4

Space and geometry

Solids

The objects in our world are three-dimensional shapes or solidscars, towers, trees, mountains, cartons, clouds, computers, owers, oranges, even cakes and ice cream cones! Look around and you will see lots more. The Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu) at Giza in Egypt was built in the 3rd century BC. It is 153 metres high and its square base has a length of 241 metres.

In this chapter you will:

understand and use the geometric terms polyhedron, convex solid, uniform cross-section, base, apex, prism, pyramid, cylinder, cone and sphere describe solids in terms of their faces and other properties identify right prisms and pyramids, and oblique prisms and pyramids identify right cylinders and cones, and oblique cylinders and cones construct models of polyhedra classify solids on the basis of their properties count the number of faces, vertices and edges on a polyhedron and discover Eulers formula for convex polyhedra determine if two edges of a solid are parallel, skew or intersecting explore the history of Platonic solids and how to make them sketch, on isometric grid paper, shapes built with cubes represent solids in two dimensions from different views.

Wordbank

convex solid A solid that points or curves outwards, so that a line joining any two of its faces lies completely inside it. polyhedron A solid whose faces are all at. hexahedron Any polyhedron with six faces. cross-section A slice of a solid, cut across it rather than along it. congruent Another word for identical. oblique Slanted, not at right angles. skew On different planes. Platonic solid Also called a regular polyhedron, a solid whose faces are all identical regular polygons.

Think!
Name a solid whose faces are identical. Can you think of more than one?

SOLIDS

97

CHAPTER 4

Start up
Worksheet 4-01 Brainstarters 4 Worksheet 4-02 A page of shapes Skillsheet 4-01 Naming shapes Geometry 4-01 The vocabulary of geometry

1 a Name six two-dimensional (at) shapes that can be found in the picture below. b Write a description of each shape you found. Discuss this with other students.

2 Use this link to the Geometers Sketchpad or Cabri Geometry activity to revise your basic geometry vocabulary. 3 Draw each of the following shapes: a a pentagon b an equilateral triangle d a trapezium e a hexagon 4 How many sides has: a a rectangle? d a hexagon? b an octagon? e a quadrilateral? c a semi-circle f a parallelogram c a triangle? f a pentagon?

5 What type of lines point in the same direction and never meet? 6 a Name each of the following solids:

C A B

b Which of the solids in part a are: i prisms? ii pyramids? c Name everyday uses for each of the solids in part a. Collect some real examples and bring them to class.

98

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

7 Which of the solids from Question 6 has: a ve faces? c curved surfaces? e all faces triangular? g all faces square? i one square face? (Some have more than one answer!)

b d f h j

six vertices (corners)? no at surfaces? two triangular faces? all faces rectangular? no rectangular faces

8 Name the solid that can be created from each of these nets. a b

9 Name and describe any other solids you know. Draw an example of each one.

Naming solids
In the real world, all objects are solids. Solids are three-dimensional (3-D) shapes because, not only do they have length and breadth (width), but they also have thickness (or height). Here are examples of some solid shapes you should know:

Worksheet 4-02 A page of shapes Skillsheet 4-01 Naming shapes

Triangular pyramid

Rectangular prism

Sphere

Cylinder

Square pyramid

Pentagonal prism
SOLIDS

99

CHAPTER 4

Convex and non-convex solids

These solids are convex.

These solids are not convex.

Convex solids have faces that all point, curve or bulge outwards, while non-convex solids have some faces that point, curve or cave inwards, having dents or holes. A simple test to determine whether a solid is convex or non-convex is to draw straight lines between any two faces on the solid. If every line you can draw lies completely inside the solid, then the solid is convex.

If all or part of any line you can draw lies outside the solid, then the solid is non-convex.

