1

Two-Degree of Freedom Systems

Introduction
Equation of Motion
Free Vibration of an Undamped System
Torsional System
Coordinate Coupling
Forced Vibration Analysis
2
Introduction
3
Importance of the Study of
Vibration
Why study vibration?
Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections
and failure on the machines and structures
To reduce vibration: proper design of
machines and their mountings
To utilize profitably in several consumer and
industrial applications
To improve the efficiency of certain machining,
casting, forging & welding processes
4
Basic Concepts of Vibration
Vibration = any motion that repeats
itself after an interval of time
Vibratory System consists of:
1) spring or elasticity
2) mass or inertia
3) damper
Involves transfer of potential energy to
kinetic energy and vice versa
5
Basic Concepts of Vibration
Degree of Freedom (d.o.f.): min. no. of independent
coordinates required to determine completely the
positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time
Examples of single degree-of-freedom systems:
6
Basic Concepts of Vibration
Examples of single degree-of-freedom
systems:
Stiffness and Mass
Vibration is cause by the interaction of two different forces
one related to position (stiffness) and one related to
acceleration (mass).
m
k
x
Displacement
Mass Spring
Stiffness (k)
Mass (m)
) (t kx F
k
=
) ( ) ( t x m t ma F
m

= =
Proportional to displacement
Proportional to acceleration
statics
dynamics
Equation of Motion
From Newtons Law for this simple mass-spring system
the two forces must be equal i.e. F
M
= F
k
.
M
k
x
Displacement
Mass Spring
0 = +
=
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
t kx t x m
t kx t x m


or

This is a 2nd order differential
equation and all phenomena that
have differential equations of this
type for their equation of motion
will exhibit oscillatory behavior.
Examples of Single-Degree-of-Freedom
Systems
m
u
l=length
Pendulum
0 = + ) ( ) ( t
l
g
t u u

Gravity g
Shaft and Disk
u
0 = + ) ( ) ( t k t J u u

Torsional
Stiffness
k
Moment
of inertia
J
NEWTONs Law
10
Basic Concepts of Vibration
Examples of Two degree-of-freedom
systems:
11
Basic Concepts of Vibration
Examples of Three degree of freedom
systems:
12
Basic Concepts of Vibration
Example of Infinite-number-of-degrees-of-
freedom system:
Infinite number of degrees of freedom system
are termed continuous or distributed systems
Finite number of degrees of freedom are termed
discrete or lumped parameter systems
More accurate results obtained by increasing
number of degrees of freedom
13
Classification of Vibration
Free Vibration:
A system is left to vibrate on its own after an
initial disturbance and no external force acts on
the system. E.g. simple pendulum
Forced Vibration:
A system that is subjected to a repeating
external force. E.g. oscillation arises from diesel
engines
Resonance occurs when the frequency of the
external force coincides with one of the
natural frequencies of the system
14
Classification of Vibration
Undamped Vibration:
When no energy is lost or dissipated in friction
or other resistance during oscillations
Damped Vibration:
When any energy is lost or dissipated in friction
or other resistance during oscillations
Linear Vibration:
When all basic components of a vibratory
system, i.e. the spring, the mass and the damper
behave linearly
15
Classification of Vibration
Nonlinear Vibration:
If any of the components behave nonlinearly
Deterministic Vibration:
If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force
or motion) acting on a vibratory system is known
at any given time
Nondeterministic or random Vibration:
When the value of the excitation at a given time
cannot be predicted
16
Classification of Vibration
Examples of deterministic and random
excitation:
17
Vibration Analysis Procedure
Step 1: Mathematical Modeling
Step 2: Derivation of Governing
Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing
Equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results
18
Vibration Analysis Procedure
Example of the modeling of a forging
hammer:
19
Using mathematical model to represent
the actual vibrating system
E.g. In figure below, the mass and damping
of the beam can be disregarded; the system
can thus be modeled as a spring-mass
system as shown.
Mass or Inertia Elements
20
( ) 30 . 1 sin sin t A A x e u = =
( ) 31 . 1 cos t A
dt
dx
e e =
( ) 32 . 1 sin
2 2
2
2
x t A
dt
x d
e e e = =
Harmonic Motion
Periodic Motion: motion repeated after equal intervals
of time.
Harmonic Motion: simplest type of periodic motion.
Displacement (x): (on horizontal axis)
Velocity:
Acceleration:
21
22
Definitions of Terminology:
Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement
of a vibrating body from its equilibrium
position
Period of oscillation (T) is time taken to
complete one cycle of motion
Frequency of oscillation (f) is the no. of
cycles per unit time
( ) 59 . 1
2
e
t
= T
( ) 60 . 1
2
1
t
e
= =
T
f
Harmonic Motion
Summary of simple harmonic motion
t
x(t)
0
x
Slope
here is v
0
n
e
|
Period
n
T
e
t 2
=
Amplitude
A
Maximum
Velocity
A
n
e
Hz
s
cycles
rad/cycle
rad/s
t
e
t
e
t
e
2 2 2
n n n
n
f = = =
Initial Conditions
If a system is vibrating then we must assume that something
must have (in the past) transferred energy into to the system
and caused it to move. For example the mass could have
been:
moved a distance x
0
and then released at t=0 (i.e. given
Potential energy) or
given an initial velocity v
0
(i.e. given Kinetic energy) or
Some combination of the two above cases
From our earlier solution we know that:
) )
) )
| e | e e
| | e
cos( cos( ) (
sin( sin( ) (
A A x v
A A x x
n n n
n
= + = =
= + = =
0 0
0 0
0
0

