) many of them may join the labour force. "ccording to the latest !1- estimates) about half of all international migrants are in the labour force)that is) appro'imately GE million. In$!rna$ional labo-r floAs from In ia2 Dim!nsions an >a$$!rns His$orical !D!lo>m!n$ .ovement of people across boundaries of the !ndian sub continent is of old standing. Trade) political and religious links have necessitated regular contacts ith southeast) eastern and central "sia and "frica. :o ever) ith the advent of colonial rule) international migratory movement entered a completely ne phase. The imperial needs for labour led to the substantial recruitment of migrant labour from !ndia in the plantations or mines in different 2ritish colonies( to far-a ay places such as 0uyana) 9amaica)Trinidad and /iji( to not so distant lands such as .auritius) .alaysia) %ingapore and %outh "fricaF and even to neighbouring countries like ,eylon <no %ri 1anka= and 2urma <no .yanmar= <3avis) 1GE1=.The bulk of these migrants ent as indentured labourers. 3avis estimates that about 30.2 million !ndians had emigrated bet een 1H34 and 1G3+. This scale of movement as as large as the &uropean migration to the "mericas in the 1Gth century. !t declined ith the ending of indenture in 1G21. :o ever a significant free migration did continue ith !ndian orkers migrating mainly to &ast "frica and 5ersian 0ulf states.The effect of such long-term migration pattern is visible in the si>e and diversity of the !ndian diaspora in the contemporary orld. The magnitude of the diasporic !ndian community is estimated at 2E million residing in nearly 130 countries <.inistry of -verseas !ndian "ffairs)
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200H=. The !ndian overseas community consists of both the persons of !ndian origin <5!-s= ho have ac8uired the citi>enship of other countries and the #on *esident !ndians <#*!s= ho continue to hold !ndian passports and are citi>ens of !ndia. &stimates of country- ise si>e of overseas !ndian community are presented in "ppendi' 1.!nternational labour migration from independent !ndia The pattern and dimension of international labour flo s from independent !ndia have been characteri>ed by significant transformations over the past half a century <#ayyar) 1GG4F !ndian ,ouncil of Borld "ffairs) 2001F %asikumar) 2001F %rivastava and %asikumar) 2003=. These changes have become all the more pronounced since the 1GG0s both in terms of the destinations and occupations of the migrants.Be piece together all the latest available information to highlight the emerging trends and patterns of international labour flo s from !ndia. .ajor flo s of international labour from !ndia since the 1GG0s can be schemati>ed as follo s( /irst) persons ith professional e'pertise) technical 8ualifications and skills migrate to highincome developed and traditionally migrant receiving countries like J%") JI) and ,anada) either as permanent immigrants or to take up temporary employment. %econd) unskilled) semi-skilled and professionals4 !1- %ubregional -ffice for %outh "sia) #e 3elhi migrate as contract orkers to the high-income countries in the 0ulf <mainly to the 0,, countries=. !n recent years such flo s are also directed to ards the high income countries of %outh &ast "sia such as .alaysia. Third) professionals) especially young !T professionals) migrate to the ne ly emerging destinations like continental &urope <0ermany) /rance) and 2elgium=) "ustralasia <"ustralia and #e Oealand= and &ast "sia <9apan and %ingapore=. .igration of professionals and highly skilled "lthough international migration flo s from !ndia to the industriali>ed and traditionally migrant receiving countries such as J%") JI and ,anada have continued unabated for a long time) there is hardly any !ndian data source on this phenomenon. Be attempt to analy>e the composition of these flo s based on immigration statistics provided by the destination countries.The available evidence on trends in permanent immigration from !ndia to the selected industrialised countries) the J%") the JI and ,anada) during the period 1GGE to 200E is presentedin Table 2. The data clearly sho s that considerable numbers of !ndians are immigrating on a permanent basis to these industriali>ed nations. The average annual inflo s of the !ndian immigrants to all these countries recorded substantial gro th since the 1GG0s as compared to the earlier decades. !n the case of the Jnited %tates) the average annual inflo of immigrants recorded at 26)1H4 persons during the 1GH0s <#ayyar) 1GG4= almost doubled to reach 4H)H44 during 1GGE to 200E. "s regards ,anada) the average annual inflo s hich as +G30 persons in the 1GH0s more than tripled to reach 23)4+1 during the period 1GGE- 200E. %imilarly) the average inflo of immigrants from !ndia to the Jnited Iingdom increased from E400 persons during the 1GH0s to 6)E+6 during 1GGE-200E. !t is striking to note that there has been a further increase in the number of !ndians immigrating on a permanent basis in all these three countries since turn of the 21st century. %uch an increase has also considerably scaled up the proportion of !ndians in the total immigration flo s in these countries in recent years. /or instance) in the case of the J%") this proportion hich had more or less hovered around E per cent during 1GGE-2000 has registered rapid increases during 2000-200E to reach +.E percent by 200E. %imilarly in ,anada) the proportion of !ndians as percentage of the total immigrants hich averaged around G.E per cent during 1GGE-1GGG) rose up to an average of nearly 13 per cent during the 2000-200E. !n the case of Jnited Iingdom) the proportion of !ndians hich had indicated a declining trend from 1GGE-2002 <from around H per cent to 6.H per cent= has registered increases since then reaching H per cent in 2004 -ne of the major characteristics of
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immigration from !ndia to these countries during the period 1GE0-1GG0 as that such labour flo s ere made up almost entirely of permanent migration in so faras the proportion of immigrants ho returned to !ndia) after a finite period of time) ere almost negligible <#ayyar)1GG4=. :o ever) such a trend has undergone significant transformations since the 1GG0s as a large number of !ndian professionals and skilled personnel are migrating to these countries on temporary basis)thereby making ;return; an inevitable component. This is primarily due to the fact that all these countries have in the recent past introduced various temporary employment programmes to admit migrants)especially those ith speciali>ed professional skills) to meet specific the skill needs and labour shortages.The most notable case is that of the Jnited %tates hich introduced the :-12 programme to admit migrants to perform services in ;specialty occupations; based on professional education) skills) andP or e8uivalent e'perience. Jnder the :-12 programmme) specialty orkers are permitted to be employed for as long as three years initially ith e'tensions not e'ceeding three years. %pecialty occupations mainly include computer systems analysts and programmers) physicians) professors) engineers) and accountants. 1arge number of !ndian professionals have availed :-12 visa route to seek employment in the Jnited %tates during the past decade. !n terms of occupational groups) health and medical services are reported to have gro n significantly over time in relation to other sectors and occupations. " large number of !ndians ho have ac8uired ork permits are engaged in health related professions. /or instance) data on the stock of registered doctors in Jnited Iingdom by country of 8ualification sho that the largest number is accounted by !ndian doctors.-ne of the salient features of international labour flo from !ndia in recent years is that the destination of !ndian migrants) especially high-skilled migrants) has diversified considerably. %ignificant numbers of !ndian professionals are no heading to ards ne and emerging destinations in continental &urope) &ast "sia and "ustralasia. "s regards continental &urope) 0ermany) /rance) and 2elgium are emerging as the major destination countries of !ndian migrants. "lthough the proportion of !ndians to the total immigrants in these countries are rather insignificant) it is note orthy that majority of these !ndians are being admitted under speciali>ed employment programmes in order to address the acute skill shortages e'perienced in key and e'panding sectors. 0ermany is the key case in point as it has introduced a speciali>ed scheme) 0reen ,ard %cheme) in 2000 to attract !T specialists from countries like !ndia. !t is estimated that more than 60 per cent of those ho have been admitted under 0reen ,ard %cheme are !ndians. There is also increased in-take of !ndian !T specialists in &ast "sian countries like 9apan and .alaysia under specialised temporary employment schemes. /or instance) nearly 10 per cent of the total !T engineers admitted to 9apan during 2003 ere !ndians ."ustralia is another major destination of !ndian professionals and high skilled orkers. #umber of !ndians immigrating on a permanent basis to "ustralia has recorded significant increases since the 1GG0s and especially after the turn of the 21st century. The average inflo of !ndian immigrants to "ustralia has almost doubled in the recent years ith the numbers increasing from 33++ during 1GGE-2000 to 6GE+ during 2001-200E.,onse8uently the proportion of !ndians in total immigration inflo s has registered a note orthy increase) from around 3.E per cent in the late 1GG0s to +.6 per cent by 200E

