Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
660–682, 2003
2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Printed in Great Britain
0160-7383/03/$30.00
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doi:10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00045-8
Abstract: Recent examination of the content of Third World tourism marketing still lacks
discussion concerning context. In this paper, an analysis of brochures representing different
Third World countries reveals distinct patterns of marketing images occurring across these
destinations. Postcolonial theory is used as a critical, contextual perspective to interpret these
patterns. Three Third World tourism ‘Un’ myths are discussed: the myth of the unchanged,
the myth of the unrestrained, and the myth of the uncivilized. It is shown that the represen-
tations surrounding these myths replicate colonial forms of discourse, emphasizing certain
binaries between the First and Third Worlds and maintaining broader geopolitical power
structures. Keywords: Third World, tourism marketing, context, postcolonial theory, myth,
representation. 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
INTRODUCTION
The marketing of Third World countries for tourism is increasingly
common, and the fastest growing destinations are in these regions.
Currently, about 30% of all international tourist arrivals are in the
Third World and this proportion has nearly tripled over the past 20
years (World Tourism Organization 1999). However, over the last few
decades, there has been mounting criticism of the portrayal of these
Charlotte Echtner completed this research while a Ph.D student in the Faculty of Manage-
ment, University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4. Email <cechtner@hot-
mail.com>). Her areas of interest include destination image and Third World tourism. Push-
kala Prasad holds the Zankel Chair in Management and the Liberal Arts at Skidmore College,
USA. Her areas of expertise include organization theory and qualitative research.
660
ECHTNER AND PRASAD 661
Preparatory Methods
Countries were selected from a total of 130 defined as the Third
World by the World Bank (1996). From this set, 30 were chosen based
on high tourism earnings (as ranked by the World Tourism Organiza-
tion 1996) and amount spent on promotion (World Tourism Organiza-
tion 1995). These countries were then grouped into five regions and
a sample of 12 selected based upon geographic representation. These
included Costa Rica and Ecuador (Latin America); Jamaica and Cuba
(the Caribbean); Fiji (Pacific Islands); China, Thailand, and India
(Asia); Egypt and Turkey (North Africa/Middle East); and Kenya and
Namibia (Sub-Saharan Africa).
A sample of 223 brochures was collected from 47 North American
travel agencies. Collection continued until a saturation point
(additional travel agency visits did not produce new brochures) was
reached for each of the 12 destinations contained in the study. Sub-
sequently, brochures with small amounts of verbal and visual data were
eliminated, resulting in 115 brochures for the 12 countries.
While this data set is probably the most comprehensive attempt to
date to examine Third World tourism marketing, it inevitably has limi-
tations. Obviously, not all Third World “tourism oriented” countries
are included in the collection, although an attempt is made to cover
the widest possible geographic regions. In a similar vein, data gathering
is limited to the brochures produced in a sample of the North Amer-
ican marketplace. While postcolonial theory would predict that the
stereotypical images uncovered in this study will be replicated across
other Third World destinations and in other First World promotional
material (for example, a set of European brochures), such additional
data sets provide an interesting area for further examination.
Next, the verbal and visual components of the data set were meticu-
lously inventoried. In the verbal analysis, the nouns, verbs, and descrip-
tors (such as adjectives and adverbs) in the text were recorded. Nouns
ECHTNER AND PRASAD 663
a
Only the most common representations across country clusters provided: for full details
of data by country, refer to Echtner (2002).
the distinctions drawn between the First and Third Worlds. Specifically,
postcolonial theory provides a critical perspective that draws attention
to the power structures constructed and maintained via forms of dis-
course. As Gandhi points out, discourses exercise power through rep-
resentation; they “control and delimit both the mode and the means of
representation in a given society” (1998:77). According to postcolonial
theory, colonial discourse—the form of discourse popularized during
the colonial eras of expansion and exploitation—continues to domi-
nate any form of representation of the Third World by the First World
(Mishra and Hodge 1991).