25
Harmonic Motion
Definitions of Terminology:
Natural frequency is the frequency which a system oscillates
without external forces
Phase angle (|) is the angular difference between two
synchronous harmonic motions
( )
( ) ( ) 62 . 1 sin
61 . 1 sin
2 2
1 1
| e
e
+ =
=
t A x
t A x
26
( )
( ) ( ) 62 . 1 sin
61 . 1 sin
2 2
1 1
| e
e
+ =
=
t A x
t A x
27
28
Complex Fourier Series:
The Fourier series can also be represented in
terms of complex numbers.
Harmonic Analysis
) 79 . 1 ( sin cos
) 78 . 1 ( sin cos
t i t e
t i t e
t i
t i
e e
e e
e
e
=
+ =

Also,
) 81 . 1 (
2
sin
) 80 . 1 (
2
cos
i
e e
t
e e
t
t i t i
t i t i
e e
e e
e
e

+
=
+
=
and
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
x(t)
t
undamped
overdamped
underdamped
Critically
damped
d
e
t 2
n d
e e

<
<1
0 =
n
e
t 2
1 =
1 >
x
0
Comparison of motion with different types of damping
OTHER EXAMPLE
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
Two-Degree of Freedom Systems
Equation of Motion
64
Two degree of freedom systems are defined as
systems that require two independent
coordinates to describe their motion.
Consider the motor-pump system shown in
Fig.5.1. The vertical displacement of the system
and the angular coordinate denoting the rotation
of the mass about its C.G. make up two
independent coordinates.
Figure 5.1: Motor-pump system
65
Consider the system shown in Fig.5.2.
The general rule for the computation of the
number of degrees of freedom can be stated as
follows:
No. of degrees No. of masses in the system
of freedom of = x no. of possible types of
the system motion of each mass
Figure 5.2: Packaging of an instrument
66
67
68
0
69
0
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
OTHER EXAMPLE
83
84
Deriving 2-DOF mathematical model
85
2 2 2 1 2 2 3
1 1 2 1 2 1 1
) (
) (
x m x x k x k
x m x x k x k
ma F


= +
=
=

Free Vibration of an Undamped 2-DOF

System
86
Free Vibration of an Undamped 2-DOF
System
These are coupled eqns of motion. For normal mode of oscillation, each
mass undergoes harmonic motion of same freq passing through the
equilibrium position.
In matrix form, (1)
) 1 ( 0 ) (
0 ) (
1 2 2 3 2 2 2
2 2 1 2 1 1 1
= + +
= + +
x k x k k x m
x k x k k x m