MIGRATION OF SEMI S1ILLED AND UNS1ILLED LABOUR

.igration of unskilled and semi-skilled labour to ork as contract labour is the most dominant form of international labour flo s emanating from !ndia. "lthough such labour
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flo s) especially to the 0,, countries) have attained substantial dimensions in the past t o decades) lack of data about this movement of people has often bedeviled systematic appraisals of this phenomenon. The primary source of information on international migration from !ndia is the data published by the -ffice of the 5rotector 0eneral of &migrants) .inistry of -verseas !ndian "ffairs) 0overnment of !ndia. %ection 22 of the &migration "ct) 1GH3 provides that no citi>en of !ndia shall emigrate unless hePshe obtains emigration clearance from the 5rotector of &migrants. %uch a clearance is granted only after the 5rotector of &migrants verifies the relevant employment contracts. :o ever) the "ct e'empts some categories of people for hom the emigration clearance is not re8uired) referred to as &migration ,heck is #ot *e8uired ,ategory <&,#* ,ategory=. Therefore) this data set) hich is the only !ndian data source on international labour flo s from !ndia is partial as it includes only the number of those ho re8uire and had actually obtained emigration clearance) hile migrating abroad to seek employment."n e'amination of the categories of persons ho re8uire the emigration clearance clearly sho s that it targets primarily unskilled and semi-skilled labour. <1ist of personsPcategories for hom the &migration ,heck is #ot *e8uired ,ategory <&,#* ,ategory= is provided in "ppendi' !!=."nnual labour outflo s from !ndia since 1GG0) as indicated by emigration clearances granted)The trends in the labour outflo s during 1GG0-200+ e'hibit cyclical nature as as the case since the 1G+0s thereby substantiating that these flo s are primarily demand determined. !t is evident that the labour flo s had picked up substantial momentum since the initial hiatus in the early 1GG0s. Then e itness a sharp slump during the late 1GG0s. Thereafter the flo s have consistently increased and outflo s during the last three to four years have outstripped the flo s recorded in the first half of 1GG0s.3uring 2003-200+) on an average E02)03E persons per annum migrated from !ndia to take up contract employment. This is significantly higher than the 8uantum of labour outflo s from !ndia attained even during the ;0ulf boom; of the late 1G+0s and early 1GH0s."n over helming majority of those ho migrate after obtaining emigration clearances are employed in the 0,, countries </igure H and Table 12=. This is a trend evident since the 1G+0s hen the oil price boom and the conse8uent spurt in demand for migrant labour in 0ulf countries provided immense opportunities for labour abundant countries like !ndia to supply the re8uisite manpo er <%asikumar) 1GGE=.Bithin the 0,, countries) Iingdom of %audi "rabia <I%"= and Jnited "rab &mirates <J"&= are the major destinations of !ndians and together they account for more than 60 per cent of the total deployment of !ndian migrant orkers. -ne major trend hich is emerging is that hile the share of I%" has declined significantly from nearly 60 per cent in the early 1GG0s to nearly 2E per cent by 200+)J"& is emerging as an increasingly important destination ith its share registering a 8uantum jump from nearly 10 per cent to 40 per cent during the same period.-ne of the striking trends in relation to the unskilledPsemi-skilled emigration from !ndia in the recent years is the phenomenal increase in the numbers migrating to .alaysia. The figures on emigration clearances indicate that !ndian labour flo s to .alaysia have increased considerably since 2000 and the average annual outflo s during 2004-200+ ere almost four times those recorded during 2000-2003 -rigin centres of semi-skilled and unskilled migrants.Bithin !ndia) migration originates from a number of states. " macro perspective on the relative importance of the different states in relation to labour migration can be obtained from the emigration statistics) hich) as e have mentioned earlier) are for unskilled orkers ho re8uire emigration clearances. Ieeping in mind the likely underestimation) these data provide some evidence regarding the pattern of unskilled labour movement from !ndia. The state- ise distribution of the emigration clearances granted during the period 1GG3-200+ sho s that nearly 16 states contribute to the process of emigration ith varying degrees of importance.!n terms of relative shares) three states - Ierala) Tamil #adu and "ndhra 5radesh - together contributed to about 60 per cent of those ho have obtained
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emigration clearance.!n terms of the share of these prominent states) there has been a decline in Ierala;s contribution hereas the shares of Tamil #adu and "ndhra 5radesh have registered considerable increases. This could mean that larger numbers of people ho are migrating from Ierala are no engaged in skilledPprofessional activities hereas there are larger outflo s of unskilled labourers ho re8uire emigration clearance from states like Tamil #adu and "ndhra 5radesh.

