Numerical Simulation of the Radius of Influence for Landfill Gas Wells

Lefebvre, and Miroslav Nastev Harold Vigneault,* Rene ABSTRACT

In North America, most domestic waste produced is disposed in landfills. These sites generate leachate and gas, mainly CH4 and CO2, which are harmful for the environment if not properly controlled. The design of active landfill gas recovery systems is based in large part on the radius of influence of vertical pumping wells. This parameter is commonly estimated empirically. This study presents results of numerical simulations of the radius of influence of gas recovery wells for different site conditions. The simulations were performed with the TOUGH2LGM simulator. In the simulation scenarios, the radius of influence was defined in relation to several factors: the waste thickness, the generation rate of CH4 gas in the waste, and CH4 concentration in the recovered landfill gas. The results are presented in the form of general graphs that are not site-specific. The adequacy of the results still needs to be validated against field measurements. On the basis of simulation results, a systematic approach is proposed for the design of landfill gas recovery systems, and this approach is illustrated with a hypothetic example. This approach should guide landfill managers and engineers in the design of landfill gas recovery systems. The simulations only considered cases where landfills are open to the atmosphere, which are representative of most operating conditions. The results thus do not apply to post-closure conditions usually involving an impermeable cover built on top of the waste.

as generation in landfills and the risks it represents for the environment have been well documented since the 1970s (Farquhar and Rovers, 1973; EMCON Associates, 1980). Landfill gas contains mainly CH4, approximately 50 to 60% by volume, and CO2 makes up the remaining 40 to 50% (Farquhar and Rovers, 1973). Methane is lighter than air, with a density of 0.7 kg m3 at 10C. Carbon dioxide is a denser gas (1.9 kg m3 at 10C), and it is quite soluble in water. Methane poses serious problems, as it is explosive in concentrations between 5 and 15% by volume and in the presence of O2. Both gases contribute to the greenhouse effect. Moreover, landfill gas usually contains several harmful trace components such as vinyl chloride, benzene, or sulfur dioxide. The latter is responsible for the characteristic unpleasant odor of landfill waste. Due to all these inconveniences, it is very important to control the migration of gas generated in landfills, particularly if they are located in urban areas (Nastev, 1998). The term waste in the following text refers to average domestic waste, that is, household refuse which contains readily, moderately, and inert biodegradable fractions.
H. Vigneault and R. Lefebvre, Institut National de la Recherche Scientibec, fique, INRS-Eau, Terre et Environnement, 490 de la Couronne, Que G1K 9A9, Canada; M. Nastev, Geological Survey of Canada, Natural bec, G1K 9A9, Canada. Resources Canada, 490 de la Couronne, Que Special Section: Research Advances in Vadose Zone Hydrology through Simulations with the TOUGH Codes. *Corresponding author (hvigneau@nrcan.gc.ca). Published in Vadose Zone Journal 3:909916 (2004). Soil Science Society of America 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, WI 53711 USA

The physical properties of waste (e.g., density, porosity, saturation, permeability) largely influence gas migration rates. Several studies treat physical properties of waste under saturated flow conditions (Sowers, 1973; Findikakis and Leckie, 1979; Schroeder et al., 1983, 1994; Blais, 1996). There is a general agreement that these properties are highly variable within each landfill site. However, unsaturated hydraulic properties of waste are poorly known, mainly due to the difficulties related to their measurement under field or laboratory conditions. Because of the absence of such data, it is necessary to relate unsaturated waste properties to those of soils assumed to have similar properties. In his model, Nastev (1998) used the unsaturated properties of sandy-silt soil as analogous to those of the waste and applied corresponding capillary parameters, an approach we adopt here. Landfill characterization studies were followed by the development of suitable methods for controlling gas migration and performing active gas recovery (EMCON Associates, 1980; Lofy, 1983; USEPA, 1997). One of the most important parameters to consider during the design of a landfill gas recovery system is the radius of influence of the recovery wells. The definition used here for the radius of influence is the average radial distance from a recovery well defining a volume within which 90% of the landfill gas generated in the waste is recovered at the well. The radius of influence varies with time. Its magnitude is primarily a function of the imposed pumping rate (suction) in the well, but it depends also on other properties, such as the gas generation rate in the waste, the age of the waste, the waste physical properties, the thickness of the waste, and variations in atmospheric pressure. This subject has been so far poorly treated in the literature. In traditional designs, the radius of influence is arbitrarily set at 30 m and the number of wells required at a given site is consequently calculated. However, field tests have shown that the radius of influence may be greater or smaller than 30 m (Lofy, 1983; McBean, 1993). Lofy (1983) indicated that the minimal requirement to establish the radius of influence is the knowledge of the waste permeability and the gas generation rate in the waste. The screened section of the well and the pumping rate are adjusted consequently. The USEPA (1997) established a method to estimate the volume of gas extracted from a well and its radius of influence. However, this study was conducted for a specific landfill site, recovery well design, and waste decomposition rate. Thus, the results obtained are not readily transferable to other landfill sites with different recovery conditions. Our objective is to present a general method for the estimation of the radius of influence of a landfill gas recovery well that at the same time accounts for the site geometry and considers the physical properties of waste, its age, and the rate at which landfill gas is generated in the 909

