CHAPTER 3 CORE DAMAGE: CAUSES AND PREVENTION

Chap 3 Core Damage.DOC

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CONTENTS : CHAPTER 3

1. 2.

INTRODUCTION FLUID SATURATION ALTERATION

2.1 During Coring 2.2 During Core Retrieval 2.3 At the Wellsite/Laboratory

1 2
2 3 4

3.

ROCK TEXTURAL PROPERTY DAMAGE

3.1 Stress Damage 3.2 Unconsolidated Core

8
8 9

4.

WETTABILITY ALTERATION
4.1 Wettability Definition 4.2 Native Wettability and Controls 4.3 Wettability Alteration 4.3.1 Contact With Drilling Mud 4.3.2 Pressure and Temperature Loss on Core Recovery 4.3.3 Oil Oxidation 4.3.4 Core Cleaning 4.3.5 Core Testing 4.3.6 In Situ Wettability Estimation 4.3.7 Laboratory Measurements

13
13 14 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 18

5.

CLAYS AND CLAY DAMAGE MECHANISMS

5.1 Clay Structures 5.2 Clay Morphology and Rock Property Controls 5.2.1 Rock Property Alteration

22
22 24 24

6.

REFERENCES

28

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FIGURES CHAPTER 3

Figure 2-1: Saturation Alteration WBM in Oil Reservoir ..................................................... 5 Figure 2-2: Saturation Alteration WBM in Gas Reservoir .................................................... 5 Figure 2-3: Saturation Alteration OBM in Oil Reservoir ...................................................... 6 Figure 2-4: Conventional Core Bit............................................................................................ 6 Figure 2-5: Low Invasion Core Bit ........................................................................................... 7 Figure 3-1: Foam Stabilisation of Unconsolidated Core (Courtesy Kirk Petrophysics)......... 10 Figure 3-2: Liquid Nitrogen Plugging..................................................................................... 11 Figure 3-3: Example Unconsolidated Plug Assembly ............................................................ 12 Figure 4-1: Wettability Concepts ............................................................................................ 19 Figure 4-2: Cryogenic SEM Photomicrograph ....................................................................... 19 Figure 4-3: Effects of Oil-Based Mud on Spontaneous Imbibition (Bobek13) ........................ 20 Figure 4-4: Effects of Oil-Based Mud on Spontaneous Imbibition (Stiles 14).......................... 20 Figure 4-5: Core Preservation Cylinder (Corex)..................................................................... 21 Figure 4-6: Idealised Free Water Level Contact Relationships ........................................... 21 Figure 5-1: SEM Photomicrograph - Illite .............................................................................. 25 Figure 5-2: SEM Photomicrograph Kaolinite ...................................................................... 25 Figure 5-3: SEM Photomicrographs - Chlorite ....................................................................... 26 Figure 5-4: Neashams Categories of Authigenic Clays......................................................... 26 Figure 5-5: Typical Poroperm Relationships (from Neasham)............................................... 27 Figure 5-6: Typical Capillary Pressure Relationships (from Neasham) ................................. 27

Chap 3 Core Damage.DOC

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1.

Introduction

Logs and welltests respond to reservoir rock properties at in-situ conditions and, with the exception of shallow depth of investigation logging tools (e.g. in a flushed zone), provide data on relatively undisturbed rock properties. The actions involved in taking a core, bringing it to the surface, taking plug samples, then preparing and processing the samples in an analytical laboratory will cause damage to the rock. The extent of the damage might be small (e.g. in relatively clean sandstones in a gas reservoir) or it may be large (e.g. in shaly sandstones in a relatively heavy oil reservoir. Core damage (and subsequent rock property alteration) can occur: during coring, through release of overburden stress and through mud filtrate invasion; during core recovery, as fluid pressure is released and overburden pressure relaxes; during handling at wellsite, through lack of core preservation and manhandling and transporting the core; during sampling in the laboratory, due to core plugging ; during core preparation, through inappropriate or inefficient core cleaning and drying techniques; during testing, through the use of inappropriate fluids or test techniques. Core damage manifests itself in 4 principal ways: alteration of the spatial and volumetric distribution of fluids within the reservoir rock; alteration of the rocks mechanical structure (rock integrity); alteration of the rocks texture and mineralogical properties; alteration of the rocks wettability. Understanding these damage mechanisms and the nature of the damage that can occur to a core sample are essential to our understanding of relationships between core analysis data and other reservoir data sources.

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2.

