Networking Media

Networking Media
Copper Media
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Cable Specifications

10BASE-T 10BASE5 10BASE2 100BASE-TX 100BASE-FX 1000BASE-T 1000BASE-SX 1000BASE-LX 1000BASE-ZX 1000BASE-CWDM

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable advantages

It can be run longer distances than shielded twisted pair, STP, and unshielded twisted pair, UTP, cable without the need for repeaters. Repeaters regenerate the signals in a network so that they can cover greater distances. Coaxial cable is less expensive than fiber-optic cable, and the technology is well known. It has been used for many years for many types of data communication, including cable television.

Coaxial cable flaws

Problem with terminators and cable break. Poor shield connection is one of the biggest sources of connection problems in the installation of coaxial cable. Connection problems result in electrical noise that interferes with signal transmittal on the networking media. For this reason thinnet is no longer commonly used nor supported by latest standards (100 Mbps and higher) for Ethernet networks.

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

It is usually 150-Ohm cable. Advantages: STP reduces electrical noise within the cable such as pair to pair coupling and crosstalk. STP also reduces electronic noise from outside the cable, for example electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). STP affords greater protection from all types of external interference, Disadvantages: Bigger diameter, and weight, more difficult to bend more expensive and difficult to install than UTP.

Screened UTP (ScTP) = Foil Twisted Pair (FTP)

It is usually 100-Ohm or 120-Ohm cable

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STP & ScTP installation issues

The metallic shielding materials in STP and ScTP need to be grounded at both ends. If improperly grounded or if there are any discontinuities in the entire length of the shielding material, STP and ScTP become susceptible to major noise problems. They are susceptible because they allow the shield to act like an antenna picking up unwanted signals. Not only does the shield prevent incoming electromagnetic waves from causing noise on data wires, but it also minimizes the outgoing radiated electromagnetic waves. These waves could cause noise in other devices. The shielding materials make terminations more difficult and susceptible to poor workmanship. However, STP and ScTP still have a role, especially in Europe.
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Advantages It is easy to install and is less expensive than other types of networking media. UTP costs less per meter than any other type of LAN cabling. it has such a small external diameter, when UTP cable is installed using an RJ-45 connector, potential sources of network noise are greatly reduced and a good solid connection is practically guaranteed. Disadvantages UTP cable is more prone to electrical noise and interference than other types of networking media, distance between signal boosts is shorter for UTP than it is for coaxial and fiber optic cables. Today, UTP is considered the fastest copper-based media.
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Two types of UTP cable:
Wall Fly

Categories:
5 5e 6

305 meters of cable in one box

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UTP cable termination

UTP cable is terminated with:

RJ-45 connector RJ-45 module

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Straight-through Cable

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Crossover Cable

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Rollover Cable

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Connecting to a Console Port

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Straight-through Crossover Rollover

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Networking Media
Optical Media
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Visible spectrum

Electromagnetic energy with wavelengths between 700 and 400 nm is called visible light. Wavelengths that are not visible to the human eye are used to transmit data over optical fiber. These wavelengths are slightly longer than red light and are called infrared light. The wavelength of the light in optical fiber is either 850 nm, 1310 nm, or 1550 nm. These wavelengths were selected because they travel through optical fiber better than other wavelengths.
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Reflection and Refraction

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Total Internal Reflection

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Total Internal Reflection

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Total Internal Reflection

The following two conditions must be met for the light rays in a fiber to be reflected back into the fiber without any loss due to refraction:
The core of the optical fiber has to have a larger index of refraction (n) than the material that surrounds it. The material that surrounds the core of the fiber is called the cladding. The angle of incidence of the light ray is greater than the critical angle for the core and its cladding.

