SPE 135427

Core Tests for Relative Permeability of Unconventional Gas Reservoirs

John M. Dacy, Core Laboratories N.V.
Copyright 2010, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Florence, Italy, 1922 September 2010.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed
by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or
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Abstract
A combination of up to seven or more core tests provides a practical approach to k
rg
and k
rw
function definition even when absolute
permeability is at the sub-microdarcy level. The method is designed to provide data needed to define function parameters required
by traditional engineering equations for relative permeability. This is accomplished with cores by determining end point specific
permeabilities, end point non-wetting phase trapping capacity, critical gas saturation, and a small but sufficient number of effective
gas permeabilities to define both drainage and imbibition k
rg
as functions of water saturation. Assessment of the k
rw
function is
handled variously and is described. This combination-method is used because traditional core tests involving somewhat
continuous displacement are invalid or not practical when cores have absolute permeability approaching a microdarcy and lower.

Conventional analysis of gas shale and tight gas sand cores provides a snap-shot of reservoir permeability. The more complete
view of flow capacity needed by engineers and petrophysicists comes with the availability of gas-water relative permeability.
Measured relative permeability data are used for reservoir simulation, production forecasting, interpretation of formation damage,
and to develop detailed reservoir permeability versus depth profiles.

Sample and test conditions are described. Data for several tight gas sand and gas shale cores are presented along with the required
data integration steps to combine the separate test results and to generate relative permeability functions of water saturation.
Results show these unconventional rocks can be characterized with well-known relative permeability equations and that traditional
rock-property logic can be followed during data integration.

The significance of this work lies in presentation of a novel yet practical solution for acquiring rock curves from unconventional
rocks. It is believed to represent the first treatment of core tests for k
rg
hysteresis in tight gas sands and of core-based development
of relative permeability functions in gas shales.

Introduction
The majority of information about permeability for most reservoirs comes from routine, or conventional, core analysis. In the case
of tight gas sands (and tight gas carbonates), cores are sampled at approximately 1-foot frequency, resident pore-liquids removed,
samples dried then tested for absolute, slip-free permeability to gas (klinkenberg, k

) at representative net confining stress. This

permeability value, while characteristic for the sample and suitable for use in development of a log-based permermeability model,
does not include the effect of variations in water saturation (S
w
) existing in the reservoir.

In the case of gas shale the common method of analysis is to determine k
g
in the presence of existing pore-fluids. Further, the gas
shale core test is designed to eliminate the effect of any cracks or fractures hence to determine the crack-free matrix permeability
to gas, k
m
(Luffel et al., 1993). To achieve this, the sample is tested in a crushed or particulate state, with the reasonable
assumption that each particle still contains many thousands of grains and retains representative porosity and liquid saturation.
Occasionally the particles also contain non-reservoir liquids, such as filtrate from oil-based mud (OBM), that adversely affect k
m
.

2 SPE 135427
The more complete view of flow capacity needed by engineers and petrophysicists comes with the availability of gas-water
relative permeability. Measured relative permeability (k
r
) data are used for reservoir simulation, production forecasting,
interpretation of formation damage, and to develop detailed reservoir permeability versus depth profiles. Relative permeability
data help quantify variations in reservoir permeability for each phase and under various conditions of saturation history. It is a
rock property but is difficult to determine for unconventional gas reservoirs because the available core methods work poorly if at
all when absolute permeability approaches a microdarcy or lower.

Traditional k
r
methods, steady-state, unsteady-state (gas-drive) (Owens et al., 1956), centrifuge (Hagoort, 1980), and stationary-
liquid (Osoba et al., 1951) have varying usefulness for low permeability samples. The steady-state method uses simultaneous two-
phase injection at constant rates for a series of fractional flows of water, each allowed to reach S
w
equilibrium. With tight cores,
often the lowest pump rates reach or exceed equipment pressure limits or equilibrium times are excessive. The gas-drive method
involves single-phase gas injection of a water-filled core and relies on viscous forces and production rates of both phases. Flow
rates must be adequate to overcome outlet-end capillary retention of water (end effects) in order to satisfy computational models
(Johnson et al., 1959; Jones and Roszelle, 1978). Suitable rates are seldom possible in tight cores. Further, the gas-drive method
is not appropriate for determination of k
rg
hysteresis (k
rg
at S
w
-increasing). The centrifuge method provides k
r
data for the
displaced phase alone and also suffers from end effects at low permeability (Skauge, 1999). The stationary-liquid method involves
determination of effective non-wetting phase permeability at a series of wetting phase saturations held stationary by capillary
retention. It has been widely used for tight gas sand drainage k
rg
(Thomas and Ward, 1972; Sampath and Keighin, 1982; Ning and
Holditch, 1990), but seldom if ever used for imbibition k
rg
.

Examination of traditional equations for gas-water relative permeability functions has lead to a practical method wherein data from
various core tests are merged to satisfy the equations and define the function parameters. These tests include end point specific
permeability to each phase, end point gas trapping capacity, critical gas saturation, and a small but sufficient number of stationary-
liquid effective gas permeabilities in both the S
w
-drainage and S
w
-imbibition directions. Capillary pressure tests help define the k
rw

function with occasional support from direct k
rw
methods.

The equations, methods, and examples of data integration discussed below apply primarily for tight gas sands (and carbonates).
However, some of the measurements and principles discussed are also applied to gas shales and treated in a later section.

Equations for Gas-Water Relative Permeabilty.
Equations and associated parameters for gas-water relative permeability will be described with the aid of Fig. 1, a
demonstration cross-plot of relative permeability versus water saturation. All specific and effective permeabilities are expressed
relative to the specific (absolute) klinkenberg (slip-free) permeability to gas in this and all examples except where noted.

Fig. 1Demonstration cross-plot of drainage and imbibition gas-water relative permeability identifying saturation and permeability
function limits associated with kr equations.