0
) (
) (
0
0
2
1
3 2 2
2 2 1
2
1
2
1
=
)
`

+
+
+
)
`

x
x
k k k
k k k
x
x
m
m


87
Free Vibration of an Undamped 2-DOF
System
Assume harmonic motion. Let,
( )
) sin( (
2
) sin(
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
| e e
| e
+
(

=
(

+
(

=
(

t
X
X
x
x
t
X
X
x
x


88
Subst. (2) into (1)
) 3 ( 0
) (
(
0
) (
) (
0
0
2
1
2
2 3 2 2
2
2
1 2 1
2
1
3 2 2
2 2 1
2
1
2
2
2
1
=
(

(
(

+
+
=
(

+
+
+
(

(
(

X
X
m k k k
k m k k
or
X
X
k k k
k k k
X
X
m
m
e
e
e
e
89
For non-trivial solution,
0 ) )( ( ) )( (
0
' :
12 21 22 11
22 21
12 11
=
=
A A A A
A A
A A
Rule s Cramer Note
{ }
{ }
0
) (
) (
det
3 2
2
2 2
2 2 1
2
1
=
(
(

+ +
+ +
k k m k
k k k m
e
e
90
or
{ }
{ } 0 ) )( (
) ( ) ( ) (
2
2 3 2 2 1
1 3 2 2 2 1
4
2 1
= + + +
+ + +
k k k k k
m k k m k k m m e e
A
AC B B
x
c Bx Ax
x
Substitute
m m
k k k k k k
m
k k
m
k k
2
4
0
,
0
) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
2
2 1
1 3 3 2 2 1
2
2
3 2
1
2 1
4

=
= + +
=
=
(

+ +
+
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

e
e e
91
which is called the frequency or characteristic
equation. Hence the roots are:
The roots are called natural frequencies of the system.
) 10 . 5 (
) )( (
4
) ( ) (
2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
,
2 / 1
2 1
2
2 3 2 2 1
2
2 1
1 3 2 2 2 1
2 1
1 3 2 2 2 1
2
2
2
1
)
`

+ +

)
`

+ + +
)
`

+ + +
=
m m
k k k k k
m m
m k k m k k
m m
m k k m k k

e e
92
The normal modes of vibration corresponding to
1
2
and
2
2
can
be expressed, respectively, as
) 11 . 5 (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) 3 (
3 2
2
2 2
2
2
2 1
2
2 1
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
2
2
3 2
2
1 2
2
2
2 1
2
1 1
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
1
k k m
k
k
k k m
X
X
r
k k m
k
k
k k m
X
X
r
From
+ +
=
+ +
= =
+ +
=
+ +
= =
e
e
e
e
To determine the values of X
1
and X
2
,
) 12 . 5 ( and
) 2 (
1 2
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1 ) 2 (
) 1 (
1 1
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1 ) 1 (

=
X r
X
X
X
X
X r
X
X
X
X

Known as the modal vectors of the system.
93
Modal vector
First mode
Second mode
.
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1 2
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1 1 2 1
X and X as at and
X and X as to correspond X and X of Values
e
e
94
Initial conditions. The initial conditions are
(5.13) mode second
) cos(
) cos(
) (
) (
) (
mode first
) cos(
) cos(
) (
) (
) (
2 2
) 2 (
1 2
2 2
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 1
1 1
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
=

+
+
=

=
=

+
+
=

=
| e
| e
| e
| e
t X r
t X
t x
t x
t x
t X r
t X
t x
t x
t x

The free vibration solution or the motion in time can be

expressed itself as
0 ) 0 ( , ) 0 (
, 0 ) 0 ( constant, some ) 0 (
2
) (
1 2
1
) (
1 1
= = = =
= = = = =
t x X r t x
t x X t x
i
i
i