Fluid Saturation Alteration

2.1 During Coring In an oil or gas reservoir, the fluid distribution (water and oil or gas) saturation will be controlled by capillary pressure. During coring with either an oil-based mud (OBM) or water-based mud (WBM) system, mud filtrate will enter the pore system of the rock as it is being cored, altering the initial volumetric and spatial fluid distribution. The degree of mud filtrate invasion will depend upon coring bit design, drilling rate, the rheological properties of the mud, and the rock properties such as porosity, capillary pressure, wettability, and both the absolute and relative permeability. Figure 2-1, Figure 2-2, and Figure 2-3 provide schematic representations of the changes in saturation that occur during coring for both oil and gas reservoirs. For example, when drilling with a WBM in the irreducible water zone (oil leg), the relative permeability to WBM filtrate at high oil or gas saturations will be low and so the amount of fluid flushing might be small. However as the overbalance increases, filtrate enters the core and the water saturation increases, so it is easier for WBM to invade deeper into the core as the relative permeability to water increases. This will result in oil being flushed from the core towards residual oil saturation. On core recovery, gas in the oil expands and drives off both oil and invaded WBM filtrate. So the oil and water may be reduced towards residual saturation. WBM flushing in the water leg may result in partial or complete replacement of the connate water with filtrate. There is always a limited amount of gas dissolved in the formation water, which will expand and drive off some water on core recovery. If the core is oil wet, WBM invasion may be restricted, especially in low permeability formations. In gas reservoirs, drilled with WBM, similar processes apply. WBM filtrate will flush the core towards residual gas saturation. Gas expands on core recovery, displacing the WBM filtrate towards residual water saturation. When drilling with an OBM in the irreducible water zone of a water-wet gas or oil reservoir rock, the relative permeability to OBM filtrate will be high so that OBM may be able to thoroughly flush the core. However, since the water is at immobile saturation, the water saturation should remain unaltered unless surfactants in the mud system lower the interfacial tension between oil and water and result in mobilisation of irreducible water, or the core is allowed to dry out. In the absence of IFT effects, the irreducible water saturation in the core, measured at surface, will be the same as that in the reservoir before coring. In the water leg and towards the base of the transition zone, OBM filtrate is expected to drive the water towards residual saturation. Gas expansion on core recovery will also drive off OBM filtrate and mobile water. The result is that core saturation measurements at surface conditions will show little difference between oil leg and water leg samples. In the transition zone through the water zone, the relative permeability to oil will be low, so OBM filtrate invasion will be restricted. However, if the mud pressure is sufficiently high (overbalance drilling) filtrate will be forced into the pore system.

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The coring penetration rate also controls the degree of invasion. The faster the core enters the barrel, the less invasion it undergoes, apparently regardless of mud system type. When drilling with conventional core bits (e.g. Figure 2-4) filtrate invasion occurs ahead of the bit (filtrate bank), in the throat of the bit and in the core barrel (static invasion) during coring and core recovery. The bit cutters cut into the external and internal filter cakes thereby exposing the formation to rapid filtrate intrusion which can result in a complete flushing of the core with filtrate. OBM filtrate also damages the native wettability. To minimise filtrate invasion, low invasion core bits are often used (Figure 2-5). These cut as fast as possible without breaking the formation apart and direct the flow discharge away from the core, rather than towards it. The cutters are designed to produce a deep cut that removes the initial filtrate spurt. The faster penetration rate reduces the core exposure time, and the core head is designed to sweep mud away from the core. The amount of invasion within the core can be established by doping the coring fluid with tracers such as deuterium oxide 1, tritium, or potassium bromide. The latter is also used to dope mud to determine mud invasion in RFT/MDT samples and can also be conveniently used to determine mud invasion in core. Subsequent fluid extraction measurements on recovered core samples (e.g. Dean-Stark for a WBM system) can determine the amount of tracer per unit volume of fluid in the core and so quantify the amount of invasion and potential fluid and rock property alteration. As discussed in the previous chapter, the use of an encapsulated gel coring system cal also help to reduce invasion. 2.2 During Core Retrieval As the core is brought to the surface, the hydrocarbon fluid will expand and, in an oil reservoir, gas will be liberated when the oil is brought below the bubble point. Gas liberation or expansion provides a force which will cause displacement of both the native fluids and the invaded mud filtrate. Subsequent extraction saturation measurements of water and/or oil saturation in an oil reservoir core will therefore indicate a gas saturation, even although there may be no gas cap in the reservoir. Depending upon the magnitude of driving force and the formation wettability, water, for example, can be driven back towards irreducible saturations, so that subsequent water saturation measurements may be close to the reservoir value. If an OBM has been used, hydrocarbon expansion will not affect the water saturation in the irreducible water zone, since no amount of pressure should be able to mobilise the water. However, if the OBM had a high surfactant concentration, this can reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water, so that the irreducible water might now be mobilised, reducing the water saturation. Gas evolution can cause mechanical damage to cores from loosely consolidated formations, but this can be minimised by pulling the last few hundred feet of the core barrel string very slowly. The use of pressurised core barrels and sponge coring provides a means to prevent loss of oil from the core on hydrocarbon expansion on core recovery or to retain the moveable oil normally lost to the mud system on coring and core recovery.
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Both sponge core and pressurised core barrels are often used to determine oil-in-place in depleted zones prior to improved oil recovery project evaluation. 2.3 At the Wellsite/Laboratory At the surface at the wellsite, or back in the laboratory, unprotected core is exposed to air. Consequently the saturation in the core can be altered through evaporation. Preserving the core provides an opportunity to prevent further fluid loss as well as other forms of core damage. The use of liners can aid in preventing fluid loss as well as other forms of mechanical and physio-chemical core damage. End caps are placed over the each section of liner, so that exposure of the core to air and fluid loss are minimised during wellsite operations and transportation to the laboratory. If the rock is competent, the core can usually be easily pushed out of aluminium or fibreglass liners. However if the rock is weak, extracting the core will result in unacceptable disturbance, so in this case, plug samples are often taken through the liner prior to removing the core, and the liners must be carefully cut open to reveal the core.

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Oil 75%

Water 25%

Oil

Water

Oil 15%

Gas

Water 30%

Oil Shrinks Gas Expands

Reservoir Water Zone Filtrate Invasion Core Recovery

Surface

Water

Water

Gas

Water 75-90 %

Figure 2-1: Saturation Alteration WBM in Oil Reservoir

Gas 70%

Water 30%

Gas

Water

Gas

Water 30%

Gas Expands

Reservoir Water Zone Filtrate Invasion Core Recovery

Surface

Water

Water

Gas

Water

70-95 %

Figure 2-2: Saturation Alteration WBM in Gas Reservoir

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Oil
75%

Swi 25%

Oil

Swi 25%

Oil

Gas

Swi 25%

Oil Shrinks Gas Expands

25%

Reservoir Water Zone Filtrate Invasion Core Recovery

Surface

Water

Oil

Water 35 %

Oil
30%

Gas

Water 30%

Figure 2-3: Saturation Alteration OBM in Oil Reservoir

Figure 2-4: Conventional Core Bit

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Figure 2-5: Low Invasion Core Bit

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3.