0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
k
r
,

k

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

/

k
g

s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

S
wi
, initial water saturation;
fn of column height;
1-S
wi
=S
gi
, initial gas saturation
S
wcg
, critical water
saturation for gas
phase;
At S
w
<S
wcg
, k
rg
=1
S
gc
, critical gas saturation
S
gt
, trapped
gas saturation;
fn S
gi
k
rw
@ S
gt
S
w
increase
from fluid loss;
k
rg
hysteresis
k
rwd
k
rgd
k
rw
(specific)
k
rg
(specific)
S
wcw
, critical water
saturation for water
phase;
At S
w
<S
wcw
, k
rw
=0
k
rgi
1
3
2
4
k
rwi
SPE 135427 3
Gas Relative Permeability with Wetting Phase Draining, k
rgd
.
Prior to gas accumulation reservoir porosity is water-filled and permeability to gas remains zero until enough gas accumulates
to establish a saturation that is continuous across the element of reservoir under examination. Gas, the non-wetting phase, enters
the pore system under capillary pressure and follows the path of least resistance. The largest pore throats and the pore bodies
protected by them will be penetrated first and so on until one or more threads of gas saturation span the sample and can flow.
Critical gas saturation, S
gc
, is defined as that minimum gas saturation required for gas flow under these conditions. Values of S
gc

range from near zero to greater than 0.30 fraction of pore space. As gas accumulates, causing further decrease in S
w
, permeability
to gas increases until some water saturation is reached where further reduction results in no increase in k
g
(Fig. 1, curve 1). This
point on the water saturation scale is referred to as the critical water saturation with respect to gas, S
wcg
. Pore space represented by
saturations less than S
wcg
contribute very little or nothing to permeability hence S
wcg
is not necessarily equivalent to irreducible
water. In other words, S
wcg
is the maximum water saturation that does not affect gas flow. Observed values of S
wcg
range from
zero to greater than 0.25 fraction of pore space. Having defined these saturation limits for the gas accumulation relative
permeability, the power equation for k
rgd
as a function of S
w
is
ngd
wcg
S
gc
S
wcg
S
w
S
rgd
k

=
1
1 .. (1).
Curvature of the drainage gas relative permeability function between saturation limits is described by the exponent ngd. Eq. 1 is
similar to that frequently found in relative permeability literature for drainage k
rg
, a specific example being Molina (1980).
Another drainage k
rg
equation often found in tight gas sand literature is that proposed on a theoretical basis by Corey (1954),

=
2
1
1
2
1
1
wcg
S
gc
S
wcg
S
w
S
wcg
S
gc
S
wcg
S
w
S
rgd
k (2).
Brooks and Corey (1964) used a similar form for k
rgd
with the exception that the exponent inside the brackets of the 2
nd
term
was allowed to vary according to the pore size distribution index, , determined from a fit of drainage capillary pressure (P
c
)
versus S
w
data,

=
) / ) 2 ((
1
1
2
1
1

wcg
S
gc
S
wcg
S
w
S
wcg
S
gc
S
wcg
S
w
S
rgd
k .. (2a).
Eq. 2a will be discussed in a later section. Using Eq. 2 to fit k
rgd
data, some practitioners allow one or both exponents to vary to
achieve a best fit to measured data (Byrnes et al. 1979). If the exponent of the first term of Eq. 2 is allowed to vary and the 2
nd

term excluded, Eq. 2 is identical to Eq. 1. This being the case, experience has shown the 2
nd
term of Eq. 2 is not required to
characterize measured data. With no practical significance assigned to the 2
nd
term of forms of Eq. 2, Eq. 1 is recommended for
k
rgd
.

Gas Relative Permeability with Wetting Phase I ncreasing, k
rgi
.

At some point along the wetting-phase drainage cycle there may be an increase, or imbibition, of wetting phase (Fig. 1, curve 3).
In conventional reservoirs increased liquid saturation could come from an advancing water table or from water injection. In
unconventional reservoirs this increase more commonly comes from loss of fluids used for drilling, coring, completion, and/or
stimulation. In addition, near-well-bore reservoir liquid saturation may increase in some wet-gas systems because of oil
condensate. Wetting-phase saturation distribution during imbibition is different than that during drainage due largely to non-
wetting phase (gas) becoming trapped in some pores. This shift in distribution at a given saturation results in a reduction in
imbibition k
rg
, k
rgi
, when compared to k
rgd
. As S
w
(or total wetting-liquid saturation) increases the formation eventually reaches a
point of trapped gas saturation, S
gt
, where there is no further change in S
w
or k
rgi
. Also found in Molina (1980), the power equation
used to characterize this rock curve is
ngi
gt
S
wi
S
wi
S
w
S
wi
S rgd
k
rgi
k

=
1
1
@
. (3).
4 SPE 135427
Similar to Eq. 1, the exponent ngi describes the curvature of k
rgi
between the saturation limits of S
wi
and S
gt
. Imbibition k
rg
begins
at a point on the drainage curve, k
rgd
at S
wi
. The S
wi
term in Eq. 3 is the initial drainage water saturation or in other words, the
reservoir S
w
at the interval of investigation. It is typically dependent on the capillary pressure properties of the rock at a specific
gas column height above free water level. In this case, S
wi
is usually not consistent with irreducible water saturation. S
gt
is a
property dependent on not only rock structure but also on the initial gas saturation, S
gi
(Land, 1968; Pickell et al., 1966; Jerauld,
1996). Carlson (1981) showed that ngi is independent of S
wi
. Thus one can estimate k
rgi
at any S
w
, given the k
rgd
function, S
wi
, ngi,
and the relationship of S
gt
as a function of S
gi
(or 1- S
wi
).
Land (1968) provided the following function as a means of predicting S
gt
on the basis of S
gi
and some measured data,
gi
S
gi
S
gt
S
gi
S
gt
S

+
=
LAB
1
LAB
1
1
..... (4).
On the basis of a single measured point (S
giLAB
and S
gtLAB
) one can predict S
gt
for any S
gi
. Jerauld (1996) described how this
function and others like it reach a maximum, S
gtMAX
, when S
gi
is equal to unity. From a laboratory viewpoint, determination of
S
gtMAX
translates to testing a core sample starting at the fully-dried condition. Maximum trapped gas is an end-point dependent on
structure only and as such is a preferred measured property to correlate versus some other fundamental rock property such as
porosity. Lands Eq. 4 modified for S
gtMAX
appears as
gi
S
gt
S
gi
S
gt
S

+
=
1
MAX
1
1
. (5).
Jerauld (1996) and Hamon et al. (2001) show that in conventional rocks S
gtMAX
tends to decrease with increasing porosity,
hence, low porosity is associated with high gas trapping. These authors also discuss and give examples of low gas trapping in
microporosity, such as can be present in tight gas sands and clay-rich samples of low porosity. Low gas trapping in microporosity
can be due to low pore-body to pore-throat aspect ratio but Jerauld describes another mechanism. Rapid diffusion of gas can occur
at gas-liquid interfaces in small pores with high capillary pressure (curvature) due to the dissolved-gas saturation gradient in the
liquid near the interface. He further states the phenomenon is represented in both the lab test and the reservoir. Tight gas sands
frequently have secondary porosity resulting from grain dissolution. These pores have high aspect ratios and result in high S
gtMAX

values more in line with conventional reservoirs. So, unconventional reservoir rock at relatively low porosity can vary
significantly in S
gtMAX
due to relative proportions of secondary porosity and microporosity.
Jerauld (1996) also offered a variation of Lands initial-residual Eq. 5 that flattens the plateau region of the function,
( )
MAX
1 1
1
MAX
1
1
gt
-S /
gi
S
gt
S
gi
S
gt
S

+
= ..... (6),
with the difference from Eq. 5 being the exponent to S
gi
in the denominator. A comparison of the 2 initial-residual functions, both
seeded with a S
gtMAX
value of 0.25 fraction pore space, is given in Fig. 2.