Exercise 4-01
1 Test whether each of these solids is convex or non-convex: a b c

100

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

2 a Copy or trace the nets below, or print out Worksheet 4-03. (For best results, paste them on cardboard.) i ii

Worksheet 4-03 Nets of solids 1

iii

iv

SOLIDS

101

CHAPTER 4

vi

vii

viii

b c d e

Cut out each net along its boundary. Fold each net along the dotted lines to make a solid. Write the name of each solid on one of the paler faces. Unfold each net and paste it in your workbook on its dark orange face.

3 Bring to class any other examples of solid shapes you can ndthe more the better!

Polyhedra
Solids have at faces and curved faces. This cylinder has two at faces and one curved face. The at faces are circles, and the curved face is a rectangle (when attened).
face curved face

102

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

This hexagonal prism has eight faces. Two of the faces are hexagons, the other six faces are rectangles.

face

A solid whose faces are all at is called a polyhedron. The plural of polyhedron is polyhedra or polyhedrons. While the word polygon in Greek means many angles and describes any at shape with straight sides, the word polyhedron means many faces and describes any solid whose faces are polygons. A hexagonal prism is a polyhedron. A cylinder, however, is not because it has a curved face. Just as polygons such as pentagons, hexagons and octagons are named according to the number of sides they have, polyhedra are named according to the number of faces they have. For example, a tetrahedron has four faces (tetra = 4), while a hexahedron has six faces (hexa = 6).

Tetrahedron (4 faces)

Hexahedron (6 faces)

This table shows the names of some polyhedra, and the number of faces they have.
Polyhedron Tetrahedron Pentahedron Hexahedron Heptahedron Octahedron Number of faces Polyhedron Nonahedron Decahedron Undecahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron Number of faces

4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 20

Working mathematically
Reasoning and reecting: Stacking and packaging
1 Look around your classroom. Why are bricks like rectangular prisms? Why is the room a rectangular prism? What shape are most books? Why do you think this is? 2 Imagine you are in a supermarket. What solid shapes are used for packaging? Why do you think different solid shapes are used? How are items stacked on the shelves? What part does packaging play in this? 3 Find out what solid shape bees use to make a beehive. Why do they use it? 4 Find other three-dimensional structures in your environment? What solid shapes have been used? Why might this be so?

SOLIDS

103

CHAPTER 4

Exercise 4-02
1 What is a more common name for a tetrahedron? 2 Find out what a tetrapak and the computer game Tetris are. How are they related to the meaning of tetra? 3 Which of the following solids are polyhedra? a a rectangular prism b a triangular prism c a sphere d a square pyramid e a cone f a donut shape 4 Two solids have been combined to make each of these composite gures. For each one: i name the two solids that have been combined ii state whether the composite gure is a polyhedron iii state whether the composite gure is convex. a b c

5 Copy the gures from Question 4 parts a, b and f and use a different colour to shade each pair of parallel at faces. 6 Copy and complete this table.
Solid Cube Number of faces Shapes of faces Number of Number of parallel identical faces at faces

Cylinder Square pyramid Triangular prism Rectangular prism Rectangular pyramid Cone Triangular pyramid

7 What is the smallest number of faces a polyhedron can have?

104

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

8 How many faces has: a a tetrahedron? c a hexahedron?

b an octahedron? d a pentahedron?

9 Use the table of polyhedra names on page 103 to name these polyhedra: a b c

10 Why can a cube, a rectangular prism and a pentagonal pyramid all be called hexahedrons? 11 Name any solid whose faces are all identical.