Rock Textural Property Damage

Rock texture is defined as those properties that are concerned with grain to grain relationships. The major textural properties that are of concern in core analysis include: Grain size Grain sorting Grain shape/roundness Grain orientation/packing Diagenesis

These textural properties not only have an impact on the basic rock properties such as porosity and permeability, but influence core electrical properties, pore size distribution and capillary pressure data, rock compressibility, fluid distribution and fluid flow behaviour. By virtue of their structure and location within the rock pore network, clays can be easily damaged and the rock properties readily altered. 3.1 Stress Damage During coring, at some distance below the coring bit, the vertical stress starts to reduce as the bit is approaching from above, with little or no change in the horizontal stress. When the bit comes closer, and as the core is drilled free from the surrounding rock, the horizontal stress is also released. Depending upon the shape of the core bit, there will be a zone of compression underneath the teeth of the bit and a zone of vertical tension around the external side of the core, just above the bit. Stress release causes the grains to relax increasing both the pore volume and bulk volume leading to an increase in porosity. As the pore space increases on stress release so the permeability increases. This porosity and permeability measurements on core plugs recovered at surface will be higher than those at reservoir conditions under reservoir appropriate stress. In addition and depending upon the rock strength characteristics, tensile failure can also occur as the stress is released. This leads to the formation of microcracks, and these cracks will be oriented in the direction perpendicular to the maximum in situ stress. If the stress situation at some point exceeds the failure strength for the core, the rock may fail macroscopically, often with a disced appearance 2. If the stresses exceed the yield envelope of the rock, permanent mechanical damage can occur, without necessarily causing visible mechanical damage. Since it looks intact, the core will be used for petrophysical property measurements but the results of these analyses may be invalid. In low permeability rocks, the pore pressure is released more slowly than the lithostatic stress. This implies that tensile failure may occur within the core as it is recovered. This is a problem with high viscosity oils (slow fluid drainage) and in low permeability reservoirs (e.g. chalk).
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Minerals within rocks have different coefficients of thermal expansion. Depending upon the rock mineralogy, this can lead to microcrack formation on cooling as the core is brought back to the surface. 3.2 Unconsolidated Core For unconsolidated core material, disturbance of the rock fabric and texture during core handling is probably the most serious cause of erroneous core measurements. Every effort must be made to preserve the rock texture and fabric. There are three main methods that are used to achieve this: freezing; resination; elastomer sleeving, and; foam or gypsum injection Core freezing is a procedure that nearly all operators use with a degree of unease. Freezing prevents further loss of volatiles and prevents alteration of the rock fabric on handling. However, during freezing water expands so that ice crystals can disrupt the core and increase porosity and permeability 3. It has been shown 4 that freezing increases permeability when the initial value is below 2 Darcies and decreases it when the initial value is above 2 Darcies. The rate of freezing also affects the size of the ice crystals - the faster the freezing rate the smaller the ice crystals and the less potential damage might be caused. Freezing is inefficient if liquid saturations are low, or if the freezing points of liquids are below temperatures which can be easily be achieved at wellsite. The cost of storing large amounts of core at low temperatures can also be prohibitive. Other problems with freezing are that core is often frozen on receipt by the laboratory not at wellsite- so damage may have occurred on transport to the lab; and that all plugs should be taken when the core is frozen as successive freezing/thawing cycles can seriously disrupt and weaken the core, and preclude further plugs being taken. Resination is another method used to stabilise unconsolidated cores. The annular space between the core and the inner liner of the core barrel is filled with self polymerising liquid plastic or rapid hardening resin. The plastic or resin secures the core to the liner and preserves the morphology of beds and bed contacts. It is claimed5 that this method results in less disturbance of the rock fabric and sedimentary structures, and fewer uncertainties in measurement of petrophysical properties. Although handling and storage costs are much reduced compared to freezing, chemical contamination of the core by resin components means that wettability and fluid property measurements on the core can be unrepresentative. The elastomer sleeving technique is claimed6 to provide clear advantages over freezing and resination techniques. The technique preserves the structure of unconsolidated core by application of a small confining stress to the rock samples. Short lengths of cut core are displaced into expanded rubber sleeves with specially designed end caps which are then allowed to contract onto the core. This confinement results in an enhanced shear strength to the material sediment, and hence resistance to damage. However, the technique can be expensive for preservation of large amounts of core, requires expensive and disposable precision elastomer sleeves, and requires considerable skill and specialist tools to apply the
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sleeves at wellsite. It cannot be effectively used where the core has been retained by liners, and would not be effective if the core has been damaged during coring or on handling of the barrel at wellsite. Foam or gypsum stabilisation techniques generally involve drilling holes (Figure 3-1) in the liner to allow for injection of the foam/gypsum and to permit expulsion of any remaining drilling mud, which is pushed out ahead of the foam. Foam expands into the voids and down the annulus encapsulating the core in a cushion of foam. The foam sets quickly and is noninvasive and non-absorbent.