SPE 135427 5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sgi, (1-Swi)
T
r
a
p
p
e
d

G
a
s
,

S
g
t
SgtMAX 0.25
Sgt Land
Sgt Jerauld
Delta

Fig. 2Comparison of trapped gas functions of initial gas based on maximum trapped gas; Lands Eq. 5 and Jeraulds Eq. 6.

Taken globally and comparing to measured data, Jeraulds Eq. 6 tends to match clastics and Lands Eq. 5 tends to match
carbonates. For unconventional reservoir rock with high microporosity and low pore-body to pore-throat aspect ratios resulting in
low S
gtMAX
, there is small difference between the two functions as observed in Fig. 2.
Hysteresis in k
rg
is a real phenomenon in tight gas sands that is caused by drilling, completion, or stimulation fluid losses (or
condensate accumulation). It is the cause of the formation damage referred to as water block. Production during clean-up of
lost fluids is controlled by the k
rg
imbibition curve. As near-well-bore liquids are produced or evaporated, permeability to gas is
recovered on a trajectory that follows the imbibition curve back up to the point where it joins the drainage curve, S
wi
. The
importance of accounting for k
rg
hysteresis in production forecasting is stressed by Sherman and Holditch (1991). Recognition of
the character of k
rg
hysteresis in a given formation can contribute to completion and stimulation strategies.
Water Relative Permeability, k
rw
.
The importance of water relative permeability in unconventional gas reservoirs varies. Some experience no water production
but others do and frequently there is uncertainty regarding the water source. Thus, along with traditional formation evaluation and
engineering uses for k
rw
characterization, it can be used to help with this question: Is water production coming from the formation
or from under- or over-lying sediments via either fractures or incompletely-cemented casing? Observed water production
frequently cannot be fully supported by measured formation (core) k
rw
leading problem-solvers elsewhere. With reference to Fig.
1, curve 2, the drainage water relative permeability curve begins at a point consistent with 100% water saturation and the ratio of
specific brine permeability, k
w
, to k

, or k
rwSPECIFIC
. Effective and relative permeability to water decreases as water saturation
drains until some saturation is reached below which drainage stops and no water flow is possible. Critical water saturation with
respect to water, S
wcw
, represents that lower saturation limit. The drainage relative permeability power function characterizing the
relationship is represented by Eq. 7,
nw
wcw
S
wcw
S
w
S
rw
k
rwd
k

=
1
SPECIFIC
.... (7).
For S
w
values between saturation limits from 1 to S
wcw
, the k
rwd
curvature is described by the exponent nw (Fig. 1, curve 3). Owens
and Archer (1971) discuss how relative permeability of a strongly wetting phase is dependent only on saturation and not on
direction of saturation change. Jerauld and Salter (1990) performed k
rw
hysteresis simulations for many variations of pore-level
models and found very small if any hysteresis for the wetting phase for most variations. Given that water is generally held to be
strongly wetting in the presence of gas, it is assumed no hysteresis occurs in k
rw
hence Eq. 7 will also serve as the k
rgi
function
limited by a maximum S
w
equal to 1-S
gt
(Fig. 1, curve 4). Otherwise, one could use a more traditional equation for imbibtion k
rw

(Molina, 1980), making the following alterations to Eq. 7,
nw
wcw
S
gt
S
wcw
S
w
S
gt
S
rw
k
rwi
k

=
1
@ .... (8).
6 SPE 135427
The first term, k
rw
@S
gt
, is the ratio of effective k
w
@S
gt
divided by absolute k

. Effective permeability to water at trapped gas

saturation would be found by

= k
nw
wcw
S
wcw
S
gt
S
rw
k Sgt
w
k
1
1
SPECIFIC
@ . (9),
where Eq. 7 is used to find k
rwd
at a specific S
w
(S
w
=1-S
gt
) and converted to an effective permeability by multiplying with the
reference permeability (k

). For all three Eqs. 7, 8, and 9 nw is the same value.

Except for minor variations k
rwd
Eq. 7 is similar to that proposed by Brooks and Corey (1964) which uses parameters derived
from curve-fitting capillary pressure data. An expression of their P
c
-S
w
model is given by
r
S
r
S
c
P
d
P
w
S +

= ) 1 (

(10).
The parameters P
d
and result from a best power fit of P
c
to normalized Sw [normalized Sw=((Sw- S
r
)/(1- S
r
))]. P
d
is defined as
the displacement pressure but in a practical sense it is the intercept of the power fit and relates to the capillary pressure at which
drainage begins. Lambda, , is related to the slope of the power fit and is defined as the pore size distribution index. The fit is
optimized by re-estimation of S
r
, a theoretical minimum S
w
setting the lower S
w
limit of the function. As such, S
r
is consistent with
S
wcw
of Eq. 7. Theoretical calculation of drainage krwd from P
c
uses and S
r
as follows,
( ) / ) 3 2 (
1
+

=
Sr
r
S
w
S
rwd
k ... (11).
Relative permeabilities calculated with Eq. 11 are by definition relative to specific permeability to water. Multiplying by the ratio
k
w
/k

(k
rwSPECIFIC
) makes them consistent with other values in this discussion.
Given samples of suitable permeability, theoretical k
rwd
from measured capillary pressure (Eq. 11) has been found to agree with
k
rwd
determined by either steady-state or gas-drive k
r
test methods. On the other hand, theoretical P
c
-based k
rgd
(Eq. 2a) frequently
provides a poor match to measured k
rgd
for cemented sand samples. The agreement between the k
rgd
methods generally degrades as
cementation increases. An example of these sorts of comparisons is provided with data from a low permeability sand of 2 md k

,
sufficient to test by the gas-drive method. Air-brine capillary pressure by centrifuge method was also performed and the P
c
data
were analyzed by the Brooks and Corey method and resulting parameters are given with the P
c
curve in Fig. 3. Using these
parameters and Eqs. 11 and 2a, P
c
-based k
rw
and k
rg
were computed for each saturation reported with the gas-drive data. The
comparisons of gas-drive to P
c
-based k
r
data are given in Fig. 4.