95
Thus the components of the vector can be expressed
as
) 15 . 5 ( ) cos( ) cos(
) ( ) ( ) (
) cos( ) cos( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
) 2 (
1 2 1 1
) 1 (
1 1
) 2 (
2
) 1 (
2 2
2 2
) 2 (
1 1 1
) 1 (
1
) 2 (
1
) 1 (
1 1
| e | e
| e | e
+ + + =
+ =
+ + + = + =
t X r t X r
t x t x t x
t X t X t x t x t x
where the unknown constants can be determined
from the initial conditions:
96
Substituting into Eq.(5.15) leads to
) 16 . 5 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ), 0 ( ) 0 (
), 0 ( ) 0 ( ), 0 ( ) 0 (
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
x t x x t x
x t x x t x


= = = =
= = = =
) 17 . 5 ( sin sin ) 0 (
cos cos ) 0 (
sin sin ) 0 (
cos cos ) 0 (
2
) 2 (
1 2 2 1
) 1 (
1 1 1 2
2
) 2 (
1 2 1
) 1 (
1 1 2
2
) 2 (
1 2 1
) 1 (
1 1 1
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 1
| e | e
| |
| e | e
| |
X r X r x
X r X r x
X X x
X X x
=
+ =
=
+ =

97
The solution can be expressed as
)
`

=
)
`

=
)
`

+
=
)
`

=
) (
) 0 ( ) 0 (
sin ,
) (
) 0 ( ) 0 (
sin
) 0 ( ) 0 (
cos ,
) 0 ( ) 0 (
cos
1 2 2
2 1 1
2
) 2 (
1
1 2 1
2 1 2
1
) 1 (
1
1 2
2 1 1
2
) 2 (
1
1 2
2 1 2
1
) 1 (
1
r r
x x r
X
r r
x x r
X
r r
x x r
X
r r
x x r
X
e
|
e
|
| |

98
from which we obtain the desired solution
{ } | { } |
{ }
{ }
{ } | { } |
{ }
{ }
) 18 . 5 (
) 0 ( ) 0 ( [
) 0 ( ) 0 (
tan
cos
sin
tan
) 0 ( ) 0 ( [
) 0 ( ) 0 (
tan
cos
sin
tan
) 0 ( ) 0 (
) 0 ( ) 0 (
) (
1
sin cos
) 0 ( ) 0 (
) 0 ( ) 0 (
) (
1
sin cos
2 1 1 2
2 1 1
1
2
) 2 (
1
2
) 2 (
1
1
2
2 1 2 1
2 1 2
1
1
) 1 (
1
1
) 1 (
1
1
1
2 / 1
2
2
2
2 1 1
2
2 1 1
1 2
2 / 1
2
2
) 2 (
1
2
2
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
1
2 / 1
2
1
2
2 1 2
2
2 1 2
1 2
2 / 1
2
1
) 1 (
1
2
1
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
1
)
`

+

=
)
`

=
)
`

+
=
)
`

=
(

+ +

=
+ =
(

=
+ =


x x r
x x r
X
X
x x r
x x r
X
X
x x r
x x r
r r
X X X
x x r
x x r
r r
X X X
e |
|
|
e |
|
|
e
| |
e
| |




99
Example 5.3
Find the free vibration response of the system
shown with k
1
= 30, k
2
= 5, k
3
= 0, m
1
= 10, and
m
2
= 1 for the initial conditions
). 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( , 1 ) 0 (
2 2 1 1
x x x x

= = =
100
Solution: For the given data, the eigenvalue problem,
Eq.(5.8), becomes
(E.1)
0
0
5 5 -
5 35 10
0
0
2
1
2
2
2
1
3 2
2
2 2
2 2 1
2
1
)
`

=
)
`

(
(

+
+
)
`

=
)
`

(
(

+ +
+ +
X
X
X
X
k k m k
k k k m
e
e
e
e
or
101
from which the natural frequencies can be found as
By setting the determinant of the coefficient matrix in
Eq.(E.1) to zero, we obtain the frequency equation,
(E.2) 0 150 85 10
2 4
= + e e
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
2
2
2
2
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
2
1
2
2 1
2
2
2
1
5 ) 1 ( 0 . 6
2 ) 1 ( 5 . 2 Subst
E.3) ( 4495 . 2 , 5811 . 1
0 . 6 , 5 . 2
X X to leads E in
X X to leads E in
= = =
= = =
= =
= =
e e
e e
e e
e e
102
The normal modes (or eigenvectors) are given by
E.5) (
5
1
E.4) (
2
1
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
1
) 2 (
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
2
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
)
`