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waste. For this purpose, we used numerical simulation to predict the radius of influence for typical recovery conditions (more details are provided by Vigneault, 1999). The results presented should assist landfill site managers in the design of suitable gas recovery systems (well spacing, imposed suction) for varying recovery conditions.

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NUMERICAL MODEL DESCRIPTION TOUGH2-LGM

In complex media such as landfills, numerical modeling seems to be the only way to consider most of the parameters influencing the radius of influence of gas recovery wells. The TOUGH2-LGM code was developed and used to simulate landfill gas generation and migration in landfill sites and in surrounding soils (Nastev 1998; Nastev et al., 2000, 2001, 2003). It is based on the well-known TOUGH2 simulator (Pruess, 1991). The main changes in TOUGH2-LGM relative to TOUGH2 are (i) the development of a new equation of state module representing the properties of the system involving four mass components (CO2, CH4, air, and water), (ii) a landfill gas generation module, and (iii) multicomponent gas diffusion capabilities. The four mass components are present in both gas and liquid phases. The fifth component is heat; its transfer occurs by advection and by diffusion in the gas phase, by advection in the liquid phase, and by conduction through the partially saturated porous medium. With these capabilities, TOUGH2-LGM can simulate landfill gas generation and migration, and it is thus an adequate tool to study the radius of influence of gas recovery wells in landfills.

strongest landfill gas generation rate occurs in the first years following waste disposal. The landfill gas generation rate decreases steadily with time afterwards. TOUGH2-LGM also allows the use of a constant landfill gas generation rate. To simplify the computational efforts and allow a better understanding of the problem, a constant gas generation rate of 7.2 m3 t1 yr1 is used in the first set of simulations. This is equivalent to the gas generation rate of 5-yr-old waste in the Montreal landfill. For the second and third sets of simulations, different constant gas generation rates are used to study their effect on the radius of influence of recovery wells.

Physical Properties of Landfill Material

In the following simulations, representative waste properties equivalent to those of the Montreal landfill site were used (Table 1). In the simulations, these physical properties are considered to be constant with time; that is, they are assumed not influenced by the biodegradation, physical, and chemical processes occurring in landfills. In unsaturated waste, only the part of the pore space filled with the gas phase is available for gas flow. The following van Genuchten (1980) capillary model relates the effective water saturation Se to the capillary pressure Pc using parameters called m and : Pc 1 (1/m) 1m ] [Se [2]

The effective water (liquid phase) saturation Se is defined as follows: Se Sl Sr Sm S r [3]

Landfill Gas Generation Rate

In TOUGH2-LGM, the landfill gas generation model in the waste is defined by the following simple exponential function of time:
ct) Gg G( i
3

