22.

Purchase Costs of Other Chemical Processing Equipment

589

The capacity of atmospheric liquid storage tanks should be at least 1.5 times the size of the transportation equipment, typically 4,000 to 7,500 gal for tank trucks and up to 34,500 gal for tank cars. A shipment by barge may be as large as 420,000 gal. The maximum size for a single cone-roof or oating-roof tank is approximately 20,000,000 gal, which corresponds to a diameter of about 300 ft and a height of about 50 ft. Storage of liquid feeds, products, and intermediates may also be provided on-site in so-called surge tanks or day tanks, which provide residence times of 10 min to one day. Equations for estimating the f.o.b. purchase costs of open, cone-roof, and oating-roof tanks are included in Table 22.32. For liquid stored at pressures greater than 3 psig or under vacuum, spherical or horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical (bullet) pressure vessels are used. Vertical vessels are not normally used for volumes greater than 1,000 gal. Horizontal pressure vessels for storage are at least as large as 350,000 gal. Spherical pressure vessels are also common, with more than 5,000 having been constructed worldwide. For liquid storage, spheres as large as 94 ft in diameter (3,000,000 gal) have been installed. The design and costing of cylindrical pressure vessels is considered in detail in Section 22.5. Purchase costs are plotted in Figure 22.13. For spherical pressure vessels, Eq. (22.60) for cylindrical pressure vessels is revised to: tP Pd D i 4SE 0:4Pd (22.72)

Table 22.30 Lower Limits of Suction Pressure and Capacities of Vacuum Systemsa Lower Limit of Suction Pressure (torr) Volumetric Flow Range at Suction Conditions (ft3/min) 101,000,000 100 15 2 318,000 50 25 10 1.5 0.3 0.1 60240 60270 501,400

System Type Steam-jet ejectors One-stage Two-stage Three-stage Liquid-ring pumps One-stage water sealed Two-stage water sealed Oil-sealed Dry vacuum pumps Three-stage rotary-lobe Three-stage claw Screw compressor
a

Reprinted with permission from Ryans and Bays (2001).

Equations for estimating the f.o.b. purchase costs of spherical pressure vessels, based on just the vessel volume, are included in Table 22.32 for two different pressure ranges. Pressure vessels are also used for the storage of gases at pressures greater than 3 psig. For pressures between 0 and 3 psig, a gas holder, similar to a oating-roof tank for liquids, is used. An equation for estimating the f.o.b. purchase cost of a gas holder is included in Table 22.32.

Vacuum Systems
In some chemical processes, operations are conducted at pressures less than ambient. To achieve such pressures, vacuum systems are required. Pressures below ambient are commonly divided into four vacuum regions:
Vacuum Region Rough Medium High Ultrahigh Pressure Range (torr) 760 to 1 1 to 0.001 0.001 to 107 107 and below

In the rough region, the available vacuum systems include: (1) one-, two-, and three-stage ejectors driven with steam and with or without interstage surface or barometric (direct-contact) condensers, (2) one- or two-stage liquid-ring pumps using oil or water as the sealant, and (3) dry vacuum pumps including rotary lobe, claw, and screw compressors. Although the rst two systems have been the most widely used, dry vacuum pumps are gaining attention because they are more efcient and do not require a working uid such as steam, water, or oil, which can contribute to air pollution. Typical ow capacities and lower limits of suction pressure for process applications of these three types of vacuum systems are given in Table 22.30, taken from Ryans and Bays (2001). This table is useful in making a preliminary selection of candidate vacuum systems based on the ow rate and pressure at suction conditions. For batch processes where a vessel is being evacuated, the ow rate to be handled by the vacuum system depends on the selected time period for evacuation and on the contents of the vessel. When the ow contains condensables, a precondenser upstream of the vacuum system should be considered so as to reduce the ow rate to the vacuum pump. For continuous processes, the ow rate to be handled by the vacuum system is usually based on an estimate of air leakage into the equipment operating under vacuum. Air leakage occurs at gasketed joints, porous welds, and cracks and ssures in vessel walls. A simple, but often adequate estimate can be made based on the equipment volume and operating pressure with the following equation, derived from recommendations of the Heat Exchange Institute: lnP2 gV 0:66 (22.73) where W is the air leakage rate in lb/hr, P is the absolute operating pressure in torr assuming a barometric pressure of 760 torr, and V is the vessel volume in ft3. For many pieces of W 5 f0:0298 0:03088lnP 0:0005733

Of greatest interest to chemical processing is the rough region, which covers most polymer reactors, vacuum distillation columns, vacuum stripping columns, pervaporation membrane separations, vacuum-swing adsorbers, and vacuum crystallizers, evaporators, lters, and dryers.