Said’s (1978) seminal work, Orientalism, is one of the first detailed
examinations of colonial discourse and is generally regarded as the
principle catalyst for the development of postcolonial theory. In his
book, he demonstrates how the texts produced during the colonization
of the East created a type of colonial discourse, which he labeled
“Orientalism”. He contends that its language was used to portray the
East as mysterious, exotic, sensual, splendid, cruel, despotic, and sly.
According to Said, such discourse reflected an ideology which
expounded the superiority of the Western world. A power relation was
defined by creating a boundary between the West and the East through
a series of hierarchical binary oppositions, where the former was rep-
resented as forward and advancing, with the latter thus being systemati-
cally constituted as backward and stagnant (or decaying). He con-
cludes that such juxtapositions were used to encourage and justify the
exploration, exploitation, colonization, and “civilization” of the East.
It should be noted that the term Oriental has a mixed history in
Western scholarship. For most of the 19th and early 20th century, it
was a relatively commonplace word used to refer to specific geographi-
cal areas and cultures typically comprising all of the Middle East and
most of Asia. Said’s work brought the term into provocative promin-
ence by uncovering both its pejorative and romantic elements that
emerged in the complicated encounter between the colonial European
powers and the Middle East. This paper’s use of the term refers to
specific geographical sites, but it also carries many of the connotations
first surfaced by Said.
Over the past two decades, postcolonial theory has evolved by exam-
ining many other forms and facets of colonial discourse. Perhaps the
most comprehensive compilation of influential postcolonial theory wri-
tings is available in the volume entitled The Post-Colonial Studies Reader
(Ashcroft et al 1995). This substantial collection of studies provides an
indication of the extensive usage of postcolonial theory by a variety
of disciplines. More recently, Said’s notion of Orientalism has been
expanded by others into that of “Tropicalization”, a term used to
denote a set of discursive bifurcations between the cultures from so-
called temperate and tropical zones. While Tropicalization is seen as
being more prevalent with respect to Caribbean and Latin-American
countries, it also constitutes tropical cultures as sensual, luxuriant, ple-
asure-seeking, and profoundly idle (Aparicio and Chavez-Silverman
2000).
From a broader ontological perspective, postcolonial theorists draw
668 THIRD WORLD MARKETING
Interpreting Context
The interpretation of the context of Third World tourism marketing
is based on the results of the preparatory methods. The unique pat-
terns of representation exhibited for each of the three country clus-
ters—the unchanged (Oriental cluster), the unrestrained (sea/sand
cluster), and the uncivilized (frontier cluster)—(Table 1)—can be
used to reveal certain overarching tourism myths underlying the mar-
keting of these destinations. Postcolonial theory provides a critical,
contextual perspective to revisit and interpret each cluster under the
heading of a corresponding myth.
As already explained, a postcolonial theory perspective provides an
interpretation of context that is focused on the distinctions drawn
between the First and Third Worlds. Of particular interest are the rep-
resentations that replicate colonial forms of discourse and emphasize
ECHTNER AND PRASAD 669
Said further notes that colonial discourse about the Orient inevitably
suggests that these places are past their prime: “[t]heir great moments
were in the past; they are useful in the modern world only because
the powerful and up-to-date empires have effectively brought them out
of the wretchedness of their decline” (1978:35). Thus, the modern
First World tourists are encouraged to feast on the past built glories
of these Third World destinations, for apparently these features—and
not their present day state—are the most worthy of their gaze.