[1] t1),

where Gg is the gas generation rate (m Gi is the initial gas generation potential (m3 t1), c is the overall biodegradation coefficient for the combined types of waste found in landfill (yr1), and t is time (yr). In Eq. [1], the values used in the simulations for the initial generation rate Gi with a value of 9.5 m3 t1 and the coefficient c equal to 0.055 yr1 were computed using pumping data measured at the Montreal landfill site, Canada (Nastev, 1998). The exponential function defined with Eq. [1] is depicted in Fig. 1. It shows that the

where Sr is the residual water saturation, Sm is the maximum water saturation, and Sl is the current water saturation. Mualem (1976, modified by Parker 1989) proposed a relationship for the effective permeability kg (m2) of the gas (nonwetting) phase of the porous medium as a function of the effective water saturation Se using the van Genuchten capillary model parameter m:
1/m 2m kg k1 Se [1 Se ]

[4]

From Eq. [2], [3], and [4], we can plot Fig. 2, which shows the gas phase relative permeability and effective saturation against the thickness of the waste column above the water table. The steady-state effective saturaTable 1. Waste properties of the Montreal landfill.
Porosity Maximum saturation Residual saturation van Genuchten capillary parameters m n , m1 Saturated hydraulic conductivity, m s1 Absolute permeability, m2 Permeability anisotropy ratio (kv/kh) 0.5 1.0 0.03 0.11 1.12 5.0 6 105 6 1012 0.17

Fig. 1. Gas generation rate in the Montreal landfill (Nastev, 1998).

After Nastev (1998).

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Table 2. Sequence of simulation scenarios.

Scenario 1 2 3 Purpose Estimate the radius of influence vs. model length and thickness Estimate the radius of influence vs. landfill gas generation rate Estimate the quality of landfill gas collected (% CH4)

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Fig. 2. Relative permeability of the gas phase.

tion profile was obtained for an imposed constant water infiltration rate of 400 mm yr1, based on the prevailing temperature and precipitation conditions in the Montreal region (Nastev, 1998). Under such relatively high liquid-phase saturation conditions, the gas-phase relative permeability is limited to a maximum value of about 0.45 (Fig. 2). The dashed part of the relative permeability curve shown in Fig. 2 cannot actually occur in the waste.

Simulations of Landfill Gas Recovery

The conceptual model and the numerical grid representing the vertical two-dimensional radial flow toward a landfill gas recovery well are shown in Fig. 3. Typically, gas recovery wells in landfills are constructed progressively as the disposal of waste proceeds. These wells consist of partially screened 15-cm-diameter (6) casing made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) backfilled with a gravely filter pack as waste disposal progresses. The well itself (including filter pack and casing) commonly has a radius of 0.5 m. Even when the wells are installed after the disposal of wastes is complete, the borings made through the wastes to install these wells have a radius of about 0.5 m. Several simulations were conducted with different overall grid radii to estimate the horizontal distance from the well at which the lateral boundary of the model has no effect on the gas migration under pumping conditions. The retained model horizontal length to the lateral boundary was 160 m. Other simulations were also performed at smaller model horizontal length to represent closer well spacing. In the numerical grid, the horizontal length of the 13 grid elements increases in the radial direction away from the

well by a factor of approximately 1.5. Thus, the horizontal length of the grid elements varies from 0.5 m at the recovery well to 30 m at the edge of the grid. The total thickness of the simulated waste column considered was 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 m. As the total number of layers in the numerical grid remained constant at 20, the vertical thickness of the grid elements varied between 0.5 and 2.5 m depending on the overall thickness of waste column considered. The vertical boundary opposite the extraction well at the outer edge of the numerical grid is assumed to be a no-flow boundary. It actually represents the imaginary surface at the approximate mid-point between neighboring recovery wells installed in a regular grid where wells are equidistant from each other. Because a twodimensional radial model is used, this is a simplification of actual field conditions, where the volume influenced by a pumping well can depart from this simple cylindrical geometry. The boundary conditions applied to the upper model elements are assigned as a constant temperature, equivalent to the mean annual temperature for Montreal of 6.6C, constant atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, and zero CH4 and CO2 concentrations. At the upper boundary, the model elements are in direct contact with atmospheric conditions, and gas emission to the atmosphere occurs there. The base of the model coincides with the water table in the waste, representing an impermeable barrier to gas phase migration. The temperature at the base was fixed arbitrarily to 20C. The constant infiltration rate from precipitation of 400 mm yr1 is simulated by 13 injection sources in the top row of elements. To allow faster convergence, an initial simulation was performed without any gas generation or pumping but with water infiltration occurring from the top elements. The model was run until a steady-state water saturation profile was obtained, the one presented in Fig. 2. This saturation distribution was used as the initial condition in the subsequent simulations.