EMPO7ERMENT OF S1ILLED INDIAN MIGRANTS IN DE.ELOPED COUNTRIES

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The %ocio4economic and political profile of the skilled !ndian diaspora in the developed countries reflects the empo erment of the !ndian migrants in the developed countries over time. Bithin the &uropean Jnion <&J= 4 the largest economic entity in the orld today 4 t o4thirds of the entire !ndian migrant community still resides in the JI. The !ndian community is one of the highest4earning and best4educated groups) achieving eminence in business) information technology) the health sector) media) cuisine) and entertainment industries. !n ,anada) ith just 3 per cent share in a population of 30 million) !ndo4 ,anadians have recorded high achievements in the fields of medicine) academia) management) and engineering. The !ndian immigrants@ average annual income in ,anada is nearly 20 per cent higher than the national average) and their educational levels are higher too. !n the east) there are 30)000 !ndian citi>ens in "ustraliaF and #e Oealand has also itnessed a rise in the entry of !ndian professional immigrants) those engaged in domestic retail trade) medical) hospitality) engineering) and !nformation Technology sectors) and countries like 9apan) Iorea) and %ingapore are also trying to attract !ndian talent. !ndian 3iaspora "ssociations of #orth "merica category associations 1. ,ulturalP*eligious "ssociations %amband) "ssam "ssociation of #orth "merica) Telugu "ssociation of #orth "merica) "merican Telugu "ssociation <"T"=) Borld .alayali ,ouncil) 2engali ,ultural "ssociation) Ienada Ioota) 0ujarati %amaj) etc. 2. %tudentsP"lumni "ssociation .ayur at the ,arnegie .ellon JniversityF %angam at .!TF "shoka at ,alifornia JniversityF 3iya at 3uke JniversityF %"%" at 2ro n JniversityF 2oston Jniversity) !ndia ,lub) /riends of !ndia) !0%" <:ouston Jniversity= and !ndian %tudents "ssociations at various universities. 3. %upport "ssociation .!T:"%) .anavi) %akhi) "sian !ndian Bomen in "merica <"!B"=) .aitri) #arika) !2"B <!ndian 2usiness and 5rofessional Bomen=) etc. 4. 5rofessional "ssociation ""5!) %!5") #et!5) Ti&) &55!,) %!%"2) B!#) "!!.%-#!"#%) "!5#") "%&!) !5",") !/-*!) %"2:") and !",&/)etc E. 3evelopment "ssociation "ssociation for !ndia@s 3evelopment <"!3=) "!") "merican !ndia /oundation 6. 0eneralP Jmbrella #et ork 0-5!-) #/!") The !ndian "merican /orum for 5olitical &ducation <!"/5&=) The #ational "ssociation of "mericans of "sian !ndian 3escent <#"""!3=) and /ederation of !ndian "ssociations </!"=) etc. .!0*",!Q# y 3&%"**-ll- The strong profile of !ndian immigrants in general supports a proposition that the human capital content in the migration of !ndians to the J% has been the backbone of !ndian scientific diaspora formation there. #o other diaspora preceding the !ndian numerical rank ac8uired its position predominantly because of an "merican demand
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for its labour skills) hich has been the main factor for admitting the !ndian skilled orkers on a large scale. !t is hardly surprising therefore if in terms of the place in the J% economy inde'ed by employment) occupation) education and income of the immigrants) the !ndian diaspora had continued to rank amongst the top all through the 1G+0s till the present. There are over 1000 J%4based organi>ations of !ndians in #orth "merica) ith branches in ,anada. These represent various interest groups in !ndia) ranging from regions to states to languages) etc. *eligion) caste) cultural and linguistic identities find significant space in these associations and net orks. :o ever) some professional groups are involved in grass4root development activities in !ndia as ell as in the elfare of their members abroad in the professions.

INDIAN LABOUR MIGRATION TO THE GULF

"lthough !ndians manned the clerical and technical positions of the oil companies in the 0ulf after oil as discovered in the region during the 1G30s) the over all numbers ere still small.
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2et een 1G4H and the early 1G+0s) these numbers gradually increased from about 1)400 to 40)000. Bhen large scale development activities started follo ing the 1G+3 spurt in oil prices in the si' 0ulf ,ooperation ,ouncil <0,,= countries of %audi "rabia) 2ahrain) Iu ait) -man) Ratar) and the J"&) an upsurge in the flo of orkers and labourers began from !ndia to the 0ulf. !ndia and 5akistan supplied most of such unskilled labour) registering almost 200 percent gro th bet een 1G+0 and 1G+E. !n 1G+E) !ndian e'patriates constituted 3G.1 percent) 5akistanis EH.1 percent) and other "sians 2.H percent of the total non4"rab e'patriates in the 0ulf. %ince then) !ndian migration has overtaken that of 5akistan and other "sian countries of origin. /urther) since the Iu ait ar of 1GG04G1) !ndians has replaced even the non4national "rabs in the 0ulf) vi>.) the 9ordanians) yemenis) 5alestinians and &gyptians. /rom less than 2EH)000 in 1G+E) migrant !ndian population in the 0ulf ent up to 3.31H million in 2001) hich is no estimated to have crossed 3.E million."dmission to the 0,, countries as not as difficult prior to the mid41G+0s) but thereafter restrictions have been imposed by the host countries due to the fear of rapid gro th of non4national population. Thus it has been difficult for families to accompany the non4nationals orkers to these countries) particularly the unskilled contract orkers. /oreigners are not allo ed to o n businesses or immovable property in the 0ulf countriesF for running business enterprises they are re8uired to have local citi>ens or agencies as major partners in their ventures) hether active or as SsleepingT partner. Bhen it comes to human resources) shortage of labour has been endemic in all the countries of the 0ulf) for the entire range of ork 4 from professionals like doctors and nurses) engineers) architects) accountants and managers) to semi4skilled orkers like craftsmen) drivers) artisans) and other technical orkers) to unskilled labourers in construction sites) farm lands) livestock ranches) shops and stores and households <*ajan and #air=. %tocks of !ndian .igrant 5opulation in the 0ulf ,ountries) %elected years( 1G+E42001 %ources( *ahman <1GGG=) and *ajan <2004=.:o ever) a large majority of +0 per cent of the !ndian migrants in the 0ulf has comprised the semi4skilled and unskilled orkers) the rest being hite4collar orkers and professionals. Table E presents their occupational distribution till after the outbreak of the 0ulf Bar in "ugust 1GG0. The fall in numbers in 1GG14G2 is directly related to the control by 0overnment of !ndia in issuing emigration clearance in the year follo ing the 0ulf Bar in 1GG04G1 hen large numbers of !ndians ere evacuated from the 0ulf by the 0overnment of !ndia. :o ever) the classification more or less resumed although some changes might have taken place due to the demand tilting more to ards skilled professionals as infrastructure development progressed in the 0ulf. -n the supply side) !ndian government@s monitoring and control of labour migration has been to streamline the process of emigration to some e'tent) increasingly in the last couple of years.The demand for lo category of orkers like housemaids) cooks) bearers) gardeners) etc. has been large) though systematic all4!ndia data are not easily available) e'cept for the state of Ierala here an e'clusive state4level ministry for overseas Ieralite affairs e'ists for many years. %ome data are no in the process of being collected and compiled by the ne ly formed Jnion .inistry of -verseas !ndians "ffairs. The orkers in these vocations ho ever do not enjoy country total the protection of any local labour la s. Bomen) orking as housemaids or governesses face ill treatment in some 0ulf countries) sometimes being subjected to even se'ual abuse <0-!) .-!" 2006=. Jnskilled and semiskilled orkers orking in infrastructural and development projects generally live in miserable conditions and are accommodated in small cramped rooms in the labour camps. -ften toilet and kitchen facilities are inade8uate) and orking conditions are harsh. Thus) adverse orking condition) unfriendly eather) inability to participate in social and cultural activities) and long periods of separation from families and relatives leading to emotional deprivation are kno n to have recked the lives of lo skilled !ndian orkers in the 0ulf <Oachariah et al) 2002F 0-!) .-!" "nnual &migration ,learances granted by
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0overnment of !ndia till after the 0ulf Bar of 1GG04G1( Jnskilled and %emi4skilled labour by -ccupation) 1GHH41GG2 0overnment of !ndia) cited in *ajan <2003=. category The unskilled and semi4skilled orkers have a high rate of turnover as their contracts are for short periods of employment and ork) usually not more than t o years at a time. Those completing their contracts must return home) although a large proportion of them manage to come back ith ne contracts hich are not available before a gap of one year. This has facilitated the proliferation of recruitment and placement agencies) sometimes colluding ith the prospective employers and e'ploiting illiterate job seekers The various forms of e'ploitation range from ithholding of the passportsF refusal of promised employment) ages) and over4time agesF undue deduction of permit fee from agesF unsuitable transportF inade8uate medical facilitiesF denial of legal rights for redressal of complaintsF use of migrants as carriers of smuggled goodsF victimisation and harassment of omen recruits in household jobs like maids) cooks) governesses etc <-verseas !ndian) 2006) various issues=. 0enerally speaking) the !ndian migrant communities in the 0ulf maintain close contacts ith their kith and kin in !ndia) involving fre8uent home visits. They also keep track of political developments and socio4economic changes taking place in !ndia through ne spapers) radio and television. "t times of natural disasters like earth8uake in !ndia) they have also come for ard ith donations) and deposits in !ndia 3evelopment 2onds. .ost of the remittances have accrued from the unskilled orkers hose consumption e'penses in the 0ulf are minimal because their families are not living ith them.