Figure 3-1: Foam Stabilisation of Unconsolidated Core (Courtesy Kirk Petrophysics)

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Care is also required when taking plug samples from unconsolidated core if sample disturbance is to be avoided. There are two principal techniques used to plug unconsolidated core: liquid nitrogen drilling; and, plunge cutting Liquid nitrogen drilling is used where the core is too weak to survive conventional plugging. Conventional drill press and core plug bit equipment are used but liquid nitrogen is used as the coolant (Figure 3-2).

Figure 3-2: Liquid Nitrogen Plugging The cores are then stored in specially designed coreholders under a nominal confining pressure and allowed to thaw. Normally the plugs are cleaned in the coreholders by cold solvent flushing. This eliminates one handling stage. If the technique is used in unfrozen cores, contact with liquid nitrogen might cause damage to the plug material as a result of ice formation. Plunge cutting involves forcing a special core bit with a chisel edge into the rock then extracting the sample by carefully twisting the bit. Provided the cutting edge of the plunge cutting bit is designed to deflect the most of the force of penetration to the sides, away from the downward direction, the force on the part of the core which will form the plug is minimised. Plunge cutting is more successful in very poorly consolidated cores than in better consolidated material which can fracture more easily. Worthington et al 7 contend that plunge cutting avoids damage from frozen nitrogen which causes grain rearrangement. Unalmiser8 and La Torraca9 recommend that plugs should be taken with a plunge cutter with the core sections chilled (not frozen) using liquid nitrogen. Lamb and Ruth 10 recommend rotary drilling with liquid nitrogen on cores frozen in the field. The plug samples from unconsolidated cores must be protected against further disturbance during core testing. Laboratory measurements are best made in a single loading operation. Ideally, if liquid nitrogen plugging has been used, the measurements should be made on plugs in the coreholders used for core thawing. Alternative protection includes mounting the plugs in aluminium foil or thin tin (similar to the material used in toothpaste tubes) or nickel sleeves. Foil tends to conform better to the plug surface than PTFE which can deteriorate
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during subsequent plug cleaning and testing. Metal sleeves cannot be used if the plugs are scheduled for electrical properties testing. A typical unconsolidated plug mount is shown in Figure 3-3. The plug sample is wrapped in PTFE tape then inserted into a sheath of PTFE heatshrink tubing. Fine (100 mesh) then coarse )16 mesh) steel gauzes or screens are placed at each end of the plug inside the PTFE heatshrink. These protect the end faces and prevent grain loss on subsequent handling. The assembly is then exposed to heat using a heat gun. This causes the heatshrink to contract and bind the assembly together, protecting the plug. Excess heat shrink in then trimmed off. Both the weight and volume of PTFE tape, heatshrink and gauze must be accounted for in subsequent porosity measurements. These normally assume a density of PTFE of 2.20 g/cc and 7.93 for steel. All trimmed materials must also be carefully weighed.

Fine Screen

Teflon Heatshrink jacket

Plug Sample

e.g. 38 mm

Ensure fits coreholder

Figure 3-3: Example Unconsolidated Plug Assembly

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4.

Wettability Alteration

Wettability is a fundamental rock property that controls fluid distributions within porous media. It is the result of a complex interaction of forces which are related to both the fluid system type and the rock type, and has a major impact on capillary behaviour, core electrical measurements, relative permeability tests and residual saturations. These will be demonstrated ad nauseum throughout the remainder of the SCAL course. It is important to maintain the appropriate reservoir wettability conditions if core analysis tests are to provide reliable results. Despite many studies on the effects of wettability on rock properties measured in core analysis experiments, appropriate wettability conditioning is frequently still ignored. Laboratories are quite happy to offer to carry out tests on freshstate or hot soxhlet cleaned cores knowing that the results of the tests may be wholly inappropriate. 4.1 Wettability Definition Wettability is defined as "the tendency for one fluid to spread or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of a second fluid". When a drop of water is placed on a glass slide immersed in oil, it will form a contact angle, , with the slide of somewhere between 0 and 180 . By convention, this contact angle is measured through the denser phase. If the slide has a preference for water compared to oil, the water droplet will tend to spread (Figure 4-1) so that the contact angle is low. This system is said to be preferentially water-wet. The adhesion force (or tension, At) is a function of the interfacial tension (IFT) between the oil and water system and the contact angle. i.e.: At = o w cos
where: o-w : : IFT (dyne/cm or mN/m) contact angle

Suppose the glass slide is made to be non water-wet by some form of treatment. Now, oil tries to contact the glass slide but water gets in the way. Consequently since water has no tendency to spread, the water droplet forms a ball and the contact angle exceeds 90. In this case water is said to be non-wetting. In a rock/oil brine system many wetting states are thought to occur. Some of these are:Water-wet: Oil-wet: Neutrally-wet: Where water coats the grains and may fully occupy the smaller pores. Oil would occupy only the centre of the larger pores. Where the reverse of the above is the case and oil coats the grains and occupies the smaller pore spaces. Where the system has a uniform non-preference for oil or water

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Fractional wettability:

Where certain areas of the rock (minerals) have a strong preference in one direction, while other areas (minerals) have a strong opposite preference (e.g. calcite-cemented quartz sandstone) A special case of fractional wettability in which oil-wet surfaces form a continuous path through the larger pores although water continues to occupy the smaller pores. This wetting state is probably unproven but does allow very low residual oil saturations, and some unusual relative permeability behaviour to be explained.