Prisms and pyramids

A cross-section of a solid is a slice of the solid, cut across it, parallel to its end faces, rather than along it. These diagrams show cross-sections of a rectangular prism, a sphere and a square pyramid.
cross-section cross-section

cross-section Rectangular prism Sphere Square pyramid

Note that the cross-sections of a rectangular prism are congruent (identical) rectangles, the cross-sections of a sphere are circles (but of different sizes), and the cross-sections of a square pyramid are squares (again, of different sizes). Prisms and pyramids are special types of polyhedra. A prism has the same (uniform) cross-section along its length. Each cross-section is a polygon. Either of the end faces is called the prisms base. The prism below has trapezium-shaped cross-sections, identical and parallel to its base. It is a trapezoidal prism.

base Trapezoidal prism

cross-section

SOLIDS

105

CHAPTER 4

A prism is either right or oblique, as shown in the diagrams of triangular prisms below.

right angles

not right angles

Right prism

Oblique prism

A right prism stands upright, while an oblique prism stands at an angle or slant. Oblique means slanting or at an angle, while right means at right angles. A pyramid has a pointed top called the apex. The face opposite the apex is a polygon and is called the pyramids base. A pyramids cross-sections have the same shape as the base but are not the same size. The pyramid on the right has a triangular base, so it is called a triangular pyramid.
apex

cross-section

base Triangular pyramid

A pyramid is also either right or oblique, as shown in the diagrams of square pyramids below.

Right pyramid

Oblique pyramid

Example 1
a b c d e f g a Draw a cross-section of this solid. Is the cross-section of this solid uniform? Is this solid a prism or a pyramid? Is this solid right or oblique? What shape is the solids base? What shape are the side faces? What is the full name of this solid?

Solution

b c d e f g

Yes, all cross-sections of this solid are identical pentagons. A prism, because the cross-section is uniform and is a polygon. Oblique because it is slanted. The base is a pentagon. The side faces are parallelograms. This solid is an oblique pentagonal prism.
NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

106

Exercise 4-03
1 Draw a cross-section of each of these solids. i ii iii iv v
Example 1

vi

vii

viii

ix

xi

xii

xiii

xiv

2 Which solids in Question 1 are: a polyhedra? c pyramids? 3 Describe what a prism is, in your own words.

b prisms? d neither prisms nor pyramids?

4 Describe what a pyramid is, in your own words. 5 For each of these prisms, state: i the shape of its cross-section ii its name iii whether it is a right prism or an oblique prism. a b

SOLIDS

107

CHAPTER 4

6 Using each of these shapes as a base, draw a prism and shade its base. a square b isosceles triangle c trapezium d hexagon
Worksheet 4-04 Nets of solids 2

7 Name these pyramids and classify them as right pyramids or oblique pyramids. a b c

8 What shape are the side faces of: a any right prism? b any pyramid? 9 Draw a pentagonal pyramid and shade its base.

c any oblique prism?

10 Explain why a cylinder is not a prism and why a cone is not a pyramid.

Cylinders, cones and spheres

Cylinders, cones and spheres are not polyhedra because they have curved faces. Although it has a uniform cross-section, a cylinder is not a prism because its cross-sections are circles, which are not polygons. Although it has an apex, a cone is not a pyramid because its base is a circle, which is not a polygon. Like prisms and pyramids, cylinders and cones can be either right or oblique, as shown below.

Right cylinder

Oblique cylinder

Right cone

Oblique cone P Q O

A sphere is a perfectly circular solid, the shape of a ball. All of the points on a spheres surface are exactly the same distance from the centre of the sphere. In this diagram of a sphere, O is the centre and P and Q are points on the surface of the sphere. The distance OP is the same as the distance OQ.

108

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

Classifying solids
Throughout this chapter, we have seen that solids can be classied in different ways. A solid may belong to one or more of the categories listed below. Polyhedron: any solid whose faces are all at. Prism: a polyhedron that has a uniform polygonal cross-section, parallel to its base. Pyramid: a polyhedron with a polygonal base and one further vertex called the apex. Cylinder: a solid that has a uniform circular cross-section. Cone: a solid that has a circular base and an apex. Sphere: a completely round solid whose surface is always the same distance from its centre. Right prism, right pyramid, right cylinder or right cone: an upright prism, pyramid, cylinder or cone. Oblique prism, oblique pyramid, oblique cylinder or oblique cone: a slanted prism, pyramid, cylinder or cone. The solids are shown in the table below.
Category Meaning Example

Polyhedron

Any solid whose faces have straight sides

Prism

A polyhedron that has a uniform cross-section along its length, identical and parallel to its base.