0
200
400
600
800
1000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
A
i
r
-
B
r
i
n
e

C
a
p
i
l
l
a
r
y

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
k, md: 2.00
kw, md: 1.06
Porosity: 0.175
Sr: 0.087
Pd: 8.18
lambda: 0.22
nw(Pc): 12.08
ng(Pc): 10.08

Fig. 3Centrifuge air-brine capillary pressure curve with Brooks & Corey P
c
fit parameters and k
r
(P
c
) exponents used to compare P
c
-
based k
r
with gas-drive k
r
of Fig. 4.
SPE 135427 7

0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
krw (kr)
krw (Pc)
krg (kr)
krg (Pc)
k, md: 2.00
kw, md: 1.06
Porosity: 0.175

Fig. 4Comparison of unsteady-state gas-drive relative permeability data (k
r
) with that derived by capillary pressure (P
c
) for a 2 md
sample.

The measured relative permeability data (k
r
) in Fig. 4 are relative to specific k
w
. As mentioned, by definition, k
rw
(P
c
) is on the
same basis. However, k
rg
(P
c
) is relative to k
rg
at S
r
, in this case an unknown value, which contributes to the poor match with
k
rg
(k
r
). Note good agreement for k
rw
particularly at high S
w
. Also note that k
rw
(k
r
) becomes suppressed at lower S
w
compared to
k
rw
(P
c
). This falloff is likely due to water hold-up or end effect in the gas-drive k
r
data. As such, the suppression of k
rw
(k
r
) is a test
artifact and it is likely k
rw
(P
c
) is more representative at lower S
w
. Favorable comparisons of this sort encourage use of the P
c

method for k
rw
in tight cores.
Having reviewed the equations for gas-water relative permeability, the measurement requirements become clear. The core
analysis program should provide measured or core-derived porosity, end point specific permeabilities (k

, k
w
), maximum trapped
gas, and saturation limits for: drainage k
rg
(S
gc
, S
wcg
), drainage k
rw
(S
wcw
), and both imbibition k
rg
and k
rw
(S
wi
, S
gt
). A sufficient
number of effective permeabilities at both drainage and imbibition saturation conditions are needed to define curvature, or
exponents, for each function (ngd, ngi, nw). Water relative permeability, if not directly measured can be derived from capillary
pressure tests. Discussions follow of sample requirements and test methods to achieve these values.

Core Samples, Test Fluids, and Test Conditions.
Core Samples.
The objective of sampling is to select enough representative samples so that the relative permeability end point properties and
characterization parameters can be averaged or empirically correlated to basic properties of porosity or absolute k

. Quantity of
samples to test for a given core depends on variation in rock types and distribution of basic properties. Core samples with
representative structure may be found with stored (old) or new cores. Preserved (fresh) cores having been cut with water-based
mud (WBM) are preferred as most work can be performed using samples that have not gone through cleaning-drying cycles that
could alter structure. That said, these highly-cemented samples are durable and use of samples after cleaning-drying results in
representative data in many cases. Cores cut with OBM must be cleaned of oil. Right-cylindrical core plugs of normal diameters
(1 or 1.5 in.) and lengths (1 to 3 in.) are cut at selected intervals using expanded (cool) nitrogen gas so as to add no additional
liquid. A good sampling plan is to recover this special plug set simultaneous with and adjacent to samples cut for conventional
analysis.
Screening of Special Samples.
If preserved-state testing is planned, samples can remain preserved until conventional core analysis is complete then screened
on the basis of adjacent-sample data. Alternatively, fresh WBM cores can be immediately screened for scanning properties of
porosity, S
w
, and effective permeability. Saturation and porosity are determined from combination of a NMR T2 test and a helium
Boyles law test on the fresh sample. Effective permeability to gas, typically by the pulse decay method (Jones, 1997) completes
the data set for screening. Plug imaging by CT scan is recommended to assure physical suitability.
8 SPE 135427
Test Fluids and Brine-Saturation.
Permeability to gas may be determined by several methods all of which use nitrogen gas. Water used to saturate or flow
through samples is lab brine synthesized to match formation water composition and except where noted represents the wetting
phase. Mercury, a non-wetting phase, may be used to represent gas in some tests.
The test sequence depends on the core state, either fresh or cleaned-dried. Selected fresh samples will be fully saturated with
water by low-velocity brine flow at back pressure conditions. Dried samples are evacuated in pressure vessels then submerged and
pressurized with lab brine. Preserved samples are cleaned and dried near the end of testing.
Test Conditions.
All tests are performed at room temperature and, except as noted, at hydrostatic net stress representative for the reservoir.
Relative permeability has been shown to be independent of net stress so long as reference and effective permeabilities are
determined at the same net stress. Fatt and Davis (1952) demonstrated this for conventional rocks and Thomas and Ward (1972)
found the same for tight gas sands.

Test Methods for Gas-Water Relative Permeability of Low Permeability Samples.
In some instances, different test methods are available for a given desired rock property. These are briefly mentioned with
preference stated for methods that are both technically and practically suitable.
Porosity.
Porosity is determined from combination of two helium Boyles law tests, one at ambient conditions for grain volume and one
at stressed conditions for pore volume. Some tests in the process are at ambient conditions so pore volume is also determined at
low stress.
Absolute, Slip-Free, k
g
(k