Mixed wettability:

In the reservoir condition, wettability can also be visualised through the use of cryogenic SEM in which a specimen of rock at reservoir appropriate saturation is mounted onto a brass SEM stub then rapidly plunged into nitrogen slush under a low vacuum in a sealed chamber. The sample is cryogenically frozen and examined in the SEM chamber which is equipped with a cryogenic stage. Figure 4-2 provides an example of a cryogenic SEM photomicrograph which shows droplets of brine (surrounded by oil) adhering to quartz grains. The contact angles vary though most are between 30 to 80 indicating a weakly water-wet rock, possibly mixed wettability rock. 4.2 Native Wettability and Controls It must be accepted that the process of obtaining the core, and subsequent core processing and handling, will alter the rock wettability so that it is almost impossible to be certain of the true reservoir wettability state. Before oil migrates into the reservoir, the rock can only be water-wet, by definition. It might also be expected that, in a virgin reservoir, depending upon the rock mineralogy and reservoir fluids, wettability might grade towards a less strongly water-wet state through the transition zone, possibly becoming non water-wet in the irreducible water zone. A number of studies have been carried out which indicate that most reservoirs are not strongly water wet. Treiber et al 11 studied rock wettabilities from 50 reservoirs. They classed wettability on the basis of contact angles, and the results were.

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Contact Angle Water wet Inter wet Oil wet 0 - 75 75 - 105 105 - 180

Silicate Reservoirs 13 2 15

Carbonate Reservoirs 2 1 22

Total Reservoirs 15 3 37

Chilingar and Yen 12 studied the wettabilities of carbonate formations. Their results were: Contact Angle Water wet Inter wet Oil wet Strongly oil wet 0 - 80 80 - 100 100 - 160 160 - 180 % of Reservoirs 8 12 65 15

The results may be biased however. Tests on fresh-state core (especially drilled with OBM) or on unpreserved core may indicate an oil-wetting tendency. Very few sandstone reservoirs are truly oil-wet. The original wettability of reservoir rock is controlled by a number of factors including: Oil type. Adsorption of polar compounds and surfactants, and deposition of organic matter from the crude oil can induce strong oil-wetting tendencies; Brine chemistry. High brine pH, or a high concentration of divalent cations in the formation brine, can promote surfactant adsorption on the rock surfaces, resulting in an oil-wetting tendency. Grain type. Carbonates tend to be more oil wet than silicate grain surfaces. This is related to the surface charge of the minerals and the nature of the oil and brine surrounding them. Generally, under similar fluid conditions, adsorption of asphaltenes on silica surfaces (which can lead to oil-wetting) are an order of magnitude less than adsorption of asphaltenes on carbonates. Recent evidence points to many clays (e.g. Kaolinite) being oil-wet. 4.3 Wettability Alteration Native reservoir wettability estimates from reservoir core samples can be further complicated as a result of interactions between the rock and fluids during coring, core recovery, core handling and testing, including: contact with drilling mud;
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 oxidation of the oil through lack of appropriate core preservation; core cleaning; temperature and pressure during core testing. All can alter the native wettability to different degrees. 4.3.1 Contact With Drilling Mud There is a long-standing concern that components of drilling muds can alter the wettability of portions of the formation with which they come into contact. Wettability alteration is severe for oil-based mud fluids because of the oil-wetting surfactants commonly used. For example, in the Southern North Sea gas basin, OBM contact induces an extremely strong oil-wetting tendency that can be difficult to remove, even by harsh cleaning. Core analysis tests on fresh-state core drilled with an OBM will be unrepresentative - the wettability will be altered from its native condition. The only drilling fluid ever recommended for use where wettability preservation is the goal of the coring programme is to use unoxidised reservoir crude, but it is seldom used due to safety and environmental concerns. In work reported by Bobek et al 13, water-wet plug samples were flushed with a variety of mud filtrates and additives and the subsequent effect on brine imbibition rates was examined. The low imbibition rates following treatment with oil mud filtrate indicate little affinity for brine indicating that the samples have become oil wet (Figure 4-3) Stiles 14 carried out a similar study on the Brent field and found a marked reduction in brine imbibition rates for samples treated with an oil based mud filtrate (Figure 4-4). Jia et al 15 provide a useful summary of several workers results. This showed (with some discrepancies) that: strongly water-wet rocks were unaffected by water-based whole muds, filtrates and mud components, with the exception of lignosulphonate which reduced the water wetness. not strongly water-wet rocks were made more water wet by contact with individual waterbased mud components. all oil based muds, filtrates and components increase oil wettability or reduced water wettability In their own work, Jia et al tested seven water-based mud formulations made up from a range of chemical additives, and aged samples in the mud filtrates in the laboratory. Solutions of individual additives were also tested. All seven chemical additives individually lowered the water wetness and raised the oil wetness of strongly water wet samples. The wettability alteration due to exposure to mud filtrates is less than with solutions of individual additives. Filtrates from a KCl/FCLS/CMC/Drispac mud rendered the minimum wettability alteration. 4.3.2 Pressure and Temperature Loss on Core Recovery Water-wet rock can be made more oil-wet during core retrieval as the core is brought to the surface. Pressure reduction results in the liberation of gas as the core pressure is reduced below the bubble point of the crude oil. This increases the relative concentration of heavier end components (increases surfactant concentration) in the oil which can be adsorbed on the
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rock surfaces. Temperature reduction reduces the solubility of the surfactants of the oil and increases the potential for adsorption. 4.3.3 Oil Oxidation Oxidation of the crude oil, through exposure of the core to air during handling at wellsite and in the laboratory, causes an increase in the asphaltene component and provides an opportunity to increase the oil-wettability. Correct core preservation, designed to eliminate or minimise core exposure to air, will prevent this form of wettability damage. Core preservation methods are either wet or dry. Dry methods encapsulate the core in a material intended to keep formation fluids from evaporating and which should prevent exposure to air during handling and storage. The most widely used method is to enclose the core section in plastic film wrap, then in aluminium foil, then dipping the core in paraffin wax to form the seal. Tests have shown 16 that with the right sealant, water loss can be reduced to practically zero with this method. Another method is to use plastic-aluminium laminate to seal the core sections. The core section is wrapped firstly in plastic film then placed in the laminate, which is then evacuated (in some applications) then sealed with a heat gun. The laminate is less permeable to gases and fluids than the combination of film/foil/wax. The main problem with this method is the fragility of the laminate - they can be subject to pinholes and cracks, and some operators have found them to be too delicate for field use. Many operators now use wet methods in which the core section is placed in a foot long steel, glass or PVC container filled with deoxygenated brine or depolarised kerosene or other mineral oil 17 (Figure 4-5). A bactericide is added to the fluid, which is then evacuated or purged with helium or nitrogen to remove air, then the containers are sealed. PVC containers are not optimal because they permit diffusion of water and oxygen. Glass containers are preferred because they are inert, but experience has shown that they can be easily damaged in transport such that the preservation fluid is lost. 4.3.4 Core Cleaning Core cleaning methods are designed to remove oil and water (plus other drilling mud contaminants) from a plug sample. Invariably therefore, core cleaning tends to increase the water wetness. In fact, core cleaning as part of wettability restoration is designed to induce a strong wetting state in the test samples, and the cleaning methods and solvents are selected primarily on this basis. Anderson 18 provides an excellent description of the methods and techniques used. Depending upon the oil and rock types, extremely harsh cleaning methods and solvents may be required. Recent (mostly unpublished) evidence shows that hot soxhlet extraction in toluene and methanol often fails to remove oil-wetting contaminants so that the cleaned core is not wholly water-wet. Hot soxhlet extraction in toluene removes both water surrounding the grains and the non-polar fraction of the crude oil, thus permitting the heavier (polar) oil fraction (which contain surfactants and asphaltenes) to come in contact directly with mineral surfaces and alter wettability. The phenomenon may be exacerbated by low initial water saturation.