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Total Internal Reflection

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Numerical aperture

The numerical aperture of the fiber The numerical aperture of a core is the range of angles of incident light rays entering the fiber that will be completely reflected. Modes The paths which a light ray can follow when traveling down a fiber

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Total Internal Reflection

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Fiber

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Modes

There are a limited number of optical paths that a light ray can follow through the fiber. These optical paths are called modes. If the diameter of the core of the fiber is large enough so that there are many paths that light can take through the fiber, the fiber is called multimode fiber. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core that only allows light rays to travel along one mode inside the fiber

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Singlemode vs. multimode

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Fiber-Optic Connection

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Fiber-Optic Cable

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Transmission Devices

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Transmiters
Multimode:
Infrared Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) are two types of light source usually used with multimode fiber. LEDs are a little cheaper to build and require somewhat less safety concerns than lasers. However, LEDs cannot transmit light over cable as far as the lasers. Multimode fiber (62.5/125) can carry data distances of up to 2000 meters (6,560 ft). Wavelengths: 850nm & 1310nm

Singlemode:
IR lasers at 1310nm & 1550nm
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WARNING!

Never look at the near end of a fiber that is connected to a device at the far end! Never look into the transmit port on a NIC, switch, or router! Remember to keep protective covers over the ends of fiber and inserted into the fiber-optic ports of switches and routers! Be very careful!
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Receivers
p-intrinsic-n diodes (PIN photodiodes). PIN photodiodes are manufactured to be sensitive to 850, 1310, or 1550 nm of light that are generated by the transmitter at the far end of the fiber. When struck by a pulse of light at the proper wavelength, the PIN photodiode quickly produces an electric current of the proper voltage for the network.

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Optical Connectors

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Optical Link Loss Budget

When a fiber-optic link is being planned, the amount of signal power loss that can be tolerated must be calculated. This is referred to as the optical link loss budget. The decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure the amount of power loss. Two of the most important instruments for testing fiber links are Optical Loss Meters and Optical Time Domain Reflectometers (OTDRs). These instruments both test optical cable to ensure that the cable meets the TIA standards for fiber. They also test to verify that the link power loss does not fall below the optical link loss budget. OTDRs can provide much additional detailed diagnostic information about a fiber link. They can be used to troubleshoot a link when problems occur.

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Calibrated Light Sources and Light Meter

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Networking Media
Wireless Media
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Wireless LAN Standards

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Wireless LAN Standards

IEEE is the prime issuer of standards for wireless networks. The standards have been created within the framework of the regulations created by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard is Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). DSSS applies to wireless devices operating within a 1 to 2 Mbps The next standard approved was 802.11b, which increased transmission capabilities to 11 Mbps. 802.11b devices achieve the higher data throughput rate by using a different coding technique from 802.11

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Wireless LAN Standards

802.11a covers WLAN devices operating in the 5 GHZ transmission band. Using the 5 GHZ range disallows interoperability of 802.11b devices as they operate within 2.4 GHZ. 802.11a is capable of supplying data throughput of 54 Mbps and with proprietary technology known as "rate doubling" has achieved 108 Mbps. In production networks, a more standard rating is 20-26 Mbps. 802.11g provides the same throughout as 802.11a but with backwards compatibility for 802.11b devices using Othogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) modulation technology. Cisco has developed an access point that permits 802.11b and 802.11a devices to coexist on the same WLAN. The access point supplies gateway services allowing these otherwise incompatible devices to communicate.

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Internal Wireless NIC for Desktop or Server

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PCMCIA NIC for Laptop

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External USB Wireless NIC

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Access Point

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Infrastructure Mode

When a client is activated within the WLAN, it will start "listening" for a compatible device with which to "associate". This is referred to as "scanning" and may be active or passive. Active scanning causes a probe request to be sent from the wireless node seeking to join the network. The probe request will contain the Service Set Identifier (SSID) of the network it wishes to join. When an AP with the same SSID is found, the AP will issue a probe response. The authentication and association steps are completed. Passive scanning nodes listen for beacon management frames (beacons), which are transmitted by the AP (infrastructure mode) or peer nodes (ad hoc). When a node receives a beacon that contains the SSID of the network it is trying to join, an attempt is made to join the network. Passive scanning is a continuous process and nodes may associate or disassociate with APs as signal strength changes.

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Wireless LAN

Depending on the structural composition of the location in which the AP is installed and the size and gain of the antennae, the size of the cell could greatly vary. Most commonly, the range will be from 91.44 to 152.4 meters
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