RESULTS
Modeling was divided in three main simulation scenarios summarized in Table 2. The results obtained from

Fig. 3. Vertical two-dimensional radial conceptual model and grid elements for radial flow to a landfill gas recovery well.

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Fig. 4. Recovery rate as a function of the horizontal length of the model (equivalent to one-half of the spacing between wells) for three suctions at the production well. The radius of influence of a well is defined as the radial distance for which 90% of the CH4 produced in the waste is recovered by the well (shown by arrows).

each of these scenarios are described in the following sections.

Fig. 5. Examples of CH4 concentration and gas flow direction for model lengths of 30 and 50 m (suction is 4.5 kPa and waste thickness is 20 m).

Simulation 1: Radius of Influence and Model Length and Thickness

In the first simulation scenario, the total horizontal model length of the two-dimensional model grid was varied. The minimum horizontal model length, which is the distance to the lateral boundary, was initially set at 10 m and was gradually increased by 10-m intervals to 160 m. Setting the lateral boundary at various distances from the recovery well is actually equivalent to changing the distance between two neighboring wells in a regular production well pattern. Another parameter varied in the simulation was the suction imposed in the well; the three values used were 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 kPa. The gas generation rate in the waste was assumed constant at 7.2 m3 t1 yr1. In this way, the CH4 methane recovery rate was simulated as a function of the imposed suction in the well and of the horizontal model length equivalent to one-half of the interwell spacing. The recovery rate was defined as the ratio of the recovered methane mass at the well divided by the total CH4 generated in the waste within the model. According to the initial definition of the radius of influence, the radius defines a cylindrical volume around the pumped well within which the methane recovery rate is 90% or higher. Beyond this distance, the well recovery is considered nonefficient. The results are shown in Fig. 4. It is apparent that the radius of influence is proportional to the suction in the well. For an imposed well suction of 1.5 kPa, the maximum radius of influence, where 90% of the CH4 produced was recovered, is 12 m. The radius reaches 24 m for a 3 kPa suction, and it is 33 m for the suction of 4.5 kPa. For model lengths shorter than 10 m, the methane recovery rates approach asymptotically 100% recovery. Examples of the results obtained for this simulation scenario are shown in Fig. 5. The CH4 volumetric concentration and the gas flow direction are shown for model lengths of 30 and 50 m and an imposed suction of 4.5 kPa. Vectors proportional to gas fluxes could not be used in the figures because of the very large values of fluxes near the well. The CH4 fractions in the waste

are lower for the model length of 30 m, implying higher CH4 recovery.

Simulation 2: Radius of Influence as a Function of Gas Generation Rate

Thus far, a single landfill gas generation rate has been used in the simulations. Applying variable gas generation rates, it is possible to study the well radius of influence as a function of waste age, or time since deposition. This is possible since the gas generation model defined by Eq. [1] relates gas generation to time, representing the age of the waste. This second series of simulations was thus conducted to study the impact of varying gas generation rate on the radius of influence. For these simulations, the following conditions were considered: five different waste column thicknesses of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 m, and three imposed suctions in the well of 1.5, 3, and 4.5 kPa. Figure 6 shows the well radii of influence obtained for varying waste thicknesses and imposed suction rates. These are plotted against the gas generation rate in the landfill, or to the age of the waste. In Fig. 6, the gas generation curve for the city of Montreal landfill shown in Fig. 1 was used to relate gas generation rate to age. For other landfills, this relationship could be different. The radius of influence increases with increasing waste thickness (and thus also the length of the screened portion of the well). The radius of influence is also proportional to the imposed suction at the recovery well. However, increase in the landfill gas generation rate in the waste results in a decrease of the radius of influence. Based on the results shown in Fig. 6, it is possible to estimate the radius of influence of vertical recovery wells according to the landfill gas generation rate and for different site geometries (thickness of the waste column). This information can help design a gas recovery system and predict the corresponding gas generation rates. An example of this application is given in Hypothetical Gas Recovery Design below.