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4.3.5 Core Testing If crude oil is used during core testing, then the core wettability can be altered by temperature and pressure. If the tests are run at higher temperatures and pressures, the core can become more water wet. An increase in temperature and pressure will increase the solubility of wettability altering compounds. The interfacial tension (IFT) of the fluid phases and the oil/water contact angle on the solid grain surfaces will decrease as temperature increases. 4.3.6 In Situ Wettability Estimation Since the act of taking the core and bringing back to the surface is likely to alter the native wettability, it must be considered that core tests on fresh or cleaned-state samples can never provide an accurate representation of the in-situ wettability. Unfortunately, there is no convenient tool with which to quantitatively characterise wettability under downhole conditions, although the nuclear magnetic resonance tool holds promise. However native wettability can be inferred from analysis of core, log and formation pressure tester (RFT) data. For example, Figure 4-6 (from Rajan and Delaney 19), shows typical free water level (FWL), oil-water contact (OWC), capillary pressure and saturation relationships for water-wet, neutral-wet and oil-wet reservoirs. For the water-wet case, it takes a certain amount of entry pressure in the oil column before the oil enters the formation. This means that the OWC will be above the FWL (level of zero capillary pressure). The OWC can be estimated from log and core measurements and the FWL from the intersection of the oil and water RFT gradients. The smaller the pore radii , the larger the entry pressure and the higher the OWC will be above the FWL. In an oil-wet reservoir, the reverse is true: the OWC will lie below the FWL. Wettability forces will force the non-wetting phase (water) below the level of zero capillary pressure since the capillary pressure (Po-Pw) is negative between the OWC and the FWL. The reservoir saturation at the FWL would be at or above irreducible values. For a neutral-wet reservoir, surface forces exhibit no preference for oil or water, and the FWL and OWC are nearly the same, with little entry effect. The curve looks similar to the waterwet case, discounted for the entry pressure effect. In high permeability formations, where there is little or no transition zone, the FWL and OWC may well be coincident, so wettability may not be able to be inferred with any degree of confidence. 4.3.7 Laboratory Measurements Lab wettability measurement methods and interpretation are discussed in a later Chapter.

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WATER WET

oil-water Oil Water water-glass Glass Slide

oil-water Oil oil-glass Water OIL WET Glass Slide

water-glass
Figure 4-1: Wettability Concepts

Figure 4-2: Cryogenic SEM Photomicrograph

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Figure 4-3: Effects of Oil-Based Mud on Spontaneous Imbibition (Bobek)

Figure 4-4: Effects of Oil-Based Mud on Spontaneous Imbibition (Stiles )

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Figure 4-5: Core Preservation Cylinder (Corex)

Water-Wet

Neutral-Wet Oil-Wet

Figure 4-6: Idealised Free Water Level Contact Relationships

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5.