Right prism

An upright prism

Oblique prism

A slanted prism

Pyramid

A polyhedron with a pointed top called the apex.

Right pyramid

An upright pyramid.

SOLIDS

109

CHAPTER 4

Oblique pyramid

A slanted pyramid.

Platonic solid

A regular polyhedron, whose faces are identical regular polygons.

Exercise 4-04
1 For each of these solids, i write its name a b ii state whether it is right, oblique or neither. c

2 Classify each of the following solids into one or more of the given categories. (The rst one has been done for you.) convex solid or non-convex solid polyhedron right prism or oblique prism right pyramid or oblique pyramid right cylinder or oblique cylinder right cone or oblique cone sphere

110

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

A Shape A is convex and an oblique cylinder.

SOLIDS

111

CHAPTER 4

AA

BB

CC

DD

EE

FF

GG

HH

II

JJ

KK

LL

MM

NN

OO

Working mathematically
Applying strategies: Nets of solids
1 Here is the net for a triangular prism. Using the measurements in the net, copy it to make a model of a triangular prism.

4c

4c

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

4 cm

112

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

4c

m 4c

2 Find nets for other solids and make more models. Some can be found in Worksheet 4-04. Use this link to nd them. 3 Match the correct shape name to each net (a to l). (Some have more than one net.) triangular prism cube rectangular prism square pyramid cylinder trapezoidal prism a b

Worksheet 4-04 Nets of solids 2

SOLIDS

113

CHAPTER 4

Worksheet 4-05 Eulers rule

Eulers rule
Leonhard Euler (17071783) was a famous Swiss mathematician who discovered an interesting rule about polyhedra. He developed a formula relating the number of faces, vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron. edge An edge is a line of the solid, where two faces meet. vertex (plural: A vertex is a corner of the solid, where edges meet. vertices) The prism in the diagram has six faces, eight vertices face and 12 edges.

Exercise 4-05
1 Count the number of faces (F), vertices (V) and edges (E) of the polyhedra you made in Exercise 4-01 and of any others you have collected. Copy and complete the table on the next page.

114

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

Polyhedron

Number of faces (F)

Number of vertices (V)

Number of edges (E)

F +V

Cube Rectangular prism Triangular prism Triangular pyramid Square pyramid

2 What is Eulers rule for convex polyhedra? Use the table from Question 1 to work it out. 3 Identify each of the following solids. a I have six vertices and nine edges. b I have six faces and they are all the same shape. c I have the same number of vertices as faces, but my faces are not all the same. d I have six edges. e I have 12 edges and eight vertices, and my faces are not all the same. 4 A piece has been sliced off each solid below. Count the number of faces (F), vertices (V) and edges (E) of each remaining solid. Does Eulers rule still hold true for them? a b c d

Eulers rule for convex polyhedra is: Faces + vertices = edges + 2 F +V = E + 2

Edges of a solid
The edges are the lines of a solid, made where two faces meet. This diagram of a rectangular prism has its eight vertices labelled from A to H. We can also use these labels to describe the edges of the prism. For example, the top front edge is AD, while the back right edge is CG.
B A D C

F E H

SOLIDS

115

CHAPTER 4

Two edges can be related in three different ways. They can be intersecting, parallel or skew. In the prism at the bottom of the previous page: AD and CD are intersecting edges. Intersecting edges meet A at a vertex. Edges AD and CD meet at the vertex D. D AB and HG are parallel edges, written AB II HG. Parallel edges point in the same direction and never meet.
A B

G H

BF and EH are skew edges. Skew edges point in different directions but never meet because they are on different planes. Both of them could not lie on the same at surface (such as a sheet of paper). Skew means not on the same plane.