).
The preferred method for this property is the unsteady-state pressure fall off technique (API RP40, 1998; Jones, 1972; Keelan,
1986). This method is rapid and gives results consistent with the multi-point steady-state and unsteady-state pulse decay methods
down to a lower limit of approximately 1 microdarcy (0.001 md). When absolute k
g
is lower, the pulse decay method is used
(Jones, 1997). Approximate measurement limits for the pulse decay method are 0.1 to 0.00001 md. Technically a pulse decay k
g

is not entirely slip-free; however, a standard operating mean pore pressure of 1000 psi is used producing an essentially slip-free k
g

value.
Specific Permeability to Water, k
w
.
This property represents the k
rw
end point and can be determined using steady-state or unsteady-state methods. The unsteady-
state liquid pulse decay method (Amaefule et al., 1986) is preferred and provides results in the range of 0.1 to 0.00001 md. Pore
pressure is set to approximately 1000 psi and a small pressure differential of 10-20 psi established and monitored with respect to
time and sample length for permeability analysis. Test times are relatively rapid, varying from one to several hours. Generally
this method is more rapid than steady-state by at least a factor of 2 for lower permeability samples. In any flow test a net stress
gradient develops causing difficulty in achieving a stable result, yet, because of the small pressure differential used in the pulse
decay method, this effect is minimized. The method involves small volumetric flow-through as well as low velocity flow, hence
the method greatly minimizes the effects of fines migration, velocity-related damage to clay structures, and water evaporation.
Water Drainage Methods.
Generally, four partial water saturations are established in a step-wise fashion. The objective is to provide saturations from
which k
rg
curvature can be determined. It is specifically not the intent to reach either S
wcg
or irreducible water saturation. Common
target water saturation spans are 65-55%, 55-45%, 45-35%, and 35-25%. The preferred drainage method is by unconfined high
speed centrifuge using a brine-saturated porous buffer butted to the outlet end of the core plug. The buffer is selected so that its
capillary properties are equal to or less than that of the test sample. The purpose of the buffer is to absorb most or all the saturation
gradient inherent in the centrifuge de-saturation method (Slobod et al., 1951; Ragazzini and Venturini, 1992). Walls et al. (1993)
demonstrated by linear X-ray attenuation scans that the centrifuge method can produce uniform saturation distributions in tight gas
sands. Other methods sometimes used for brine drainage include porous-plate (Bruce and Welge, 1947) and vapor desorption
(Melrose, 1988). The vapor desorption method is particularly useful when capillary pressures higher than possible in the
centrifuge (approximately 1000 psi) are needed to reach desired S
w
intervals. Saturation for all methods is determined
gravimetrically with respect to the stressed pore volume.
Drainage Effective k
g
.
As each drainage S
w
is established the sample is weighed then wrapped in plastic film and aluminum foil and allowed to rest
for a period of 10 to 20 hours. Effective k
g
is determined by the unsteady-state gas pulse decay method. Similar to the liquid pulse
decay technique, an approximate 1000 psi pore pressure is established prior to introduction of an approximate 10 psi pressure
difference. This method has a number of positive features in that it is rapid, typically requiring 1 to 4 hours, imposes a minimal
net stress gradient on the test plug, and results suffer negligible slip and inertial effects. Further, water saturation is substantially
unaltered in position or magnitude. Sample weights before and after k
g
normally reveal changes in S
w
of 0.5% pore volume. This
SPE 135427 9
is consistent with observations of Walls et al. (1982) who found water loss of <0.4% S
w
when using dry nitrogen for pulse decay
experiments lasting from 2 minutes to 4 hours. For more permeable samples at lower S
w
the unsteady-state pressure falloff method
is used. By definition, k
g
at the final drainage water saturation is, S
wi
, the starting point for the imbibition cycle.
Water I mbibition Method.
Similar to the drainage cycle, the imbibition cycle objective is to establish several distributed points of S
w
-increasing. This is
done using the counter current technique of Pickell et al. (1966) in a controlled manner by submersion in and spontaneous
imbibition of lab brine. Target sample weight is achieved that will yield a S
w
-increase of 5-10% then the sample is wrapped and
allowed to rest for 10 to 20 hours. This step is repeated for a total of 3 saturation changes with intervening k
g
determinations.
I mbibition Effective k
g
.
The technique and methods discussed above for drainage effective k
g
are also used for imbibition effective k
g
.
Relative Permeability to Water Methods.
Generally tight gas sands are unsuitable for direct tests for k
rw
by either the unsteady-state gas-drive method or the centrifuge
method. However, many tight gas cores have one or more samples of relatively high k

(0.1 to 1 md). Such samples should be

considered for k
rw
by one of these methods. The stationary-liquid pulse decay k
rg
methods discussed above remain recommended
and should be combined with gas-drive or centrifuge results. With respect to test sequence, these k
rw
methods would be inserted
after specific k
w
. A gas-drive displacement test will simultaneously provide both k
rw
and k
rg
data particularly at the high S
w
range
(100 to 60%) often missed by the stationary-liquid technique. However, the method seldom reaches reservoir S
w
for tight samples
so an important range of k
rg
data is often missing. Further, the method does not provide k
rg
hysteresis information. At conclusion
of the gas-drive test several stationary-liquid k
rg
drainage and imbibition data points are measured in order to extend the drainage
cycle to reservoir saturation and to determine k
rg
hysteresis.
If a centrifuge k
rw
test is performed the sample is re-saturated with brine by flow at back pressure to re-prepare it for drainage
k
rg
. Capillary pressure tests are recommended to provide a means to recognize the potentially-suppressed k
rw
at low S
w
inherent in
the gas-drive and centrifuge methods for low permeability samples.
Capillary Pressure for k
rw
.
The P
c
parameters needed for k
rw
(S
r
and ) are often found predictable for a given sand. S
r
usually empirically correlates
inversely with absolute k

(or sometimes, porosity). Lambda, , has been found to proportionally or inversely correlate with k

or
porosity and commonly is found fairly constant for a sample set from a given zone or core. Hence empirical correlations of
capillary pressure-derived k
rw
parameters developed from samples other than those tested for relative permeability can provide S
r
,
, and nw for k
r
samples on the basis of each k
r
samples k

and/or porosity. This is the recommended approach as it allows

parallel testing of two sample sets adding significant project time savings. Sequential use of k
r
samples for P
c
tests can add weeks
to project time.
The recommended P
c
method is air-brine high-speed centrifuge (Hassler and Brunner, 1945; Forbes, 1991). Test time is about
2 to 3 weeks using systems that require unconfined samples and can achieve capillary pressures of approximately 1000 psi. The
mercury injection method can be used for confined or unconfined samples and is performed in hours but can yield somewhat
optimistic P
c
(and k
rw
) curves because the effect of clay-bound water (CBW) is not included. The CBW effect is demonstrated in
Fig. 5a that includes an air-brine P
c
curve generated by combination of high-speed centrifuge with extended pressures by vapor
desorption for a sandstone sample of 0.05 md, 9.4% porosity, and cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume (Q
v
) of 0.4 eq/l.
The air-brine curve is compared with the mercury curve (on an air-brine pressure basis) for the same sample. Fig. 5b shows k
rw

(relative to specific k
w
) computed by the Brooks and Corey method for both Pc curves. Use of the mercury data would result in
lower S
w
and higher k
rw
compared to the air-brine data. Published methods to adjust mercury curves for the effects of CBW are
available (Hill et al., 1979) and recommended for this application.