Clays and Clay Damage Mechanisms

Authigenic clay minerals grow in the pore spaces of a sediment after deposition and during cementation, and their presence usually reduces permeability. Further, they are in contact with the pore fluids in the reservoir, and can react with these, as well as drilling and production fluids, as they flow through the formation. They have an effect on the saturation distributions and production characteristics of the reservoir which far outweighs the percentage distribution which they occupy in the reservoir pore system. 5.1 Clay Structures Clay minerals are composed of silicon, magnesium and aluminium and a quantity of other metals. The basic building blocks are the silica tetrahedral sheet and the alumina octahedra sheet. Substitution of Si4+ by Al3+ in the tetrahedron sheet and replacement of Al3+ with Mg2+ or Fe3+ in the octahedral sheet produce a net negative charge on the clay. This negative charge is balanced by cations attracted to the surface of each flat platelet. The cations on the clay surface are termed exchangeable since they can be readily removed by other cations in their environment. The exchange layers are associated with layers of water molecules which, to varying degrees, are bound to the negative sites on the clay platelet surface. The number and location of these bound layers of water molecules, which are considered to be an integral part of the clay mineral and not free pore water, depend on the mineralogy and nature of the clay present. The major clay groups of concern are: Kaolinite Montmorillonite Illite Chlorite These clays are classified according to their molecular structure and comprise relatively simple "building blocks" arranged in a variety of different ways. Montmorillionite (Smectite) group minerals, are composed of two silica tetrahedral sheets with a central alumina octahedral sheet. Some 80% of exchange cations (commonly Na+ or 2+ Ca ) occur between the silicate layers, with the remainder associated with the external surfaces of the particle. Cation exchange capacity is high and this clay conductivity has a considerable impact on core electrical measurements. Special care is required when montmorillonite is present Illite group (mica) minerals comprise a layer composed of two silica tetrahedral sheets with a central octahedral sheet. The structure is similar to smectite, with the exception that the charge deficiency at the interlayer exchange is balanced by potassium cations, which are stable and not easily replaced. This clay usually occurs in a pore lining or pore bridging morphology. Its low CEC value produces no clay conductivity problems but one of its textural forms - filamentous or hairy illite - can have a very significant effect on measured electrical properties and is easily damaged during core preparation. Figure 5-1 provides an SEM photomicrograph of fibrous illite in its pore bridging habit. Chap 3 Core Damage.DOC Special Core Analysis Page 22

Kaolinite minerals are composed of a single silica tetrahedral sheet and an alumina octahedral sheet combined in a unit such that the tips of the silica tetrahedrons and one of the layers of the octahedral sheet form a common layer. Electrical charges within the structural unit are balanced and there is very little substitution within the lattice. Kaolinite commonly occurs as pseudo-hexagonal "booklets" which are loosely attached to the host grains frequently in discrete patches (Figure 5-2). This loose attachment may result in mobilisation during production and core flow testing and result in pore blockage. It has a low cation exchange capacity and its main effect on rock properties is simple pore volume reduction. Chlorite group minerals consists of alternate mica-like and brucite-like layers. The mica layer is unbalanced by substitution of Al3+ for Si4+ and the charge deficiency is balanced by an excess charge in the brucite layer, as a consequence of substitution of Al3+ for Mg2+. Chlorite can be very stable in its well crystallised form but is easily degraded by acids to an unstable form. It typically occurs with a "cornflake" texture as clay coatings (e.g. Figure 5-3). The ability of clay materials to sorb certain anions and cations and retain them in an exchangeable state is one of their most important properties. The ions are exchangeable for other anions or cations by treatment with such ions in a water solution. In smectites, some 80% of the exchangeable cations occur on the base of plane surfaces with the remainder on the edges. In illite and chlorite most of the cations are on the edges, between crystals. With kaolinite, the exchangeable cations occur only on the base of the silica tetrahedral units, and the cation exchange capacity depends on the thickness of the kaolinite particles. Thus, in general, kaolinite has the lowest cation exchange capacity (CEC), increasing through illite and chlorite, to smecite, which has a CEC about 20 to 30 times that of kaolinite. The exchange cations in these clays are associated with an integral number of water layers. In smecite two layers of water molecules occur between the silicate layers. Interlayer water molecules are co-ordinated around the exchange cations constituting an inner primary hydration cell referred to as Type I water. Type II water forms an outer secondary coordination sphere, being indirectly linked to the cations and the inner Type I layer via weak ion-dipole bonds, and is more mobile than Type 1 water. Exchange reactions in kaolinite, illite and chlorite generally occur as the result of broken bonds at the edges of the crystal lattices and consequently, exchange sites occur at interparticle (that is, between crystals) rather than at interlayer (within crystals) sites. In these minerals the excess negative charge is balanced by exchange cations. Polar water molecules are attracted to both the clay surfaces and to the cations, and results in the formation of a diffuse double layer of bound water molecules, the first layer immediately adjacent to the clay surface, and the second held by the hydrated cations. If the delicate chemical equilibrium at the exchange sites is disturbed, for example by exposure to lower salinity brine or fresh water, the existing cations on the clays will hydrate. Hydration forces will depend upon the original cation at the exchange sites. Sodium cations are the most readily exchangeable, and can promote adsorption of up to 32 layers of water molecules in smectite interlayers, causing clay volume expansion. Hydration of Na+ cations in the interparticle sites of kaolinite, illite and chlorite generates sufficient osmotic pressure to cause separation of individual clay platelets which, under the influence of flowing liquid, are dispersed into the pore network. Clay swelling and dispersion can cause plugging or bridging of pore throats, leading to severe permeability damage.
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5.2 Clay Morphology and Rock Property Controls Neasham 20 describes 3 categories of dispersed clay which are illustrated in Figure 5-4. Dispersed particles Pore lining Pore bridging typically kaolinite typically chlorite and smectite typically illite and smectite