According to Said, negative themes surrounding the Orient are also
present in colonial discourse, including cruelty, deceit, laziness, and
despotism. While these themes are widely emphasized in many other
current representations of the Third World (including the media,
popular literature, cinema), they are largely eliminated from tourism
marketing. A similar lack of negative imagery and sanitized represen-
tations in Third World marketing has already been noted in previous
research (Britton 1979; Dann 1996a; Wilson 1994). These omissions
are to be expected since tourism promotion, like most forms of market-
ing, is designed to sell a product. As such, the myths borrow only selec-
tive marketable stereotypes from Oriental representations, by embel-
lishing positive aspects and de-emphasizing those aspects not
advantageous to the myth. In the process, the tourist is attracted to the
destination by a set of pleasurable images. But these selected marketing
representations are nonetheless instrumental in reinforcing ideologies
that “... are grounded in [the] relations of power, dominance and sub-
ordination which characterize the global system” (Morgan and Pritch-
ard 1998:3).
Specifically, the myth of the Unchanged reinforces several binary
relationships between the First and Third Worlds. These binaries
include changed/unchanged, modern/ancient, and advancing/
decaying. As a result, there are necessary and significant silences sur-
rounding any aspects of change, modernity, and advancement (the
latter two terms always being defined from the Western perspective).
Overall, the myth draws upon a highly pre-defined caricature of these
places; it hinges on the embellished essences and aesthetic stereotypes
of Orientalism. As such, the representations must ensure that these
destinations remain fixed in a time and place that is classically and
pleasingly Oriental.
In more general terms, postcolonial theory suggests that the rep-
resentation of the Third World in any context (whether popular litera-
ture, the media, or tourism promotion) cannot be separated from col-
onial discourse. Seen from this perspective, the current images are
simply reiterative, reflecting and reinforcing historically embedded col-
onial myths. As Gandhi points out, there is a “persisting Western inter-
est in the...production of what we might call exotic culture[s]”
(1998:59–60). Therefore, tourism representations adopt the myths and
also serve as another vehicle that continues to perpetuate them.
Taken to an ontological level, the implication is that social reality
continues to be defined and represented from a First World perspec-
tive. As Said argues, “Orientalism is a style of thought based upon an
ontological and epistemological distinction made between ‘the Orient’
672 THIRD WORLD MARKETING
and (most of the time) ‘the Occident’ ... because of Orientalism the
Orient was not (and is not) a free subject of thought or action”
(1995:88–89). Seen at this level, tourism marketing is one of the many
forms of Third World representation that, in sometimes subtle but
nonetheless serious ways, serves to maintain and reinforce colonial dis-
course and the power relations and ideology it fosters. At a more tan-
gible level, these images move beyond the domains of tourism into
different spheres of policymaking where the Orient, by virtue of its
unchangeability is also regarded as being incapable of keeping up with
the times and thus constantly in need of Western assistance and con-
trol.
The Myth of the Unrestrained. While the myth of the Unchanged
focuses on legendary lands, the myth of the unrestrained takes the
tourist to the luxuriant lands of the sea/sand destinations (such as
Cuba, Fiji, and Jamaica). As the middle column of Table 1 illustrates,
these are places with both very select natural and built attractions: ver-
dant tropical beaches, the best resorts, and serving, entertaining hosts.
Naturally, this surrounding environment entices the tourist to be self-
indulgent and sensuous. These characteristic representations are
presented in Figure 2.
The myth of the unrestrained is the overarching theme that affects
all other representations of these Third World countries, whether
referring to natural, built, or host/tourist characteristics. In these desti-
nations, the tourist enters not the opulent past, as in the myth of the
unchanged, but a present paradise. These are places where nature is
pristine and never harsh, where the people are friendly and never
unwilling to cater to every tourist need, and where the resorts offer
amenities to satisfy every sensual desire, whether active or passive.
Unlike the myth of the unchanged, these places are not mystical and
strange, but completely comprehensible and comfortable.
The myth of the unrestrained depicts Third World destinations as
fully available for the indulgent. The tourists (described as sunseekers,
lovers, and sportspersons) expect to have unfettered access to abun-
dant nature, well-equipped amenities, and submissive (be it serving or
smiling) hosts. Whereas the myth of the unchanged perpetuates the
idea of colonial exploration, the myth of the unrestrained, in many
ways, presents a romanticized version of colonial exploitation. This
exploitative aspect of the portrayal of paradise in Third World desti-
nations has already been extensively noted (Britton 1979; Crick 1989;
Dann 1996a; Palmer 1994; Sturma 1999; Wilson 1994).