10 SPE 135427
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

A
i
r
-
B
r
i
n
e

P
c
,

p
s
i
Air-Brine, lambda 0.330
Hg Inj., lambda 0.476
k, md: 0.05
Porosity: 0.094
Total Clay, wt%: 5
Qv, eq/l: 0.4
5a

0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
W
a
t
e
r

R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
A-B nw(Pc) 9.1
Hg nw(Pc) 7.2
5b

Fig. 5Measured air-brine and mercury injection capillary pressure (5a) show the effect of clay-bound water is absent in the mercury
curve. The effect also appears in P
c
-derived k
rw
(5b).

Maximum Trapped Gas.
The counter current imbibition (CCI) method of Pickell et al. (1966) is recommended for determination of S
gtMAX
. An
unconfined, dry sample is submerged in a strongly-wetting liquid, typically toluene, and change in gas saturation is monitored
gravimetrically and logged versus time to determine trapped gas. Toluene is chosen as it unambiguously wets the dry rock
surfaces in the presence of gas and it is easily removed for further sample processing. Trapped gas is insensitive to choice of
wetting liquid as shown by Pickell et al. (1966) and discussed by Jerauld (1996). The test is relatively uncomplicated and rapid,
requiring several hours to complete with low permeability samples.
Wardlaw and Taylor (1976) described a mercury injection method using a series of injection and withdrawl scanning loops to
develop the initial versus residual non wetting phase (nwp) relationship in conventional rock systems. However, in rocks with
significant microporosity mercury trapping usually exceeds gas trapping due to absence of the rapid-gas-diffusion mechanism
described by Jerauld (1996). Fig. 6 is offered to demonstrate this difference in nwp trapping. Tight gas carbonate (cemented
grainstone) samples from 2 to 11% porosity and 0.001 to 1 md were tested for S
gtMAX
by the CCI method. Mercury injection and
withdrawl tests followed, giving a single point of initial-residual nwp saturations. Lands Eq. 4 was used to compute trapped nwp
saturation given initial saturation of unity. The figure shows uniformly higher maximum trapping for mercury than for gas. The
behavior of trapped mercury does not match that of gas and the mercury method should be used with caution or avoided as a
means of estimating trapped gas in unconventional, high-microporosity rocks. Under-estimation of k
rg
hysteresis follows over-
estimation of trapped gas.

SPE 135427 11
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
SgtMAX CCI
S
g
t
M
A
X

H
g

(
L
a
n
d
)
17 cemented grainstones
y=x
k, md: 0.001 - 1
Porosity: 0.02 - 0.11

Fig. 6Comparison of methods for maximum trapped non wetting phase on tight gas carbonate samples. Trapping in micropores can be
lower when gas is the non wetting phase.

Critical Gas Saturation, S
gc
.
The stressed mercury injection-resistance technique described by Schowalter (1979) and Byrnes et al. (2009) is recommended
for critical gas saturation. Mercury is injected, using small pressure steps, into one end of a sample that is stressed by means of a
non-conductive hydraulic fluid. Resistance across the sample length is continuously monitored. The evacuated, dry, sample has
resistance that is very high to off-scale. Cumulative injected volume is noted when resistance drops, indicating arrival of the first
thread of continuous mercury spanning the sample length. Byrnes et al. (2009) report agreement between this method and a more
complicated gas-injection method also used by other investigators (Thomas et al., 1968; Schowalter, 1979; Chowdiah, 1988).
Byrnes et al. reported a range of S
gc
from <1 to 31.5% averaging 6.4% for 143 Mesaverde formation samples. We observe a
similar distribution for hundreds of tests with a slightly higher average of about 10% pore space.
Methods Work-Flow.
The laboratory test sequence involving the discussed methods will vary according to sample conditions (fresh, extracted, high
permeability) and P
c
method. An example work-flow chart for fresh samples is given in Fig. 7. Seven to ten tests are combined in
this approach to provide the necessary rock properties to satisfy the key equations for gas-water relative permeability.

Fig. 7Example laboratory work-flow for series of core tests used to develop drainage and imbibition gas-water relative permeability
curves for tight rocks not suitable for traditional core k
r
methods.
CT images
Fresh (wbm) plugs (3-
5 per rock type)
Flow Saturate
w/Synthetic Fm
brine
Gas-Drive USS
Relative Perm
or Centrifuge krw +
re-saturate
(if kw permits)
Specific kw
Drain to partial Sw
kg effective
(4 steps)
Imbibe to partial Sw
kg effective
(3 steps)
Clean & Dry
Basic properties
k, phit, GD
Maximum Trapped
Gas, CCI method
Integration of
Results
Air-Brine Capillary
Pressure for krw
function analysis (can
be from other samples)
Critical gas, Sgc,
by stressed, hg-inj
method
12 SPE 135427
Examples of Integrated Results.
Examples follow for several conditions of data availability.
Drainage krg from Single-Point Tests.
It is occasionally observed that a given sand or zone will have a consistent drainage k
rg
function despite variations in porosity
and k

. In such cases one can merge single values of k

rg
at S
w
from many samples to construct an average k
rgd
function for the
zone. Data from 17 samples for a 30-foot sandstone interval with porosity from 4 to 8% and k

from 0.001 to 0.012 md are shown

in Fig. 8. These samples were tested for various other drainage properties including k
g
at final S
w
. When multi-sample single-
point data were merged, preferred k
rgd
parameters were determined. Estimates () for S
gc
(0.05) and S
wcg
(0.15) resulted in ngd of
5.69 and an average drainage function for the sand (r
2
0.93). Understanding typical limits for S
gc
provides some control in the
optimization of the 2 parameters. For example, an equally good fit (dashed curve) was obtained using S
gc
0.38 and S
wcg
0, giving
ngd 1.93. While a fit with an unrealistically high S
gc
may satisfy immediate needs it ignores any contribution to gas flow for
S
w
>0.62.

0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
k
g

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
/
k

17 samples; 1 pt each
Sgc' 0.1; Swcg' 0.15; ngd 5.24
Sgc' 0.38; Swcg' 0; ngd 1.93

Fig. 8Two interpretations of the drainage k
rg
function for a zone using single points of data from many samples. When S
gc
must be
estimated, understanding typical values for S
gc
leads to a more realistic interpretation (solid curve).