Neasham examined the impact of these different morphologies on porosity/permeability relationships (Figure 5-5) and capillary pressure curves for a number of broadly similar sands (Figure 5-6). The discrete clays, kaolinite, appear to have a minimal effect on porosity and permeability and good reservoir quality is maintained (though both porosity and permeability are reduced to some extent). The data set for the pore bridging clays still shows good porosity but the permeability is reduced by one or two orders of magnitude. This perhaps indicates that pore throat channels become significantly reduced by a relatively small amount of pore lining clays. This pattern of permeability reduction is continued further with the intergrown pore bridging clays, e.g. hairy illites, where the permeability is reduced by a further two orders of magnitude. Neasham described the effect of different clay morphologies on the shape of mercury injection curves. The discrete clay samples show relatively low threshold pressures, indicating fairly large pore and pore throat sizes. The curve then trends horizontally or subhorizontally indicating a very uniform pore size distribution. Pore lining and bridging clays progressively increase the threshold pressure since the larger pore throat sizes are reduced and effectively create a very wide range of pore sizes. Though these results are entirely predictable and indicate just two ways in which petrophysical data is controlled by clays, they clearly show that if we alter the clay morphology in any way then the impact on the derived core petrophysical data may be very significant. 5.2.1 Rock Property Alteration Clay damage can occur during coring, if a relatively fresh water-based mud is used, in which case montmorillonite clays can swell or kaolinite and illite clays detach and cause pore blockage if there is fluid movement. The prime cause of clay damage however is during cleaning and drying in the laboratory. This is discussed in detail in a later Chapter.

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Clean, fine grained sandstone with well developed quartz overgrowths. Note fibrous illite bridging pores. 18.1% Porosity: 304 mD Air Permeability

Figure 5-1: SEM Photomicrograph - Illite

This view shows occasional well-developed kaolinite (a) occasionally filling pores, with traces of calcite cement (b). Note quartz overgrowths (c) and pyrite framboid (d). This is a clean, fine grained poorly cemented sandstone. Detrital and authigenic clays are rare and the main causes of porosity reduction are via quartz overgrowths. 16.2% Porosity: 150 mD Air Permeability

Figure 5-2: SEM Photomicrograph Kaolinite

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The progressively higher magnification images (A-B-C-D) show chlorite forming pore fills in a poorly sorted sandstone.

Figure 5-3: SEM Photomicrographs - Chlorite

Figure 5-4: Neashams Categories of Authigenic Clays

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Figure 5-5: Typical Poroperm Relationships (from Neasham)

Figure 5-6: Typical Capillary Pressure Relationships (from Neasham)

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6.

References

Fjerstad, P.A, Thereby, H., Pallatt, N, and Stockden, I. : Application of Deuterium Tracer in Estimating Native Water Saturation in the Gyda Field, SPE 25376, SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Singapore, Feb., 1993
2 3 4

Maury, et al: Core Discing: a Review in Proc. SANGORM Symp. Of Rock Mechanics in Africa, 1988 Everett et al: Faja Case Study Results on a Single Well, SPE Formation Evaluation, Volume 2, 1987.

Torsaeter and Beldring: The Effect of Freezing on Slightly Unconsolidated Cores, SPE paper 14300, 60th Ann SPE Tech Conf. And Exhibition, 1985. Worthington et al: Reservoir Petrophysics of Poorly Consolidated Cores, I, Wellsite Procedures and laboratory Methods, Log Analyst, No. 28, Vol. 2, (March-April), 1987. Sincock et al: Major Advance in Sampling and Preserving Unconsolidated Core, Proceedings of 1st Society of Core Analysts European Symposium, London, 21-23 May, 1990.
7 8 6 5

Worthington et al, ibid

Unalmiser, S.: Handling Unconsolidated Cores to Preserve Wettability and Pore Structure, Society of Core Analysts Paper SCA 8803, 1988 LaTorraca: Combined Resistivity, Porosity, Brine Saturation, and Capillary Pressure Measurements on Poorly Consolidated Samples, Society of Core Analysts Paper SCA 8904, 1989
10 9

Lamb., C.F., and Ruth, D.W.: Laboratory Program Design for Unconsolidated Heavy Oil Reservoirs, Society of Core Analysts Paper SCA 9104, 1991 Treiber et al: A laboratory Evaluation of the Wettability of Fifty Oil Producing Reservoirs, SPEJ, Dec., 1972

11

Chilingar and Yen: Some Notes on Wettability and Relative Permeability of Carbonate Reservoir Rocks, Energy Sources, Vol. 7, 1983.
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12

Bobek et al: Reservoir Rock Wettability - Its Evaluation and Significance, Trans AIME, 1958

Stiles, J., and Hulfitz, J.M.: The Use of Routine and Special Core Analysis in Characterising Brent Group Reservoirs, UK North Sea, SPE 18386

15

Jia, Buckley and Morrow: Alteration of Wettability by Drilling Mud Filtrates, Paper SCA 9408, SCA Symposium, Stavanger, 1994. Auman, J.B.: A laboratory Evaluation of Core Preservation Materials, SPE 15381, Oct., 1986

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Cornwall, C.K.: Core Preservation - An Alternative Approach, Proceedings of 1st Society of Core Analysts European Symposium, London, 21-23 May, 1990.
18

Anderson, W.G: Wettability Literature Survey - Part 1: Rock/Oil/Brine Interactions and the Effects of Core Handling on Wettability, JPT, Oct,. 1986 Rajan, R.R., and Delaney, P.: Capillary Pressure Based Water Saturation in the Fateh Thamma Reservoir, Dubai paper submitted for presentation at 32nd Soc. Of Professional Well Log Analysts Annual Logging Symposium, Midland, Texas, June 16-19, 1991.

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20

Neasham, J.W.: The Morphology of Dispersed Clay in Sandstone Reservoirs and Its Effects on Sandstone Shaliness, Pore Space, and Fluid Flow Properties, SPE 6858, Oct., 1977 Chap 3 Core Damage.DOC Special Core Analysis Page 28