=
)
`

103
By using the given initial conditions in Eqs.(E.6) and
(E.7), we obtain
The free vibration responses of the masses m
1
and m
2
are given by (see Eq.5.15):
(E.7) ) 4495 . 2 cos( 5 ) 5811 . 1 cos( 2 ) (
(E.6) ) 4495 . 2 cos( ) 5811 . 1 cos( ) (
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 2
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 1
| |
| |
+ + =
+ + + =
t X t X t x
t X t X t x
(E.11) sin 2475 . 12 1622 . 3 ) 0 (
(E.10) sin 4495 . 2 sin 5811 . 1 0 ) 0 (
(E.9) cos 5 cos 2 0 ) 0 (
(E.8) cos cos 1 ) 0 (
2
) 2 (
1
) 1 (
1 2
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 1
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 2
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 1
|
| |
| |
| |
X X t x
X X t x
X X t x
X X t x
+ = =
= = =
= = =
+ = = =

104
while the solution of Eqs.(E.10) and (E.11) leads to
The solution of Eqs.(E.8) and (E.9) yields
(E.12)
7
2
cos ;
7
5
cos
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1
= = | | X X
(E.13) 0 sin , 0 sin
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1
= = | | X X
Equations (E.12) and (E.13) give
(E.14) 0 , 0 ,
7
2
,
7
5
2 1
) 2 (
1
) 1 (
1
= = = = | | X X
105
Thus the free vibration responses of m
1
and m
2
are
given by
(E.16) 4495 . 2 cos
7
10
5811 . 1 cos
7
10
) (
(E.15) 4495 . 2 cos
7
2
5811 . 1 cos
7
5
) (
2
1
t t t x
t t t x
=
+ =
106
Free Vibration of an Undamped 2-DOF
System
k
2
k
1
x
1
x
2
m
1
m
2
1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1
1 1 1 2 1 2 2
( ) 0
( ) 0
m x k x k x x F
m x k k x k x
+ = =
+ + =
2 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 2 1 2 2
( ) 0
0
m x k x x F
m x k x k x
+ = =
+ =
1 1 1 2 1 2 2
2 2 2 1 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2
( ) 0
0
can be written in matrix
0 ( ) 0
0 0
m x k k x k x
m x k x k x
m x k k k x
m x k k x
+ + =
+ =
+
( (
+ =
` ` `
( (

) ) )
1 1 2 2
sin( ) sin( ) x A t x A t e e = =
2 2
1 1 2 2
sin( ) sin( ) x A t x A t e e e e = =
107
1 1 1 2 2 1
2 2 2 2 2
0 ( ) 0
0 0
m x k k k x
m x k k x
+
( (
+ =
` ` `
( (

) ) )
1 1
2 2
sin( )
sin( )
x A t
x A t
e
e
=
=
2
1 1
2
2 2
sin( )
sin( )
x A t
x A t
e e
e e
=
=
2
1 1 2 2 1 1
2
2 2 2 2 2
( ) 0 0
0 0
A k k k A m
A k k A m
e
e
+ ( (
+ =
` ` ` ( (

) ) )
2
1 2 1 2
1
2
2
2 2 2
( )
0
0
k k m k
A
A
k k m
e
e
(
( +


(
=
` `
(
( ) )


Can be solved
only if
2
1 2 1 2
2
2 2 2
( )
0
k k m k
k k m
e
e
( +

=
(

108
| |
2
1 2 1 2
2
2 2 2
4 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
( )
0
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
k k m k
k k m
mm k k m k m k k k k
e
e
e e
( +

=
(

+ + + + =
| | | |
2
2
1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) 4( ) ( )
,
2( )
k k m k m k k m k m mm k k k k
mm
e e
( + + + + +