Combined Gas-Drive and Stationary-Liquid Methods.
Fig. 9 shows results of combining unsteady-state (USS) gas-drive results with stationary-liquid (SL) drainage and imbibition
k
rg
. Measured S
gc
and S
gtMAX
provided minimum gas saturation limits for drainage and imbibition k
rg
respectively. Note that USS
data end near 60% S
w
and that SL data extend control of the k
rgd
function down to very near S
wcg
. Fig. 10 gives an expanded view
and two possible interpretations for k
rw
. The lower S
w
achieved by SL provides some guidance in selection of S
wcw
while fitting
the k
rw
data. Absent information about S
wcg
one might achieve a best fit to k
rw
by estimating a higher S
wcw
limit of 40%. This
results in a very good fit to k
rw
data (r
2
0.999) and an exponent, nw, of 7.26 as seen with the fine-dashed k
rw
curve. However,
having extended k
rg
, we know a more realistic S
wcw
is 22% and, when used, a good fit is also obtained (r
2
0.996) with nw of 10.4.
Very low but finite permeability to water exists between 22 and 40% S
w
in this interpretation but not in the former. The difference
in interpretations is consistent with previous comments about k
rw
suppression at lower S
w
associated with the USS method.

SPE 135427 13
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
k
r
krgd USS
krgd SL
krwd USS
krgd f n Sw
krw f n Sw
krgi
krgi f n Sw
k, md: 0.693
kw, md: 0.423
Porosity: 0.124

Fig. 9Example of merged gas-drive (USS) and stationary-liquid (SL) kr test data to fully-develop kr functions. This is a useful approach
if/when a sample has sufficient permeability for gas-drive testing.

1E-11
1E-10
1E-09
1E-08
1E-07
1E-06
1E-05
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
k
r
krgd
krwd
Swcw' 0.22 ; nw 10.4
Swcw' 0.40 ; nw 7.26

Fig. 10Expanded view of Fig. 9 showing two interpretations for k
rw
. Solid curve represents interpretation based on observed drainage
obtained after gas-drive from stationary-liquid k
r
method.

Combined Stationary-Liquid k
rg
and Capillary Pressure for k
rw.
Fig. 11 displays results of combined tests for a sand sample with k

0.003 md and porosity 6.5%. Other measured end point

properties are specific k
w
0.00045 md, S
gc
0.03, and S
gtMAX
0.34. Air-brine capillary pressure tests provided k
rw
parameters S
r
(S
wcw
)
0.11, 0.333, and nw 9.3. At S
wi
of 0.237, achieved at end of SL drainage, S
gt
at S
wi
, using Eq. 5 is 0.321. Effective k
g
at S
wi
is
0.00169 md. The pertinent end point relative permeabilities needed to determine exponents are specific k
rw
(0.15) and k
rgd
at S
wi

(0.562). Using the drainage k
rg
data along with S
gc
, the power fit of Eq. 1 was optimized by re-estimation of S
wcg
arriving at a
value of 0.15 resulting in an exponent ngd of 5. Likewise, using the k
rgi
data along with S
wi
, S
gt
at S
wi
, and k
rg
at S
wi
, the power fit
of Eq. 3 provides an exponent ngi of 4.41. Core-derived values of specific k
rw
, S
wcw
(P
c
), and nw(P
c
) are used with Eq. 7 to generate
the k
rw
curve.

14 SPE 135427
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Water Saturation
k
r
,

k

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
/
k

krw (specific)
krg Drainage
krgd fn Sw
krg Imbibition
Trapped Gas max
Trapped Gas fn Sgi1
krgi fn Sw, Swi1
krw (Pc)fn Sw
krgi Swi2
Trapped Gas fn Sgi2
k, md: 0.003
Porosity: 0.065

Fig. 11Relative permeability data and functions derived from 8 core tests of a 3 microdarcy sample. Defining functions for k
rg
drainage
and imbibition along with gas-trapping characteristics allows subsequent k
rg
hysteresis prediction (fine-dashed curve) from alternate
initial water saturation (S
wi
2).

An additional k
rgi
curve (fine dashed) has been added to Fig. 11 for demonstration purposes. The lab data for this sample
includes a S
wi
(S
wi
1) of 0.237 fraction pore space. Lets consider a case where reservoir S
w
is 0.5 (S
wi
2). To construct a
representative k
rgi
curve, use the above-described k
rgd
parameters and Eq. 1 to compute k
rgd
2 at S
wi
2 (k
rgd
2 at S
wi
2=0.062). Compute
S
gt
2 consistent with S
wi
2 with Eq. 5 (S
gt
2=0.254). Using these new limits with k
rgi
equation (3), keeping ngi constant (4.41),
permits construction of the k
rgi
function beginning at S
wi
2. Now, considering both S
wi
values, assume a S
w
increase due to fluid loss
of 0.15 fraction pore space. If S
wi
is 0.237, k
rgi
with fluid loss is >0.1, however, if S
wi
is 0.5, fluid-loss k
rgi
is almost two orders of
magnitude lower. These core-derived rock properties help explain and quantify otherwise confounding production behavior often
described as associated with water-block.

0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
k

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
/
k

krgd
krgi
krw specif ic
krgd f n Sw
krgi f n Sw
krw(Pc) f n Sw
k, md: 0.0008
Porosity: 0.109

Fig. 12Combined core test data for relative permeability of a 0.8 microdarcy sample. Measured imbibition k
rg
data are consistent with
low measured trapped gas and relatively small k
rg
hysteresis.

A second example of combining SL k
rgd
and k
rgi
with P
c
-derived k
rw
is given in Fig. 12. Drainage for this sandstone of k

0.0008 md and 10.9% porosity was accomplished by high-speed centrifuge and vapor desorption (last two points). Critical gas
saturation was determined at 0.081 and a rather low S
gtMAX
measured at 0.106. Note that S
wcg
0 was determined with ngd 3.47.
SPE 135427 15
There is little hysteresis effect on k
rg
due to low gas trapping (S
wi
0.186, k
rgd
at S
wi
0.435, S
gt
at S
wi
0.103, and ngi 4.98). The k
rw

function begins at measured k
rw
specific of 0.542 and is further defined by CBW-corrected mercury P
c
k
rw
parameters S
r
(0.067)
and nw (7.5).
Applications for Gas Shale.
Gas shale rock texture usually precludes recovery of plug samples that are free of fractures caused by coring, sampling, or
other processing. The preponderance of permeability data for gas shale cores is by a pressure pulse technique on particulate
(crushed) core in as-received saturation conditions. The method was developed in conjunction with the Gas Research Institute
(GRI) as reported by Luffel (1993). The results can be considered as providing an effective permeability to gas of the crack- or
fracture-free granular matrix at the existing (core) pore-liquid saturation. Matrix permeability, k
m
, of gas shales can be extremely
low, varying from about 0.001 to 1x10
-12
md. When sample conditions and permeability levels permit, gas shale plug permeability
by the pulse decay method is reasonably consistent with the crushed-core pressure-pulse k
m
method.