Britton (1979) takes a critical stance on these themes of paradise.
He notes that “[t]he tourism industry continues to portray these places
as ‘paradise,’ ‘unspoiled,’ ‘sensuous,’ or other distortions, presumably
to compensate for the obvious poverty beyond the hotel or sightseeing
bus” (Britton 1979:318). Obviously, the aspect of poverty is not con-
ducive to paradise and so must remain absent from the represen-
tations. In a similar vein, Dann remarks that “one can easily see the
disadvantages of including the raw nature elements of an exotic trop-
ical destination...since if these items were featured, it would be neces-
sary to refer to torrential rain, hurricanes, cockroaches, poisonous
ECHTNER AND PRASAD 673
CONCLUSION
By focusing on the context of Third World marketing, this paper
directs attention to the why of these forms of representation. Using a
postcolonial theory perspective, insights are provided into the origins
and tenacity of the discourse embedded in tourism promotion. In
particular, as the discussion in this paper reveals, these forms of mar-
keting are infused with colonial discourse sustaining myths of the
unchanged, unrestrained, and uncivilized. This facet of context draws
attention to a colonial legacy of certain attitudes, images, and stereo-
types that continue to be reflected and reified.
Stemming from the results of this study, there are many areas for
future research. Further studies could examine the extent to which
the myths are replicated in other Third World destinations or in other
forms of First World marketing, for example, the internet. The conse-
quences of these forms of marketing discourse for both tourists and
680 THIRD WORLD MARKETING
hosts are also fertile areas for future research. In addition, alternate
readings of the promotional material from feminist and cultural stud-
ies perspectives would provide insight into the complex ways that gen-
der and race are interwoven into colonial discourse. But perhaps most
importantly, attention now needs to be turned to the forms of counter-
colonial discourse needed to resist these representations.
However, as the means of resistance to colonial discourse are con-
sidered, some of the most significant shortcomings of postcolonial
theory are confronted. As noted by Ashcroft et al, the how of resistance
constitutes one of the final stumbling blocks for postcolonial theorists:
“[a]ll are agreed, in some sense, that the main problem is how to effect
agency for the postcolonial subject. But the contentious issue of how
this is to be attained remains unresolved” (1995:9). In addition, the
issue of who should/can author counter-colonial discourse is perhaps
even more problematic. In one of the most influential pieces of post-
colonial writing, Gayatri Spivak (1985) asks the question “Can the Subal-
tern Speak?”, suggesting that the most powerless subalterns are often
not ready or able to speak, at least not without the considerable inter-
ference of the more powerful. Thus, while it is laudable to suggest
more local participation in order to wrest the control of Third World
representation from First World tourism marketers, postcolonial
theory forewarns of some of the very troublesome issues ahead.
The above points are not made to dissuade further research into
the how and who of counter-colonial discourse in Third World tourism
marketing. Nor are they intended to discredit the usefulness of postcol-
onial theory in that endeavor. On the contrary, the means of resisting
the Un-myths are critical areas for future study since these represen-
tations demean Third World places and people. The writings of post-
colonial theorists, especially their efforts towards resistance and coun-
ter-colonial forms of discourse, are an invaluable resource that this
future research should draw upon. While this paper does not offer
much insight in this direction, it has introduced postcolonial theory
as a valuable perspective for creating a critical awareness of context.
The uncovering of the myths, and their colonial underpinnings, pro-
vides an impetus for investigating change. Now that the current forms
of Third World marketing are better understood, the rather thorny
paths to resistance remain to be explored.왎 A
Acknowledgements—Funding for this research was provided by the Social Sciences and
Humanities Research Council of Canada.
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