CHANGING PERCEPTIONS ABOUT MIGRATION FROM INDIA

!ndia had a moderate number of universities at the time of independence but it lacked highly trained scientific and technical human resources and an institutional base in science and
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technology <%$T= to embark upon the industriali>ation and moderni>ation planned under the #ehruvian leadership of the early decades. The first !ndian !nstitute of Technology as established nine years after !ndia@s independence) at Iharagpur in 1GE6.14 The five !!Ts) modeled on the .assachusetts !nstitute of Technology <.!T=) ere created to train the best engineers ho ould play an important role in assimilating technological change and revolutioni>ing !ndia@s industrialisation programme. The !!Ts not only created space for hundreds of faculty members) but also attracted a good number of them back from abroad.1E "s all the !!Ts in the beginning had intellectual and material support from various advanced donor countries such as the J%") J%%*) 0ermany) and the JI) they introduced the guest faculty system from the respective countries. The e'change put !ndian scientists in touch ith the cutting4edge of technological research and advanced training <!ndiresan and #igamm 1GG3=. The ,ouncil for %cientific and !ndustrial *esearch <,%!*= hich instituted a #ational *egister of %cientific and Technical 5ersonnel in the late 1G40s) created a special section 4 the S!ndians "broadT section of the #ational *egister in 1GE+ to ards this end) hich of course did not succeed.The migration of the highly skilled from !ndia to the developed countries as first seen as brain drain hen the #obel 5ri>e of 1G6H in medicine brought global recognition to gifted !ndian scientists :ar 0obind Ihorana ho had migrated to the Jnited %tates and naturali>ed as an "merican citi>en around that time. The onus) ho ever) as put on the migrants as SdesertersT of the Smotherland !ndiaT) either openly or subtly.1+ /rom time to time various restrictive measures to contain the problem ere conceived) but there has never been a consensus e'cept in the case of the medical sector 4 here some restrictions ere introduced) but ith too many escape clauses to be effective. The most striking feature of the period has still been the relative lack of policy attention to the problem of brain drain. &ducation policy documents of the time did not provide for any mechanism to check the problem of brain drain. The Iothari ,ommission <0-!) 1G66) section 1GH on S2rain drainT= had observed) S#ot all ho go out of !ndia are necessarily first4rate scientists) nor are they of critical importance to the country@s re8uirementsT <,hapter 16=. 0radually) the failure of !ndia@s industriali>ation programme to absorb the increasing numbers of highly 8ualified personnel from educational institutes coupled ith the shrinking of employment space in the science agencies led to a serious problem of supply and demand and aggravated this <2laug et al) 1G6G=.The policy discourse during this period thus did not pay attention the problem deserved in the face of stark realities of oversupply) unemployment and the e'odus of trained human resources to foreign countries <Irishna and Ihadria) 1GG+=. "s a result) many !ndian immigrants ho fuelled the %ilicon Malley ere those educated in the J% at the post4graduate level after they had emigrated ith a first engineering degree of 2.Tech) from the !ndian !nstitutes of Technology. %imilarly) many doctors ho earned laurels in their respective fields in the J% had emigrated ith the first .22% degree from the "ll !ndia !nstitute of .edical %ciences . !n fact) it as the 0ulf ar of 1GG04G1 that had oken up the !ndian policy makers about the vulnerability of its orkers in the 0ulf) and the importance of their remittances to the economy. :o ever) ith shifts in the paradigm of migration) it as the perception of high4skill emigration to developed countries hich had changed much more dramatically than that on labour migration to the 0ulf. Thus) in the mid41GH0s) the political perception of Sbrain drainT had suddenly given ay to the perception of Sbrain bankT abroad) a concept dear to *ajiv 0andhi hen he took over as the prime4minister of the country in1GH4) after !ndira 0andhi as assassinated. Through the 1GG0s) the gradual success and achievements of the !ndian migrants in the J% 4 particularly led by Sbody shoppingT of the soft are professionals to the J% from 2angalore) !ndia@s %ilicon Malley) and orking to ards averting the looming global crisis of y2I 4 dre real attention of the developed countries in the Best and the &ast alike <Man der Meer 200E) 2+G=. The paradigm shift in the perception about professional migrants leaving !ndia) thus took place in phases 4 from the
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Sbrain drainT of the 1G60s and 1G+0s to the Sbrain bankT of the 1GH0s and 1GG0s) and subse8uently to Sbrain gainT in the t enty4first century. :o ever) the !T bubble burst in the ake of the "merican recession and hordes of techies ere sent back to !ndia) having lost their :412 visa contracts. Bestern &uropean countries in the &J) including the JI looked as a more sustainable destination) and &astP%outh &ast "sia looked at as an emerging destination. :o ever) 0ermany@s ,hancellor 0erhard %chroeder@s scheme of issuing 20)000 S0reen ,ardsT to computer specialist from non4&J countries) mainly !ndia <bet een +)000 to 10)000= and &astern &urope launched in "ugust) 2000 as met ith street protests and the ave of 'enophobia of Skinder stat inderT s eeping 0ermany.1H &ventually) opportunities of employment multiplied ithin !ndia under the emergence of business process outsourcing <25-= 4 .#,s moving their capital to !ndia rather than labour moving out of !ndia 4 triggering return migration of !ndians as a boon to the economy of !ndia. !n fact) the latest #"%%,-. %trategic *evie <200Ea= and the #"%%,-.4.cIinsey *eport <200Eb=) apprehends huge shortage of !T4related as ell as 25-4related skills in !ndia. The report said that currently only about 2E per cent of the technical graduates and 1041E per cent of general college students ere suitable for employment in the offshore !T and 25- industries respectively) and estimated that by 2010 the t o industries ould have to employ an additional orkforce of about one million orkers near five Tier4! cities) vi>.) #e 3elhi) 2angalore) :yderabad) ,hennai and .umbai) and about 600)000 orkers across other to ns in !ndia <&conomic Times) 1+ 3ec) 200E=. -n talent supply) it said !ndia ould need a 2.3 million strong !T and 25- orkforce by 2010 to maintain its current market share. The report projected a potential shortfall of nearly 0.E million 8ualified employees 4 nearly +0 per cent of hich ould be concentrated in the 25- industry. !n fact) the 25- industry has also started attracting foreigners to !ndia in search of employment.20 This roller4coaster of perception in moving from one model of the !ndian diaspora4identity formation through migration to the other 4bet een S ork4seekingT by orkers and S orker4seekingT by employers4 gets reflected in the current official and public response in !ndia over the changing immigration 8uotas of the developed host countries. !ndia@s pro4active stance to ards its population overseas) incorporating a substantial scientific diaspora) is reflective of this paradigm shift only. #ot merely economic) but political mileage that the #*!s and 5!-s can command for !ndia in their countries of abode has also become a focus of pride in recent years) particularly ith liberali>ation) globalisation and orld competitiveness becoming the agenda of the nations 4 hether developed or developing.