590

Chapter 22

Cost Accounting and Capital Cost Estimation

equipment operating under a vacuum, the air leakage leaving the equipment will be accompanied by volatile process components. To partially recover these components and reduce the load on the vacuum pump, the exiting gas should rst pass through a precondenser before proceeding to the vacuum system. The ow rates of process components still in the gas leaving the precondenser with the air can be determined by a ash calculation as illustrated in the example below. Note, in Table 22.30, that steam-jet ejector systems can handle a very wide range of conditions. They have no moving parts and are inexpensive to maintain, but are very inefcient because of the high usage of motive steam. The maximum compression ratio per stage is approximately 7.5. The required motive steam rate for each stage depends on the ratio of suction pressure-to-discharge pressure, steam pressure, temperature, gas properties, and ejector nozzle-to-throat ratio. A reasonably conservative range for the total motive steam requirement for all stages, when using 100-psig steam to evacuate mostly air, is 510 lb of steam per pound of gas being pumped. A detailed procedure for designing an ejector vacuum system is given by Sandler and Luckiewicz (1987). Liquid-ring pumps are limited to a suction pressure of 10 torr with a moderate capacity and efciency (2550%). Dry vacuum pumps can achieve very low pressures at higher efciencies, but only for low capacities. Since vacuum pumps are actually gas compressors, a tendency exists for the gas temperature to increase in an amount corresponding to the compression ratio. However, this temperature rise is greatly minimized or eliminated in ejector systems and with the liquid-ring pump because of the addition of another uid. The temperature rise must not be overlooked with dry vacuum pumps. The f.o.b. purchase costs for vacuum systems are included in Table 22.32. The equation for the one-stage ejector system in carbon steel is based on indexed data from Pikulik and Diaz (1977). Use the multiplying factors in Table 22.31 to add stages and interstage condensers, and change materials of construction. For the other vacuum systems, f.o.b. purchase costs in Table 22.32 were taken from Ryans and Bays (2001).
Table 22.31 Multiplying Factors for Steam-Jet Ejector Vacuum Systems Items 1 Stage 2 Stages 3 Stages 1 Surface condenser 2 Surface condensers 1 Barometric condenser 2 Barometric condensers Carbon steel Stainless steel Hastelloy Cost Multiplying Factors 1.0 1.8 2.1 1.6 2.3 1.7 1.9 1.0 2.0 3.0

EXAMPLE 22.18
A vacuum distillation column produces an overhead vapor of 1,365 kmol/hr of ethylbenzene and 63 kmol/hr of styrene at 30 kPa. The volume of the column, vapor line, condenser, and reux drum is 50,000 ft3. The overhead vapor is sent to a condenser where most of the vapor is condensed. The remaining vapor at 508C and 25 kPa is sent to a vacuum system. Determine the air leakage rate in the distillation operation and the ow rate to the vacuum system. Select an appropriate vacuum system and determine its f.o.b. purchase cost at a CE cost index of 550.

SOLUTION
The amount of air leakage, W, is estimated from Eq. (22.73). Using a pressure of 25 kPa 188 torr: W 5 f0:0298 0:03088ln188 0:0005733ln1882 g50; 0000:66 227 lb/hr