0.000001
0.00001
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Sw
k
m

e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
/
k
m

a
b
s
o
l
u
t
e
WBM, vs Sw
krgd f n Sw
OBM, vs (Sw+So)
OBM, f n Sw
Sw 0.362
Sw 0.362 + So 0.184

Fig. 13Drainage k
rg
for a gas shale formation. Multiple single points of k
m
effective/k
m
absolute vs core S
w
from WBM cores allows
estimation of a k
rg
drainage function. Use of this function with oil-filtrate-invaded samples provides a path to an equivalent un-invaded k
m
.

Some gas shale cores from dry-gas reservoirs are cut with OBM and core analysis results frequently show invasion of oil
filtrate of >10% pore space. The effect of this added liquid is suppression of k
m
so that values from such cores are difficult to
compare with a database (same formation or field) of other k
m
s obtained from WBM cores. In search of a method to correct these
suppressed k
m
values we can apply relative permeability principles discussed above. Samples from WBM wells selected to cover a
span of S
w
can also be tested for absolute k
m
(liquid-free) and single-point k
r
computed, effective k
m
/absolute k
m
. A cross-plot of
these k
r
-S
w
data with respect to the k
rgd
Eq. 1 provides an array that can be optimized by re-estimation of S
gc
and S
wcg
providing
ngd. This is similar to the example discussed in relation to Fig. 8 and the results for a gas shale core are given in Fig 13. If we
assume the drainage function applies not only to that part of the formation represented by the WBM core but also to that part of the
formation represented by the OBM core, then we have a path to correct the suppressed OMB-core k
m
s. Absolute k
m
for each
OBM core sample is determined and the k
r
computed (k
m
at S
w
+S
o
/k
m
absolute). If plotted as k
r
versus total core liquid saturation
(S
w
+S
o
) these points reside below the drainage curve and represent a value on some unknown k
rg
imbibition function. An example
of such a data point is the open circle in Fig. 13 plotted at total liquid saturation of 0.546. Determination of the imbibition function
is not necessary. Rather, using the OBM core samples water saturation (0.362), enter the WBM-core-derived k
rgd
function and
determine k
rgd
at OBM-core-sample S
w
(triangle, Fig. 13). Multiplication of this ratio by the OBM core sample absolute k
m
then
provides a corrected k
m
(effective k
g
at S
w
). This correction technique has been applied to several OBM cores and corrected values
are generally consistent with the database of WBM values, often increasing k
m
by 1-2 orders of magnitude.

Conclusions
1. Relative permeability principles developed and used for conventional reservoirs apply to unconventional gas reservoirs.
2. Results of up to seven or more separate core tests are combined to define gas-water relative permeability functions of
water saturation and saturation history even when absolute permeability approaches or is below 1 microdarcy. These
combination-methods provide a practical approach to the relative permeability problem posed by flow-challenged rocks.
16 SPE 135427
3. Traditional full-curve relative permeability test methods, while invalid or impractical for very low permeability cores, can
sometimes be applied. Merging data from additional tests extends drainage k
rg
, improves k
rw
interpretation, and adds k
rg

hysteresis.
4. Critical gas saturation measurements on cores eliminates the need to guess this sometimes-over-estimated property that
represents a saturation limit of the drainage k
rg
function
5. Measured stationary-liquid k
rg
hysteresis data appear consistent with independently-determined core trapped gas
experimental results and when the two are combined lead to definition of the imbibition k
rg
function.
6. Trapped gas in tight rock varies from similar-to conventional rock to much-less-than conventional rock depending on
relative proportion of microporosity and secondary porosity.
7. Use of mercury rather than gas for non-wetting-phase trapping experiments in tight cores may lead to over-estimation of
the property and pessimistic k
rg
hysteresis.
8. Relative permeability to water derived from capillary pressure test data appear representative for tight cores, particularly
when scaled with independently-measured specific permeability to water.

Acknowledgments
The author thanks the management of Core Laboratories for support of this work and permission to publish. Larry Bruno, Robert
Lee, and Greg Salter are acknowledged as having helped with guiding discussion and manuscript review. Special thanks go to
Linda Dacy and Lena Brennan who provided key support in manuscript preparation.

Nomenclature
k
g
=permeability to gas, md
k
m
=matrix permeability of gas shale, md
k
r
=relative permeability
k
w
=permeability to water, md
k

=absolute slip-free (klinkenberg) permeability to gas, md

k
rg
=relative permeability to gas
k
rgd
=relative permeability to gas in the water-drainage direction of saturation change
k
rgi
=relative permeability to gas in the water-imbibition direction of saturation change
k
rw
=relative permeability to water
k
rwd
=relative permeability to water in the water-drainage direction of saturation change
k
rwi
=relative permeability to wate in the water-imbibition direction of saturation change
k
rwSPECIFIC
=relative permeability to water at 100 percent water saturation
ngd =exponent of relative permeability to gas function
ngi =exponent of imbibition relative permeability to gas function in the water-drainage direction of saturation change
nw =exponent of relative permeability to water function
S
o
=oil saturation
S
g
=gas saturation
S
gc
=critical gas saturation
S
gi
=initial gas saturation
S
giLAB
=lab-determined initial gas saturation paired with S
gtLAB

S
gt
=trapped gas saturation
S
gtLAB
=lab-determined trapped gas saturation paired with S
giLAB

S
gtMAX
=maximum trapped gas saturation resulting from test starting at initial gas saturation of 100 percent pore space
S
w
=water saturation
S
wcg
=critical water saturation with respect to gas
S
wcw
=critical water saturation with respect to water
S
wi
=initial water saturation, final drainage water saturation before water imbibition
S
r
=theoretical minimum water saturation, an estimated parameter of Brooks and Corey model for best fit of capillary
pressure vs water saturation data
P
c
=capillary pressure, psi
P
d
=displacement pressure, psi; an intercept term of Brooks and Corey model fit of capillary pressure vs water saturation
data
=pore size distribution index; a slope term of Brooks and Corey model fit of capillary pressure vs water saturation data


SPE 135427 17
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