Simulation 3: Recovered Landfill Gas Quality

The energetic value of the landfill gas recovered is directly related to its CH4 content. Thus it is important

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fraction remains high for a longer time for model lengths 30 m. Thus, whenever higher energy values of the recovered landfill gas are required, it is necessary that the CH4 volumetric fraction and flow rate remain as high as possible. This is more readily achieved for thick waste accumulations.

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HYPOTHETICAL GAS RECOVERY DESIGN

To illustrate the applicability of the results obtained to the design of a gas recovery system, the properties of a hypothetical landfill site were assumed and a landfill gas recovery system was designed based on the simulation results presented above. The characteristics of this hypothetical landfill site are as follows: Landfill size is 150 by 300 m. Waste column thickness is 20 m. The landfill is divided into five waste disposal cells covering an area of 150 by 60 m, each able to accommodate a waste volume of 180 000 m3. The landfill base and its lateral walls are supposed impermeable.
Fig. 6. Radius of influence as a function of the landfill gas generation rate for five model thicknesses and three pumping suctions applied to the recovery well.

to adjust the pumping rate to optimize the CH4 content in the gas recovered. The pumping rate, dependant on the suction imposed in the well, should be sufficiently high to recover most of the generated CH4 and, at the same time, sufficiently low to prevent the penetration of O2 from the surface. The presence of O2 in the waste reduces the anaerobic biodegradation processes taking place in the waste and CH4 generation. The last series of simulations was conducted to study the CH4 content in the recovered gas by comparing the fraction of the recovered CH4 and the CH4 mass flow (kg s1). The horizontal model length was varied in 10-m intervals from 10 to 110 m. Similarly to the previous simulations, three suctions were applied to the recovery well: 1.5, 3, and 4.5 kPa. Finally, two different waste column thicknesses were assumed, 20 and 40 m. Figures 7 and 8 show the results for a model thickness of 20 and 40 m, respectively. Both figures indicate increased CH4 volumetric fractions for increased horizontal model lengths. The CH4 volumetric fraction remains at nearly 50% (the same as the CH4 proportion in the gas generated in the waste) for a longer time period for the 40-m waste column thickness compared with what is observed for a 20-m thickness. As the generation of the landfill gas decreases with time in the waste, whatever the thickness of the site, the CH4 mass flow will also decrease gradually with time. Figures 7 and 8 also demonstrate that a higher suction in the recovery well results in a rapidly decreasing CH4 volumetric fraction in the gas produced by the recovery well. The graphs for a 40-m-thick waste column with an applied suction of 1.5 kPa show that the CH4 volumetric

The steps to be followed for the design of the landfill gas recovery system for the hypothetical landfill can be described as follows: Step 1: At this stage, the landfill gas generation constant c is determined. This can be done either with field experiments (EMCON Associates, 1980) or by using data reported in the literature. Equation [1] should then be used to represent the gas generation kinetics. For this example we used data reported for the Montreal landfill site (Nastev, 1998). The initial generation rate is Gp0 9.5 m3 t1 yr1, and the generation constant is c 0.055. The construction of the recovery wells is assumed to be made during the deposition of waste in each cell. The pumping rate is gradually increased as waste is buried in each cell and the well reaches its full pumping capacity after the cell closure, assumed at 5 yr after the beginning of waste disposal in each cell. It is now possible to determine the generation rate with the graph displayed in Fig. 1. For this example, the generation rate at 5 yr is Gp 7.2 m3 t1 yr1. Step 2: The generation of the landfill gas starts after waste disposal, immediately after the initial O2 content in the waste gas phase is completely depleted. Thus, it is important to start gas pumping in the early stage of waste disposal. Another point favoring early gas recovery is that the construction of a gas recovery well is less expensive when it is done during waste disposal. Imposing a low suction in the well is important during this period to avoid air intrusion in the waste, since there is no impermeable cover on top of the waste. Step 3: The number of recovery wells in a landfill site is a function of the suction applied in the recovery wells, the generation rate, and the surface occupied by landfilling. Figure 9 shows that the radius of influence of the recovery well is a function of the gas generation rate in the waste and of the suctions imposed in the well. These curves were extracted from Fig. 6. Using

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Fig. 7. Volumetric fraction of CH4, CH4 mass flow rate, and total landfill gas flow rate in the well vs. the generation rate of landfill gas in the waste for three suctions applied to the recovery well and a 20-m waste thickness.