MIGRATION MANAGEMENT IN INDIA)RECENT INITIATI.ES

" number of initiatives have been taken in !ndia since independence to recognsie and honour the significant contribution of overseas !ndian community in !ndia;s social and economic progress.:o ever) in most cases) these steps ere taken in an ad hoc manner ithout
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considering the modalities to sustain them in a long-term perspective. This as surprising in vie of the fact that the sustained international migration from !ndia and its conse8uences provided massive potential for addressing different developmental concerns. The establishment of a separate .inistry) .inistry of -verseas !ndian "ffairs in .ay 2004) to deal ith all matters pertaining to overseas !ndians) comprising 5ersons of !ndian -rigin <5!-=) #on-*esident !ndians <#*!s= and -verseas ,iti>ens of !ndia <-,!=) as a historic step to ackno ledge the fact that the overseas !ndian community constitutes a significant economic) social and cultural force and needs mainstream attention. The basic mission of this .inistry is to Kpromote) nurture and sustain a mutually beneficial relationship bet een !ndia and its overseas communityK<.-!") 200+=.!n achieving the above mission) the .-!" is guided by four key policy imperatives. /irst) the heterogeneous overseas !ndian community spread across eight major regions of the orld is a product of different aves of migration over hundreds of years and have distinct and often varied e'pectations from the home country. !n facilitating the process of engagement the .inistry seeks to provide for this ide range of roles and e'pectations. %econd) there is a need to bring a strategic dimension to the process of !ndia;s engagement ith its overseas community. !t is important to take a medium to long term vie of overseas !ndians and forge partnerships that ill best serve !ndia as an emerging economic po er and meet the e'pectations of overseas !ndians as a significant constituency across the orld. Third)overseas !ndians are both the products and the drivers of globalisation. They represent a reservoir of kno ledge and resources in diverse fields - economic) social and cultural - and that this reservoir must be dra n upon as partners in development. /inally) the states of !ndia are important players in this process. "ny initiative that overseas !ndians) individually or collectively) take must be anchored in one of the states. The states must therefore be encouraged to become natural stakeholder partners in the process of engagement ith the overseas !ndian community. %ome of the major schemes initiated by the !ndian 0overnment to accomplish the above stated objectives are highlighted belo . 30 PraDasi B#ara$iCa DiDas "s per the recommendation of :igh 1evel ,ommittee on !ndian 3iaspora) the 0overnment of !ndia had decided to celebrate ;5ravasi 2haratiya 3ivas; <523= in recognition and appreciation of the constructive) economic and philanthropic role played by the !ndian 3iaspora) on the Gth day of 9anuary every year. 9anuary G has been chosen because it as on this day that .ahatma 0andhi) /ather of the #ation and a 5ravasi 2haratiya in %outh "frica for almost t o decades) returned to !ndia in 1G1E.The first 523 as celebrated during 9anuary G-11) 2003 at #e 3elhi. %ince then this event held on an annual basis has become the major platform for discussions on a host of issues related to overseas !ndians. The high level deliberations have been attended by significant numbers of overseas !ndian community from across the globe. !t has also become the centre stage for recogni>ing the contributions made by !ndian 3iaspora as the 5ravasi 2haratiya %amman " ard are conferred during this meet to prominent members of the !ndian 3iaspora. '0 OD!rs!as Ci$iE!ns#i> of In ia /OCI0 Sc#!m! !n response to a long and persistent demand for Kdual citi>enshipK particularly from the 3iaspora in #orth "merica and developed countries) the 0overnment of !ndia introduced
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-verseas ,iti>enship of !ndia <-,!= %cheme in 200E to cover all 5ersons of !ndian -rigin here local la s permit Kdual citi>enshipK in some form or the other e'cept 5akistan and 2angladesh. "ccordingly) the citi>enship <"mendment= -rdinance as promulgated on 2H.06.200E amending the ,iti>enship "ct) 1GEE e'tending the facility of -verseas ,iti>enship of !ndia <-,!= to 5ersons of !ndian -rigin <5!-s= of all countries < ho ere citi>ens of !ndia or eligible to become citi>ens of !ndia on 26 9anuary) 1GE0 and are citi>ens of the countries <e'cept 5akistan and 2angladesh=. *egistered -,!s are entitled to the follo ing benefits( <i=.ultiple entry) multi-purpose life long visa to visit !ndiaF <ii= &'emption from reporting to the police for any length of stay in !ndia F and <iii= 5arity ith #*!s in financial) economic and educational fields e'cept in the ac8uisition of agricultural or plantation properties. "s on .arch 31) 200H) over 2.E lakhs -,! documents have been issued <.-!") 200H=. 40 T#! PraDasi B#ara$iCa Bima "oFana8 '&&; This is a ne and upgraded version of the compulsory insurance scheme for the migrant orkers introduced in 2003. Jnder the ne scheme) the migrant orkers are insured for a minimum cover of *s. 0.3 million and the policy is valid for the entire period of the employment contract. The insurance is compulsory for all those ho migrate for employment purposes after obtaining emigration clearance from 5rotector of &migrants <5-&=. The salient features of this scheme are( <i= !n the case of death)besides the cost of transporting the dead body) the cost incurred on the one- ay airfare of one attendant shall be reimbursed by the insurance companyF <ii= !f a orker is not received by the employer on hisP her arrival to the destination abroad or there is any substantive change in employment contract to hisPher disadvantage or if the employment is pre-maturely terminated ithin the period of employment for no fault of the emigrant) the insurance company shall reimburse one ay economy class airfare provided the grounds of repatriation are certified by the concerned !ndian .issionP5ostF <iii= !n cases here the repatriation is arranged by the !ndian .issionP5ost) the insurance company shall reimburse the actual e'penses to the concerned !ndian .issionP5ostF <iv= The insured person shall be reimbursed actual one ay economy class airfare by the insurance company if hePshe falls sick or is declared medically unfit to commence or continue orking and the service contract is terminated by the foreign employer ithin t elve months of taking the insuranceF <v= The insurance policy shall also provide medical cover of a minimum of *s.E0)000P- as cash-less hospitali>ation andPor reimbursement of actual medical e'penses of the insured emigrant orkers on grounds of accidental injuries andPor sicknessPailmentsPdiseases constructive) economic and philanthropic role played by the !ndian 3iaspora) on the Gth day of 9anuary every year. 9anuary G has been chosen because it as on this day that .ahatma 0andhi) /ather of the #ation and a 5ravasi 2haratiya in %outh "frica for almost t o decades) returned to !ndia in 1G1E.The first 523 as celebrated during 9anuary G-11) 2003 at #e
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3elhi. %ince then this event held on an annual basis has become the major platform for discussions on a host of issues related to overseas !ndians. The high level deliberations have been attended by significant numbers of overseas !ndian community from across the globe. !t has also become the centre stage for recogni>ing the contributions made by !ndian 3iaspora as the 5ravasi 2haratiya %amman " ard are conferred during this meet to prominent members of the !ndian 3iaspora. -verseas ,iti>enship of !ndia <-,!= %cheme !n response to a long and persistent demand for Kdual citi>enshipK particularly from the 3iaspora in #orth "merica and developed countries) the 0overnment of !ndia introduced -verseas ,iti>enship of !ndia <-,!= %cheme in 200E to cover all 5ersons of !ndian -rigin here local la s permit Kdual citi>enshipK in some form or the other e'cept 5akistan and 2angladesh. "ccordingly) the citi>enship <"mendment= -rdinance as promulgated on 2H.06.200E amending the ,iti>enship "ct) 1GEE e'tending the facility of -verseas ,iti>enship of !ndia <-,!= to 5ersons of !ndian -rigin <5!-s= of all countries < ho ere citi>ens of !ndia or eligible to become citi>ens of !ndia on 26 9anuary) 1GE0 and are citi>ens of the countries <e'cept 5akistan and 2angladesh=. *egistered -,!s are entitled to the follo ing benefits( <i=.ultiple entry) multi-purpose life long visa to visit !ndiaF <ii= &'emption from reporting to the police for any length of stay in !ndia F and <iii= 5arity ith #*!s in financial) economic and educational fields e'cept in the ac8uisition of agricultural or plantation properties. "s on .arch 31) 200H) over 2.E lakhs -,! documents have been issued <.-!") 200H=.