F E H

Exercise 4-06
1 In this diagram of a rectangular prism, name all the edges that: a intersect at vertex G b are parallel to edge CG c are skew to edge AD.
B A D F H C

2 For each of the following solids name a pair of: i intersecting edges ii parallel edges A D a b H
A C B F J M Q N O W P L P V K E G E H G D C

iii skew edges. N c

J O

M L

S R U Q

E D C

116

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

g
P S T N

R U V

i
B D C

A J I

Y W X

D H

E C I G F E

H F G

3 Copy and complete the statements below each of these solids. Choose from parallel, intersecting or skew to ll the blanks. a
R U W V Y X B E C D N K L M S T

c
J

H I

ST and UY are TX and RV are VW and WX are WY and TX are

AE and AC are BE and CD are DE and AB are BD and AB are

GK and HL are MN and KL are GJ and LM are HI and IM are

Working mathematically
Communicating and reecting: Perpendicular, parallel and skew lines
These pictures show examples of perpendicular, parallel and skew lines in the world around us.

Perpendicular lines Parallel lines

Perpendicular lines

Skew lines

Parallel lines

Perpendicular lines Skew lines

Make a collage of pictures from magazines and newspapers and highlight the different types of lines.
SOLIDS

117

CHAPTER 4

The Platonic solids

A regular polygon is a at shape with equal sides. For example, a regular hexagon is a shape with six equal sides. A regular polyhedron or Platonic solid is a polyhedron with congruent faces. Every face is the same regular polygon and all pairs of adjacent faces make equal angles with each other. For example, a cube is a regular polyhedron because every face is a square with sides of the same length. Because a cube has six equal faces, it is also called a regular hexahedron. There are only ve such Platonic solids:
Platonic solid Number of equal faces

Regular tetrahedron Regular hexahedron Regular octahedron Regular dodecahedron Regular icosahedron

tetra = 4 hexa = 6 octa = 8 dodeca = 12 icosa = 20

Tetrahedron (equilateral triangular pyramid)

Hexahedron (cube)

Octahedron

Dodecahedron

Icosahedron

The Platonic solids were discovered by the Greeks in the 5th century BC. However, ancient artefacts displaying pictures of these solids have been found in Europe, Egypt, Africa and South America. It was believed that these shapes had mystical properties. The Greek philosopher Plato (427327 BC) claimed that these regular polyhedra were cosmic bodies representing the elements. The tetrahedron stood for Fire. The hexahedron stood for Earth. The octahedron stood for Air. The icosahedron represented Water. The dodecahedron represented the ether or the Universe.

118

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

Exercise 4-07
You can print out Worksheet 4-06 to get copies of the nets used in this Exercise. 1 A regular tetrahedron is shown on the right. a Draw and cut out the net of a regular tetrahedron with side lengths of 5 cm. For best results, draw it on to cardboard. Fold along the dotted lines and paste the tabs to make the tetrahedron. b How many faces has the regular tetrahedron? c What is the more common name for a tetrahedron? d What type of triangle is each face? e How many vertices has this tetrahedron? f How many edges has this tetrahedron? g Does this tetrahedron have any: i parallel edges? ii skew edges? iii intersecting edges?
Worksheet 4-06 Nets of Platonic solids

Geometry 4-02 Platonic solids nets

5c m 5c m 5c m 5c

5 cm

5c

5c

5 cm

5 cm

2 A regular octahedron is shown on the right. a Draw and cut out the net of a regular octahedron with side lengths of 5 cm. Fold and paste to make the octahedron.

5c
5c

b How many faces has this regular octahedron? c What is the shape of each face? d A regular octahedron is a composite solid. What two solids can be combined to make it? e How many edges has this regular octahedron? f Does this octahedron have any: i parallel edges? ii skew edges? iii intersecting edges?