This is equivalent to 103 kg/hr or 3.6 kmol/hr. Adding this to the overhead vapor and performing a ash calculation at 508C and 25 kPa (188 torr) gives a vapor leaving the reux drum and entering the vacuum system of 3.6 kmol/hr of air and 0.7 kmol/hr of ethylbenzene. The volumetric ow rate to the vacuum system is 272 ft3/min. The ow rate in pounds per hour is 394. From Table 22.30, applicable vacuum systems are a single-stage steamjet ejector, a single-stage liquid-ring pump, and a screw compressor. The three-stage claw unit is just out of the range of the volumetric ow rate. From Table 22.32, the size factor for the ejector S 394/188 2:1. From the cost equation in Table 22.32, the f.o.b. purchase cost of the ejector in carbon steel and for a cost index of 550 is CP 550/5001; 6902:10:41 $2; 520 The estimated 100-psig steam consumption is 10394 3; 940 lb/hr. Assuming a steam cost of $5.00/1,000 lb and operation for 8,000 hr/yr, the annual steam cost is 3:945:008; 000 $157; 600/yr, which is far more than the cost of the ejector. Next, consider the liquid-ring pump. From Table 22.32, with a size factor of 272 ft3/min, in stainless steel and at CE 550, the f.o.b. purchase cost is CP 550/5008; 2502720:35 $64; 600 At an overall efciency of 40% for compression to 100 kPa, the calculated horsepower input is 16.8 or 12.6 kW. Assuming an electricity cost of $0.05 kW/hr for 8,000 hr/yr, the annual electricity cost is 12:60:058; 000 $5; 040/yr, which is much less than for the ejector system. These two vacuum systems can be compared on an annualized cost basis as discussed in Section 23.4, but it seems clear that the higher cost of the liquid-ring pump is more than offset by the much higher utility cost to operate the ejector system. The screw compressor is also a candidate, but its purchase cost, $102,000, is signicantly higher and the annual electricity cost, at an overall efciency of 70%, is only about $2,100/yr less than for the liquid-ring pump.

Conveyors Belt Screw Vibratory Bucket elevators Pneumatic conveyors Storage tanks Open Cone roof Floating roof Spherical, 030 psig Spherical, 30200 psig Gas holders Vacuum systems One-stage jet ejector Liquid-ring pumps Three-stage lobe Three-stage claw Screw compressors Wastewater treatment Primary Primary + Secondary Primary + Secondary + Tertiary

Width, W, in. Length, L, ft Diameter, D, in. Length, L, ft Width, W, in. Length, L, ft Bucket width, W, in. Height, L, ft Solids ow rate, m, lb/s Equivalent length, L, feet Volume, Volume, Volume, Volume, Volume, Volume, V, V, V, V, V, V, gal gal gal gal gal ft3

1460 in., up to 300 ft CP 21:5 WL 620 in., up to 300 ft CP 70:5 DL0:59 1236 in., up to 100 ft CP 81:6 W 0:57 L0:87 620 in., 15150 ft CP 610 W 0:5 L0:57 330 lb/s, 30600 ft CP 15; 200M 0:63 L0:20 1,00030,000 gal 10,0001,000,000 gal 30,0001,000,000 gal 10,0001,000,000 gal 10,000750,000 gal 4,000400,000 ft3 0.1100 lb/hr-torr 50350 ft3/min 60240 ft3/min 60270 ft3/min 50350 ft3/min 7575,000 gal/min 7575,000 gal/min 7575,000 gal/min CP CP CP CP CP CP 18 V 0:72 265 V 0:51 475 V 0:51 60 V 0:72 47 V 0:78 3; 170 V 0:43

Does not include motor or drive Does not include motor, drive, lid, or jacket Does not include motor or drive Does not include motor or drive Includes blower, motor, piping, rotary valve, and cyclone Fiberglass Carbon steel, pressure to 3 psig Carbon steel, pressure to 3 psig Carbon steel Carbon steel Carbon steel, pressure to 3 psig See Table 22.31 for multistage units and condensers Stainless steel with sealant recirculation Includes intercoolers Includes intercoolers With protective controls Bare-module cost Bare-module cost Bare-module cost

(lb/hr)/(suction pressure, torr) Flow at suction, ft3/min Flow at suction, ft3/min Flow at suction, ft3/min Flow at suction, ft3/min Wastewater rate, Q, gal/min Wastewater rate, Q, gal/min Wastewater rate, Q, gal/min

CP 1; 690 S 0:41 CP 8; 250 S 0:35 CP 7; 120 S 0:41 CP 8; 630 S 0:36 CP 9; 590 S 0:38 CBM 14; 800 Q0:64 CBM 43; 000 Q0:64 CBM 88; 000 Q0:64

595