GO.ERNMENT MEASURES AND PROGRAMMES FOR BETTER MIGRATION MANAGEMENT

Bhereas provision regarding entry) regulation and prevention of SforeignersT into !ndia and !ndian citi>enship are found in the ,onstitution) the ,iti>enship "ct 1GEE) the 5assport "ct 1G6+) the ,riminal 5rocedure ,ode and other regulations) there has been no systematic legal
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policy frame ork to deal ith emigration out of the country. 3espite the debates) discourses) and perspective) the 0overnment of !ndia does not have any comprehensive policy on labour migration or overseas employment) hether for skilled or unskilled orkers. :o ever) the paradigm of policy stance in !ndia could be said to have moved over time from one of restrictive regime) to compensatory) to restorative) to developmental.21 The &migration "ct) 1GH3) hich replaced the earlier 1G22 &migration "ct) has been designed mainly to ensure protection to vulnerable categories of unskilled) and semi4skilled orkers) and omen going abroad to ork as housemaids and domestic orkers. Jnder the "ct) it is mandatory for registration of all S*ecruiting "gentsT ith the ministry <0-!) .-!") "nnual *eport 200E4 6=. The government@s role has been perceived as that of a facilitator in finding gainful employment to ma'imum number of persons) again a major development concern sinc!ndia@s independence) hether ithin or outside the country.The ne ly formed .inistry of -verseas !ndian "ffairs) constituted in 2004) has taken the initiative to amend the &migration "ct) 1GH3) and introduce a number of measures. !n addition) there are various other pro4active programmes that are in the pipeline of the .-!") including benchmarking of the best practices of other progressive sending countries like the 5hilippines and %ri lanka <%ee 0-!) .-!") "nnual *eport 200E46=. -verseas !ndian) the house journal of the .inistry has been launched in five languages ith an e4version also being made accessible. -f all the government measures and programmes in !ndia) the -verseas ,iti>enship of !ndia <-,!= 4 the dual citi>enship is an important landmark in redefining the contours of migration policy in the ne millennium. This measure seems to be relevant mainly to the highly skilled migrants to the developed countries. " second measure) that !ndian citi>ens abroad ould have the right to e'ercise their votes from abroad) is primarily meant for the !ndian orkers in the 0ulf 4 those ho send large remittances back home but can never hope to become naturali>ed citi>ens of those countries because of restrictive regimes there. :o ever) it is still too early to gauge the impact of these t o measures as they are in their infancy.