5 cm

SOLIDS

119

CHAPTER 4

3 A regular icosahedron is shown on the right. a Draw and cut out the net of a regular icosahedron below, with side lengths of 5 cm. Then make the icosahedron. b How many faces has this regular icosahedron? c What is the shape of each face? d How many edges does it have? e How many vertices does it have?

m 4c

4 cm

f Is Eulers rule true for this icosahedron? g Does this icosahedron have any: i parallel edges?

4 A regular hexahedron is shown on the right. a Draw and cut out this net of a regular hexahedron with side lengths of 5 cm. Then make the hexahedron. b How many faces has the regular hexahedron? c What is the shape of each face? d What is the more common name for a regular hexahedron?

m 4c

ii skew edges?

5 cm 5 cm 5 cm

120

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

5 A regular dodecahedron is shown on the right. a Draw and cut out this net of a regular dodecahedron with side lengths of 5 cm, then make it.

3 cm

3 cm

3 cm

3c

3c

b c d e f g

How many faces has the regular dodecahedron? What is the shape of each face? How many edges does it have? How many vertices does it have? Is Eulers rule true for this dodecahedron? Does this dodecahedron have any: i parallel edges? ii skew edges?

6 Copy and complete this table of Platonic solids.

Platonic solid Description Shape of each face Number of faces

Two square pyramids joined at bases Flattened soccer ball pattern Crystal-shaped Square Regular pentagon 20 4

7 Which Platonic solid: a has 12 faces? d has 12 vertices?

b is a pyramid? e is a prism?

c has 12 edges? f has pentagonal faces?

SOLIDS

121

CHAPTER 4

Working mathematically
Communicating and reasoning: Special solids
Use the library and/or the Internet to research at least one of the following topics. Present your work as a wall chart or in a project book. 1 There are 13 Archimedean solids. Find out their names and how they are related to the Platonic solids. Find pictures of them. 2 There are four Kepler-Poinsot solids. Find out their names and what is special about them. Find pictures of them. 3 What are Johnson solids? How many are there? 4 Find out about how the Pythagoreans, Theaetetus and Plato discovered the Platonic solids. 5 Find out what the mathematician Euclid and the astronomer Kepler discovered about the Platonic solids. 6 Research the lives of Plato, Euler or the Pythagoreans.

Drawing and building solids

Solids can be difcult to draw. Sometimes it is easier to use square dot paper or isometric dot paper to draw them. The rectangular prisms shown below are drawn on square dot paper, so called because the dots sit on a grid of squares. Horizontal edges are drawn horizontally on the paper.

face horizontal edge

The rectangular prisms shown below are drawn on isometric dot paper, with the dots arranged in a triangular pattern. Horizontal edges are drawn at a slant on this paper. A 2-D (at) diagram of a 3-D gure (solid) looks more natural when drawn on isometric paper.

hor iz edgontal e

vertical edge

When drawing on square paper, one of the solids faces is shown at the front. When drawing on isometric paper, one of the solids vertical edges is shown at the front. In both cases, the parallel edges of the solid must be drawn as parallel on the paper.

122

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

Exercise 4-08
For this exercise you will need square dot paper, isometric dot paper and construction cubes. Both types of dot paper can be printed out. Use these links to nd them. You can also draw shapes directly into a geometry program, using a square grid or an isometric grid. 1 Copy the rectangular prisms shown above: i on square dot paper ii on isometric dot paper 2 Use cubes to make each of the following solids, then draw them on isometric dot paper. a b c d

Geometry 4-03 Square grid Geometry 4-04 Isometric grid Worksheet Appendix 8 Square dot paper Worksheet Appendix 9 Isometric dot paper

3 Draw this shape on isometric dot paper:

4 Make three different solids using ve cubes. Then draw them on isometric dot paper. 5 Each of the following is the start of a drawing of a rectangular prism. Copy each drawing on to isometric dot paper and complete it. a b c d e