Fig. 9, it is possible to estimate the appropriate suction according to the number (distance) of the recovery wells. Figure 9 shows that for 5-yr-old waste the radius of influence is 35 m when the suction imposed is 4.5 kPa. For each cell, three pumping wells should then be sufficient to recover the gas generated by the waste disposed in each cell. The waste volume corresponding to each recovery well is approximately 77 000 m3. For the imposed suction of 3 kPa, the radius of influence is smaller, at 27 m, and it would take four recovery wells with a corresponding waste volume of 45 000 m3 for each cell. With these results, it is possible to determine the suction and the number of recovery wells required for each disposal cell. With time, the suction in the recovery wells can be changed to maintain the radius of influence around 30 m. In our example, the suction could be readjusted from 4.5 to 3 kPa after 10 yr (generation rate of 5.2 m3 t1 yr1). With such a lowered suction, there is an increase of the volumetric fraction of CH4, and a landfill gas of better quality is recovered. Step 4: As the gas generation decreases with time, the radius of influence increases and reaches 40 m after 30 yr (generation rate of 1.92 m3 t1 yr1). It is thus important to evaluate again the recovery system and to adjust the suction according to the age of the wastes in each cell. From an economic point of view, installing more recovery wells means higher initial costs for the gas recov-

ery system. However, if fewer recovery wells are to be installed, the suction imposed on each well has to be higher, which implies more energy to run the system and higher maintenance fees. Obviously, the design of the recovery system must be based on what is the most advantageous for the owner and for the environment. If the landfill gas recovered is to be used for energy production purposes, it is important to have a good quality gas with higher CH4 content. For such cases, the suction imposed in the recovery wells must be adjusted according to the age of the waste and to allow higher CH4 volumetric fraction and flow rate.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

To obtain a good estimate of the radius of influence of a landfill gas recovery well, it is important to have good knowledge of the waste physical properties, the landfill gas generation rate in the waste, and the suction (pumping rates) to be imposed in the recovery well. The scientific contribution of this study is that it integrates all these variables into a single numerical model. This model was used to conduct three main simulation scenarios and to estimate the radius of influence in relation to the model horizontal length and waste column thickness, the landfill gas generation rate in the waste, and the recovered gas quality (% CH4 produced by the well). The simulation results showed that:

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Fig. 8. Volumetric fraction of CH4, CH4 mass flow rate, and total landfill gas flow rate in the well vs. the generation rate of landfill gas in the waste for three suctions applied to the recovery well and a 40-m waste thickness.

Depending on the thickness of the waste, the radius of influence evolved in different ways. Specifically, the radius of influence was almost constant for a waste column thickness of 10 m, whereas it became very large for a thickness of 50 m (Fig. 6). With higher imposed suction in the recovery well, the volumetric fraction of the recovered CH4 tends to decrease. This is due to air intrusions in the upper waste layers. Another point that affects the volumetric fraction of CH4 recovered is the distance

between recovery wells. This result is displayed in Fig. 7 and 8. The well suction or the number of wells must be adjusted with the evolution of the gas generation rate (Fig. 9). A systematic approach for the design of a landfill gas recovery system was proposed based on the numerical simulation results. The adequacy of the results still has to be validated with field measurements. In our opinion, the results presented are the first necessary step to help landfill managers and engineers in the design of a recovery system. From a scientific point of view, it would be interesting to study other simulation scenarios such as the influence of an impermeable cover installed on top of the waste. These scenarios would provide a more complete picture for the evolution of the radius of influence under postclosure conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Curt Oldenburg, an anonymous reviewer, and the special section editor Stefan Finsterle for their thorough reviews and constructive comments that helped improve the initial manuscript significantly. This work was supported in part by an operating grant from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada to R. Lefebvre. We are also thankful to the personnel of the Montreal municipal land-

Fig. 9. Radius of influence for a recovery well for three imposed suctions and for a waste column thickness of 20 m (based on results of Fig. 6).

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roux, for their help and collaborafill site, especially Martin He tion in the completion of this study.

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