A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO)ECONOMIC IMPACT IN INDIA

:o does one assess hether migration has changed society in !ndia) and hether it has ade8uately contributed to social and economic development in !ndiaU !n other ords) hat have been the socio4economic gains and losses arising from 21 The normal issue of forced
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migration in terms of !ndians applying for refugee status in &urope) J%" or else here has not dra n much attention in !ndia. *efugee issues are limited to asylees and asylum seekers in !ndia rather than from !ndia.These 8uestions have traditionally been raised in suggesting cost4benefit analysis at the micro4level for the individual migrant and the household) and at macro level for society and the economy as a hole. &ven if it is assumed that the micro4 level assessment of benefits and losses to the households left behind in !ndia can more accurately identify and measure the benefits) there has not been many satisfactory surveys of the psychic losses that separation of family member brings) e'cept for a fe studies carried out in the state of Ierala. /or e'ample) emigration of married men ho left behind the responsibility of the management of the household to omen in the family) transformed about one million omen into efficient home managers) but eventually also created the social and psychological problems of the S0ulf BivesT and the loneliness of the S0ulf 5arentsT) ho unlike the relatives of the skilled migrants to the developed countries ere not accompanying the orkers to their destination countries <Oachariah et al 2003) 32G43GF Oachariah and *ajan 2004) 4H=. !ncrease in temporary migration over permanent migration of even skilled migrants) to developed countries) has also led to creation of hat ! have else here called Snomadic familiesT on the one hand and a ne kind of Sforced returnT on the other for the skilled migrants) but these have not been assessed or analysed <Ihadria) 2006a=.22 "nother related but unattended facet of !ndian migration has been the gender issue. #o comprehensive data are available on omen migrants as dependents or orkers) not to consider in4depth analyses of the trend and impacts. %ome receiving4country data are available) like the J% ,ensus) or the JI orkforce data indicating the proportion of omen amongst "sian !ndian ethnic group population hich comprises migrants) or particular professional groups like !ndian nurses respectively) and %ingapore data on !ndian maids. 2eyond this) analyses of the gender dimension of !ndian migration have remained) by and large) either stereotypical or case4study based.23 -f course) there has been concern follo ed by diplomatic action at the plight of the migrant orkers of !ndian origin employed abroad henever a crisis has erupted) be it the 0ulf ar) or the !ra8 ar) or the random abductions of !ndian truck drivers) the recent beheading of an !ndian engineer by the terrorists in "fghanistan) or the sudden arrests of !ndian !T professionals in .alaysia or the #etherlands and so on <:industan Times) Times of !ndia) %traight Times) "pril4.ay) 2006=. :o ever) !ndia virtually e'erts no control over migration flo s of highly 22 /or e'ample) one such neglected gender dimension of high4skill emigration has been the denial of right to ork for the :44 dependent visa holding spouses) mostly ives) accompanying the celebrated :412 Misa holder !ndian male migrants in the J%) leading to financial and mobility dependency on husbands follo ed by discrimination) e'ploitation) and sometimes mistreatment. %ee 3evi <2002= as cited in Man der Meer <200E) 2H3=.23 The present agitation in !ndia over reservation of seats in higher education institutions for the underprivileged castes is a case in point.skilled categories. &ven unskilled migration flo s are controlled only to the e'tent they fall under the purvie of the &migration ,learance *e8uired <&,*= category of passports) ith limitations mentioned earlier. "s a result) hat has not been looked into is ho the possibility of migration itself has created a sense of desperation amongst the lo 4income !ndian populace to emigrate for the sake of up ard socio4economic mobility of the family left behind in !ndia) even at the risks that accompany migration overseas. %imilarly) there have been no studies on the impact of skilled migration on career choices and educational choices in !ndia) here there have been a lot of choice distortion and inter4generational or even inter4community conflict over educational choices that have taken place but remained un4analysed if not un4noticed <Ihadria) 2004bF #,"&* 200E=.24 "t the macro level) the attempts have not progressed beyond identification of the indicators) vi>.) remittances) transfer of technology) and human capital embodied in returning migrants <Ihadria 1GGG)
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2002=. &ven in the case of macro4economic assessment of much talked about remittances) there has been a Ssilent back ash flo T from the south countries of origin like !ndia to north countries of destination like the JI) "ustralia) and the J% 4 in the form of Soveseas studentT fees <Ihadria) 2004c) 2006a=. This has remained un4estimated and unanalysed so far. The rises in disposable income of the Ierala households arising from remittances have had its effect on the consumption pattern in the state) including on enhanced family investment in education for migration <Oachariah and *ajan) 2004=.2E 2ut) consumerism and house building activities have drained the state of the development potential of its remittance receipts) leading many families to financial bankruptcy) even to suicides. "part from this) the increasing economic and political clout of the Sne richT in Ierala is reported to have created a climate of resentment against them among the other communities <Oachariah and *ajan) 2004=.#ot ithstanding this) hereas the volume of remittances from !ndian labour migrants in the 0ulf have dra n a lot of attention) the other t o areas) vi>.) transfer of technology and return migration that have been thought of as the positive outcome of skilled migration to the developed countries) even 8uantitative assessment have not been ade8uate. .ost studies have not gone beyond 24 "t the same time) remittances have led to the opening up of a large number of ne schools and colleges on the one hand) and to enabling the youth to buy a costly private education on the other hand 4 both contributing to unemployment amongst the current generations of Ierala youth ho no longer ant to ork in traditional lines of occupations. %econdly) an e8ually important SadverseT effect has been the emergence of Sreplacement migrationT of labour into Ierala from the other !ndian states. "part from the fact that ages have gone up in Ierala to be highest in !ndia due to shortage of unskilled and semi4skilled orkers) labourers from other states also accept lo ages and poor living conditions to ork in Ierala) adding to unemployment of the local generations of youth.2E Today) 2ritain is an endless repository of success stories of the !ndian professional diaspora) ranging from lord % raj 5aul) to steel magnate la'mi .ittal) to icons like #obel laureate "martya %en.migration to developed countriestalking about the need to assess the 8uantitative outcomes in terms of volumes of flo s of technology collaborations and the numbers of returnees. ,ollection and availability of data have been the main constrains of researchers in going beyond this in these t o areas) although sporadic information on transfer of technology has revealed not necessarily rosy pictures arising from the contribution in the field of transfer of technologyF rather) the Sreverse transfer of technologyT 4 a term used by the J#,T"3 studies carried out in the 1G+0s 4 from countries of the south to north still seems to be continuing in the form of brain drain of !T professionals and so on <Ihadria) 1GG0=. *eturn migration has become topical in the conte't of SoutsourcingT of business processes to !ndia picking up after the !T bubble burst in the J%) but here too there have been no systematic assessment of the numbers and 8uality of the returnees) although some studies emphasise the return to !ndia as unsustainable because the returnees tend to go back after a short stay in !ndia <%a'enian) 200E=. %ome involvement of circulating returnees have of course been noted in #0- activities for socio4economic development at the grass4roots level in !ndia but these have remained largely anecdotal <as cited in Ihadria) 2002=. Bhat ould be useful as a policy tool is Sadversary analysisT hereby the contribution to social and economic development in countries of origin ould be assessed from the point of vie of the stakeholders in countries of destination. To do this in a multilateral international4relations frame ork at fora like the 0"T% under BT-) the benefits of remittances) technology) and return migration to south countries of origin can be eighed and even pitted against three advantages of S"ge) Bage) and MintageT that accrue to the destination countries of the north. These are the advantages derived through higher migrant turnover in4built in temporary and circulatory immigration) and operationalised by <a= bringing in of younger migrants to balance an ageing population) <b= keeping the age and pension commitments lo by
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replacing older and long4term migrants ith younger and short4term migrants) and <c= stockpiling latest vintage of kno ledge embodied in younger cohorts of skilled orkers respectively <Ihadria) 2006a) 1G4=. !t remains to be judged and e'plored hat are the cost aspects of these benefits.The changed perceptions of the destination countries) in hich the !ndian professional migrants have settled to form a diaspora) might play a catalyst@s role in this e'ercise. The changed values are no attributed to the !ndian diaspora itself that has defied the anticipated doom by rising to unforeseeable economic success in the destination countries of the north) leading to a paradigm shift in the societies and regions here !ndians have settled.26 The reason lies in the on diaspora as a policy option.migration to developed countriesreali>ation of the host countries that) given the appropriate help) resources) and local support) one type of migrants 4 the suspected Ssocial parasiteT 4 can become the other) the social boon) or as someone has phrased it) the hite Best@s off4 hite hopeT <"libinia) 2000=. This has led to a major paradigm shift in !ndia too 4 to look at migration as a process leading to formation of the S!ndian 3iasporaT) an option for turning the challenge of migration into an opportunity) and therefore gainfull. Bhat remain for !ndia as ell as these host countries in the emerging international relations paradigm is to judge here the loyalty of the !ndian diaspora ould lieU Bhether !ndian migrants ould no longer be treated by !ndia as the Sdeserters of the motherlandT) or as Ssocial parasitesT by the host countriesUThe diaspora option) because it is holistic in identity) ould also foster the emphasis that the 0,!. <200E= report has made in stating) Sthe traditional distinction bet een skilled and unskilled orkers is in certain respects an unhelpful one) as it fails to do justice to the comple'ity of international migration.Bhile they may have different levels of educational achievement) all of them could be legitimately described as essential orkers <emphasis added=T. Bhile the dichotomy bet een skilled and unskilled migrant orkers is un arranted) lately !ndia has dra n disproportionately high orld ide attention to the success stories of its highly skilled human resources doing remarkably ell in the orld labour markets abroad 4 the !T professionals) the nurses) the biotechnologists) the financial managers) the scientists) the architects) the la yers) the teachers and so on 4 there being almost a fray for them amongst the developed countries the 0erman 0reen ,ard) the "merican :142 visa) the 2ritish ork permit) the ,anadian investment visa) the "ustralian student visa) the #e Oealand citi>enship) all mushrooming to ac8uire !ndian talent embodied in orkers as ell as students. !n contrast) the !ndian labour migrants in the 0ulf have been considered more of a responsibility than pride for !ndia. To neutralise this imbalance and empo er the !ndian labour migrants) the interest of the stakeholders in the 0ulf <and %outh4east "sia too= are gradually being looked into) and innovative programmes are being introduced. The developments follo ing the institution of the S5ravasi 2hartiya 3ivasT <&'patriate !ndians 3ay= and constitution of a separate ministry of the government of !ndia reflect a break from the past 4 a confidence emanating from a paradigm shift to ards !ndia taking pride in its diaspora) and vice4versa. Bhat is re8uired) ho ever) is a long4term policy that is aimed at establishing !ndia@s links ith the !ndian diaspora for sustainable socio4economic development in the country. To arrive though at a proverbial S in4 inT situation in international relations for all the three stakeholders 4 !ndia as a south country of origin) the !ndian migrants as part of its diaspora) and the host destination countries of the north) t o specific conditions must be met( " Snecessary condition of dominant or significant global geo4economic presence of the !ndian orkers migration to developed countriesand a Ssufficient conditionT of !ndia deriving sustainable benefits from that global geo4economic presence. !n terms of the large demand for !ndian skilled as ell as unskilled orkers abroad) and the migrants establishing e'cellent records of accomplishment in the labour markets of the destination countries) the first condition has more or less been met. To satisfy the sufficient condition of !ndia deriving significant gains from the global geo4economic
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presence of the !ndian migrants) the flo s of remittances) transfer of technology) and return migration must all be directed not Stop do nT but not to ards trade and business but to ards the removal of t o kinds of poverty in !ndia 4 the poverty of educationT and the Spoverty of healthT 4 areas here migration has so far failed to change the society in this country of origin by contributing to its economic and social development. large masses of the illiterate and uneducated population) incapacitated further by their poor health status are the root causes of !ndia having one of the lo est levels of average productivity of labour) and therefore lo est average ages in the orld 4 a parado' hen !ndian diaspora members) on the average) figure amongst the largest contributing ethnic communities in their countries of destination. /or e'ample) it is indeed parado'ical that the average per4hour contribution of each employed orker ithin !ndia to the production of !ndia@s gross domestic product <035= has been amongst the lo est in the orld a mere 3+ cents as compared to the Jnited %tates@ 3+ dollars) i.e.) one4hundredth of the latter. This is naturally ironical) because the same average !ndian employed abroad contributes very high average share to the 035 of the country here one settles and orks <Ihadria) 2002=. The !ndian diaspora net orks and associations abroad could) therefore) play the catalyst@s role 4 be it economically) politically or culturally 4 in raising the average productivity of mass !ndian orkers at home by thinking health and education in !ndia as areas of diaspora engagement) rather than focusing on immediate Sprofit4makingT ventures in industry and business. This sets a Sdouble challengeT of public policy for a sending country like !ndia( /irst) to convince its o n diaspora community to rethink the development process in !ndia as a Sbottom upT creation and enhancement of sustainable productivities of labour through development of education and health rather than a development through participation in business and industry 4 one comprehensive) the other dispersedF one long4term) the other immediate. !t is not just a matter of illingnessF in many instances) it ould entail long periods of struggle in creating those decision4making and priority4setting discerning capabilities amongst the leaders of the migrant community. %econdly) !ndia must be able to convince the countries of destination <and the other countries of origin in the south as ell= to distinguish bet een most SpainfulT and most gainful socio4economic impacts of migration of its orkers 4 both skilled and unskilled. The Sadversary analysisT in multilateral fora ould help a country like !ndia press for international norms in the 0"T% negotiations around the issue of movement of natural persons as service providers under trade) hich is just and migration to developed countriesother description for promoting the temporary entry of migrants. "t multilateral dialogues) the vulnerability of the migrants and the instability of trends underlying the Sopen4and4shut policyT of the destination countries in the north could be the t o key aspects that the south countries of origin ought to negotiate out of international migration as the most hurting ones.