6 Imagine and then draw what would remain of this large block if the smaller block was taken away from it.

SOLIDS

123

CHAPTER 4

The use of cubes should help you complete the following questions. 7 Imagine and then draw what you would see of the following shape if you were looking from A, then from B, and then from C.
C

8 Copy each of these drawings of solids on to isometric dot paper exactly as shown. a b c

4 cubes 5 cubes 6 cubes

7 cubes 10 cubes 18 cubes

9 Here are four different shapes, called A, B, C and D. A B C D

Which of the following shapes are the same as: a A? b B? c C? i ii iii

d D?

124

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

iv

vi

vii

viii ix

10 On isometric dot paper draw the different solids that can be made if four cubes are joined together. Two have already been drawn for you. How many different solids are there?

11 Which of the given solids, A, B, C, D and E, is the same as the solid on the left? A B C

Working mathematically
Applying strategies: Drawing prisms and pyramids
1 Try drawing solids without using dot paper. Use a ruler and pencil to practise drawing the following solids: a cube a square pyramid a rectangular prism a cylinder 2 There are tricks you can use to draw these so that they look right. Find out what these tricks are and use them to improve your drawings.

SOLIDS

125

CHAPTER 4

Different views of solids

Example 2
For this solid, draw: a the front view b the left view c the top view.
left
nt fro

Solution
Imagine you walk around the solid. This is what you would see: a viewed from the front b viewed from the left

c viewed from the top

Example 3
For this solid, draw: a the front view b the top view.

Solution
a

front

126

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

Exercise 4-09
1 For each of these solids, draw the views requested. a b
Example 2

fro nt

rig

ht

left

fro

nt

i top view ii right view iii front view c d

i left view ii back view iii top view

fro

nt

rig

ht

left

fro

nt

i back view ii top view iii right view e f

i right view ii front view iii top view

fro

nt

rig

ht

left

fro

nt

i front view ii left view iii top view g h

i back view ii right view iii top view

left

fro

nt

fro

rig

ht

nt

i top view ii front view iii left view

i right view ii back view iii top view

SOLIDS

127

CHAPTER 4

Example 3

2 For each of these solids, draw the views requested. a b

front

front

i front view ii top view c d

i front view ii right view iii top view

fro

nt

front

i left view ii top view iii front view e f

i top view ii front view

front

front

i ii iii iv

front view left view right view top view

i top view ii front view

3 Draw each of these solids from the top, front and side views. a b

128

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

4 In each set of diagrams below, three views of a solid shape are shown along with the number of cubes needed to make it. Make each of these solids, then draw them on isometric paper. a 5 cubes b 6 cubes

top

front

side

top

front

side

c 5 cubes

top

front

side

d 5 cubes

top

front

side

e 7 cubes

top

front

side

8 cubes

top

front

side SOLIDS

129

CHAPTER 4

Power plus
1 Draw: a a non-regular hexahedron 2 How many diagonals has: a a cube? b a regular octahedron b a square pyramid? c a pentahedron c a triangular prism?

3 Eulers rule also works in two dimensions. The following shapes are called networks, made up of regions (spaces), vertices (corners) and edges (lines or curves joining two vertices). Note: Outside the network also counts as one region.
vertex region

edg e

This network has 3 regions, 5 vertices This network has 3 regions, 4 vertices and 6 edges. and 5 edges. Count the number of regions (R), vertices (V) and edges (E) on each of the following networks, then write Eulers rule for networks. a b c

e f

130

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

4 A soccer ball is not a perfect sphere but is actually a polyhedron with 32 faces. a Look at the pattern on a soccer ball to nd the shapes of its faces, and count how many faces of each shape there are. b A soccer ball is not a regular polyhedron (Platonic solid) but it is a semi-regular polyhedron. Find out what semi-regular polyhedra are. There are 13 of them. 5 The words in the following list are related to solids. Research the meanings of ve of them. axis altitude ellipsoid elliptic cone frustum lateral faces oblique cylinder parallelepiped torus truncated prism