=
1 1
2 2
first natural frequency
first natural frequency
n
n
e e
e e
= =
= =
109
2
1 2 1 1 2
1
2
2
2 2 2 1
( )
0
0
n
n
k k m k
A
A
k k m
e
e
(
( +


(
=
` `
(
( ) )


1
at first natural frequency =
n
e e
2 (1) (1)
1 2 1 1 1 2 2
( ) 0
n
k k m A k A e ( + =

2 (1)
1 2 1 1 2
1
(1)
1 2
( )
n
k k m A
r
A k
e +
= =
2 (2) (2)
1 2 1 2 1 2 2
( ) 0
n
k k m A k A e ( + =

2 (2)
1 2 1 2 2
2
(2)
1 2
( )
n
k k m A
r
A k
e +
= =
Modal vector
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
2 1 1
A A
A r A


= =
` `

) )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
A
(2) (2)
(2) 1 1
(2) (2)
2 2 1
A A
A r A

= =
` `
) )
A
First mode
Second mode
110
k
k
x
1
x
2
m
m
For a case
| |
2 4 2 2
( ) 3 0 m km k e e + =
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
3 9 4 3 5
2 2
3 5 3 5
2 4 2 4
1.618
0.618
n
n
n
km k m m k km m k
m m
k k k k
m m m m
k
m
k
m
e
e
e
+ +
= =
= + = +
=
=
| |
4 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 mm k k m k m k k k k e e + + + + =
m
1
= m
2
= m
k
1
= k
2
= k
111
Mode shapes
(1) 2
2
(1)
1
(2 ) (1.618) ( / )
0.618
A k m k m
A k

= =
(1) 2
2
(1)
1
(2 ) (0.618) ( / )
1.618
A k m k m
A k

= =
1.0
-0.618
1.0
1.618
1
1.0
0.618
|

=
`

)
2
1.0
1.618
|

=
`
)
112
Free vibration with initial conditions
For a specific condition, the system can be made to
vibrate in its ith normal mode (i = 1, 2) by subjecting it to
the specific initial conditions
. 0 ) 0 (
, ) 0 (
, 0 ) 0 (
constant, some ) 0 (
2
) (
1 2
1
) (
1 1
= =
= =
= =
= = =
t x
A r t x
t x
A t x
i
i
i

113
However, for any other general initial conditions, both
modes will be excited. The resulting motion can be
obtained by a linear superposition of the two normal
modes
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1
t x c t x c t x

+ =
) cos( ) cos( ) ( ) ( ) (
) cos( ) cos( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
) 2 (
1 2 1 1
) 1 (
1 1
) 2 (
2
) 1 (
2 2
2 2
) 2 (
1 1 1
) 1 (
1
) 2 (
1
) 1 (
1 1
| e | e
| e | e
+ + + = + =
+ + + = + =
t A r t A r t x t x t x
t A t A t x t x t x
as expressed be can vector the of components the Thus
. generality of loss no with choose can we and
constants unknown the involve already and Since
constants. are and where
) (
1 ,
) ( ) (

2 1
) 2 (
1
) 1 (
1
) 2 ( ) 1 (
2 1
t x
c c A A
t x t x
c c

= =
114
: conditions initial the from
determined be can and constants unknown the where
2 1
) 2 (
1
) 1 (
1
, , | | A A
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ), 0 ( ) 0 (
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ), 0 ( ) 0 (
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
x t x x t x
x t x x t x


= = = =
= = = =
2
) 2 (
1 2 2 1
) 1 (
1 1 1 2
2
) 2 (
1 2 1
) 1 (
1 1 2
2
) 2 (
1 2 1
) 1 (
1 1 1
2
) 2 (
1 1
) 1 (
1 1
sin sin ) 0 (
cos cos ) 0 (
sin sin ) 0 (
cos cos ) 0 (
| e | e
| |
| e | e
| |
A r A r x
A r A r x
A A x
A A x
=
+ =
=
+ =

Example
115
116
117
118
Example
119
120
121
122