CONCLUSION
3ue to shortage of labour in many of the developed countries) there has been an increasing competition among them to attract skilled labour from developing countries. This tendency of fulfilling labour shortage in the developed countries by imported manpo er is perceived to pose certain challenges as ell as provide opportunities for source countries. !ndia being a
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leading labour e'port country has to ponder over the future impacts that this may have on the !ndian economy as ell as the !ndian 3iaspora. ,onsidering the demographic shifts and !ndia;s o n position in producing human capital t o possible scenarios emerge for !ndia( a,In ia losin% o-$ "ccording to the Borld 5opulation ,ouncil the productive population of !ndia) i.e.) people belonging to the age group 1E-60) ill stop increasing in the coming years and it ill stabilise at 64 percent of the total population from 202E to 20E0 and ill decrease thereafter to 62 percent of the total population in 20E0 0ain) 200H=. !t may lead to shortage of skilled labour in !ndia too) if the present rate of migration from the country continues unabated. The government is right no focusing on the immediate benefits associated ith emigration. 2ut the pattern of emigration sho s that the migrants belong to the high-skilled categories such as the scientists) engineers) doctors) management and !T professionals) academicians) ho are already in short supply) may lead to decline in productivity. "lso) the education system shall face severe shortage of teachers and researchers resulting in poor 8uality students passing out from educational institutions. b,In ia %ains The second scenario postulates that !ndia along ith ,hina ould emerge as a major global player having an immense impact on the geo-political landscape. !ndia is ell positioned to become a technology leader in the coming decades. %ustainable high economic gro th)e'panding military capabilities and large demographic dividend ill be the contributing factors to the e'pected elevation of the country. Ino ledge and technology involving the convergence of nano-) bio-) information and material technology could further its prospects in the forthcoming global economy. %ubstantial enhancement of financial recourses in social sector) especially on education and research) ould help !ndia to become the largest source of kno ledge professionals in the orld. The t o scenarios just described are based on the recent indicators of economic performance and potential for future gro th. #othing is sure to happen. #evertheless) projections provide food for intellectual engagement and help moving ahead ith certain degree of e'pected outcomes. 5rojections) therefore should be given due importance in policy perspectives if they are based on solid empirical indicators. .igration policy of !ndia should) therefore) be based upon vital datasets of social and economic importance.*esearch) "nalysis and 3evelopment !n order to ma'imi>e the positive impacts of cross-border migration and nunuru>e the negative conse8uences veritable statistics is fundamental re8uirement. 3ata related to various aspects of migration such as flo Pstock of migrants) destination countries) countries of origin) proftle of migrants) their intentions) mode of crossing borders) legal status) remittances) etc.) for all migrants should be collected. :o ever) the fact is that despite gro ing scale of international migratory flo s necessary statistics in !ndia is not easily available simply because it is neither collected properly nor maintained. "t present) statistics relevant to migration is being collected in !ndia for different purposes by different government departments and other organisations) namely) 2ureau of !mmigration) 5rotectorate of &migrants) .inistry of &'ternal "ffairs) -ffice of the *egistrar 0eneral $ ,ensus ,ommissioner and #ational %ample %urvey -rgani>ation <#%%-=. %ince migration statistics is collected by different agencies to meet their o n individual re8uirements and differs in coverage) it purportedly lacks uniformity and comparability. %ome academic institutions such as ,entre for 3evelopment %tudies) Ierala) are also engaged in collecting and analysing migration data ith focus on unskilled migration. :o ever) it ould really be very ambitious to e'pect form individual institutions to provide a comprehensive coverage of migration form a country like !ndia. This situation

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arrants se8uential coordination bet een various government departments) universities and institutions involved in study and motnotoring of migration.

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meme.php ebhosting.comPVmigracionPmodulesPve+P2.pdf community.eldis.orgP....P1abourW20.igrationW20inW20!ndia.pdf .currentaffairsindia.infoP...Pmigration-types-causes-and-conse8uence timesofindia.indiatimes.comPindiaP...migrants...!ndias...P24313033.cms en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration

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