Language of maths
apex congruent cube edge hexahedron oblique prism parallel edges polygon pyramid right prism slant tetrahedron base convex cylinder Eulers rule intersecting edges oblique pyramid plane polyhedron/polyhedra regular polygon right pyramid solid uniform cone cross-section dodecahedron face icosahedron octahedron Platonic solid prism regular polyhedron skew edges sphere vertex/vertices

Worksheet 4-07 Solids crossword

1 Find the ve Platonic solids in the list above. 2 How many faces has a tetrahedron? 3 What is the difference between the base of a prism and the base of a pyramid? 4 What is a polyhedron? Give an example of a polyhedron and an example that is not a polyhedron. 5 What type of polyhedra has a uniform cross-section? 6 What is the difference between a right prism and an oblique prism? 7 What do the Greek prexes hexa and poly mean? 8 What is the difference between a convex polygon and a non-convex polygon?

SOLIDS

131

CHAPTER 4

Topic overview
How useful do you think this chapter will be to you in the future? Can you name any jobs which use some of the concepts covered in this chapter? Did you have any problems with any sections of this chapter? Discuss any problems with a friend or your teacher. Nets Models

Views of solids

Drawing and building solids

Solids with curved surfaces

S O L IDS
Polyhedra Platonic solids Pyramids Prisms Eulers rule Right Oblique Right Oblique Faces Vertices Edges Parallel Intersecting Skew

132

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

Chapter 4
A

Review
B C

Topic test Chapter 4

Ex 4-02

1 Copy and complete the table below for the three solids shown.

Solid A Number of faces Number of congruent faces Shapes of the faces Number of parallel at faces Shape of a cross-section Are the cross-sections uniform? Is the solid a polyhedron?

Solid B

Solid C

2 Draw each of the following solids and shade its base. a a hexagonal prism b a cylinder

Ex 4-03

c a rectangular prism
Ex 4-03

3 Draw a cross-section of each of these solids and state whether each one is a prism. a b c

4 Name each of the following solids and state whether each one is right or oblique. a b c

Ex 4-03

SOLIDS

133

CHAPTER 4

Ex 4-01 Ex 4-04

5 Which solids from Questions 1, 3 and 4 are non-convex? 6 Match each shape with its correct property.
Shape Property

a octahedron b pyramid c sphere d octagonal prism e regular hexahedron f

oblique prism

A another name for a cube B a polyhedron with triangular faces and a square base C has all side faces meeting at a point called the apex D a Platonic solid with eight equilateral triangles as faces E has a uniform cross-section but is not a prism F a polyhedron with 10 faces, 16 vertices and 24 edges G another name for a triangular pyramid H a box shape that is slanted I a solid with no at faces J a pyramid that is upright

g square pyramid h cylinder i j

Ex 4-05

right pyramid tetrahedron

7 Draw a triangular prism and count the number of: a faces b edges 8 For each of these solids, name a pair of: i intersecting edges ii parallel edges a b N T
U W P O S J M K L V

c vertices iii skew edges c

A B

Ex 4-06

Ex 4-07 Ex 4-07

9 What is a Platonic solid? Give an example of one. 10 This solid is a regular octahedron. a Which two solids can be combined to make this gure? b How is this octahedron regular? c How many faces, vertices and edges has this octahedron? d Describe Eulers rule for convex polyhedra and show that it is true for this octahedron. 11 Copy and complete these rectangular prisms on dot paper. a b

Ex 4-08

134

NEW CENTURY MATHS 7

12 For each of these solids, sketch the views requested. a i front view ii left view iii top view
fro

Ex 4-09

nt

i top view ii right view iii front view

fro

nt

rig

ht

i right view ii front view iii top view

front

SOLIDS

135

CHAPTER 4