Food as Medicine in Muslim Civilization

by:

Nil Sari

1. Introduction

Figure 1: A banquet given by the commander-in-chie !ala Musta a "ahsa to the #anissaries in $zmit% & A'ril 1&(). *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% MS ,1-.&% ol. -/b

Food and diet 0ere central to 1ttoman clinical and 'reventive medicine. 1ttoman medical manuscri'ts begin by s'eci ying 2si3 rules that should be ollo0ed or a healthy li e%2 and one o these rules 0as eating a balanced diet. $n both 1ttoman cuisine and 1ttoman medicine great im'ortance 0as attached to the ty'e and characteristics o oods and beverages% and 0hich o these should be consumed 0hen and ho0 by 'eo'le o di erent constitutions. 1ttoman medicine 0as based on $slamic medicine% itsel rooted in the teachings o ,i''ocrates and 4alen% and or medical 're'arations and oods dre0 'rinci'ally on 0or+s by the $slamic 'hysicians $bn Sina 5Avicenna6 and $bn al-7aytar.

*he main reason 0hy ood and beverages 0ere o such im'ortance in medicine is that they not only 'rovide nutrition but also 'reserve health and 'ossess curative 'ro'erties. Consequently healthy dietary 'ractice emerged as a distinct ield o medical +no0ledge. *he sub#ects o nutrition% diet and digestion 0ith res'ect to leading a healthy li e and the treatment o disease are discussed at length in 1ttoman 'eriod medical manuscri'ts. 8egetables% ruits% animal oods and minerals such as salt are dealt 0ith not only in medical and 'harmaceutical 0or+s% but even in 0or+s on chemistry. Although carbohydrates% 'roteins and vitamins 0ere as yet un+no0n% the im'ortance o good ood and a balanced diet or healthy living 0as recognised. *he 'rinci'les o healthy and balanced nutrition in 1ttoman medicine are based on the theories o 2elements2 and 2humours2. 9ven today 0e can observe relics o this theory% 0hich remained current until the beginning o the t0entieth century. *o clearly e3'lain the im'ortance o nutrition in 1ttoman medicine% it is necessary to ta+e a brie loo+ at the theory o elements and humours: in other 0ords% the 'hiloso'hy o medicine at that 'eriod. $ 0ill endeavour to e3'lain this theory as sim'ly as 'ossible% although it consists o de initions and inter'retations that cover a 0ide ield% are very com'le3% and sometimes di icult to com'rehend. ;es'ite some variations in o'inion regarding the details o this theory among 1ttoman 'hysicians% the basic rame0or+ o the 'hiloso'hy o medicine corres'onded to the outline $ 0ill give belo0. All o the in ormation in this te3t is based on manuscri'ts and 'rinted 1ttoman sources% 0ithout any inter'retation o my o0n. $t should not be orgotten that evaluating the medical conce'ts o the 1ttoman 'eriod in the light o today<s medical +no0ledge 0ould lead to distortion o 1ttoman medical 'hiloso'hy as a 0hole% and so should only be done 0ith the greatest caution and based on irm evidence. Since e3'lanation o the in ormation in the te3t in accordance 0ith today<s +no0ledge o the metabolism and endocrinology is a se'arate sub#ect o research% these 0ill not be ta+en into account here. 2. Elements (unsur) and their Qualities

Figure 2: An 1ttoman 7azar scene. *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% MS ,1-.&% ol. =-a.

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According to the 'hiloso'hy o the 'eriod% the universe is made u' o our main elements: ire% air% 0ater and earth. *hese are the basic substances that ma+e u' all inanimate and animate ob#ects. *he our elements are not material but e3'ress characteristics o mass and energy. *hese elements have hot% cold% moist or dry qualities% described as their 2state2 5keyfiyet6. *hese qualities are inherent and described as 2nature2 5tabat6. For e3am'le% the nature o a human being is de ined as hot blooded and that o grass as cold. 9arth has a cold and dry nature: 0ater% cold and moist: air% hot and moist: ire% hot and dry. Not only human beings but all animate and inanimate entities are under the in luence o one or a combination o the above-mentioned our qualities. *he essential substance o any ob#ect is characterised by these qualities% each being hot% cold% moist or dry. 9ach ob#ect has a hotter% colder% drier or moister nature in com'arison to others. 1rgans also have these characteristics. For e3am'le% the heart has the tendency to be hot and moist: the liver hot and dry: the brain moist and cold: the s'leen dry and cold. *hese natural qualities are also 'resent to a greater or lesser e3tent in every ood or medicament. For e3am'le% a ood or medicament might be hot in the irst% second% third or ourth degrees% and hence the heating e ect o that ood or medicament varies according to the degree it 'ossesses that characteristic. *he combination o qualities in a ood or medicament determines the balance in the body o the 'erson 0ho consumes it. 3. Humours (khilt) and Their Qualities *he human body contains our luids or humours: that is% blood% 'legm% yello0 bile and blac+ bile. ?e cannot de ine the our humours in the literal sense o the 0ords used to e3'ress them. ,umours are the luids irst generated by the 'rocess o digestion. 7lood has a hot and moist nature 5sanguine6: 'hlegm is cold and moist 5'hlegmatic6: yello0 bile is hot and dry 5choleric6: blac+ bile is cold and dry 5melancholic6. A good and healthy humour or combination o humours can be digested and assimilated into the tissues. *hese are restorative% bene icial humours. ,umours 0ith the a''ro'riate qualities ta+en in moderate amounts nourish the body. 9ach o the our humours also has sub-categories. 7alance bet0een the humours indicates health. ?hen the quality or amount o the humours deviate rom the normal% ho0ever% the humoral balance is disturbed and this causes disease. *he humours that have caused the disease need to be e3'elled rom the body by means o medicaments. *he humoral balance may be distorted by e3ternal actors% es'ecially diet% resulting in disease. Abnormal humours that cannot be digested or trans ormed into a 'ro'er orm are e3'elled rom the body. ?hen necessary one should hel' the e3'ulsion 'rocess by means o diet or medicaments. 4. Temperaments *he 0ays in 0hich the o''osing qualities o the our elements combine and interact are called 2tem'eraments2. $ the o''osing characteristics are 'resent in equal amounts there 0ill be a balance. 7ut i one or more o the hot% cold% moist or dry qualities are dominant the balance is disturbed. ?hen this occurs the 'erson<s tem'erament is distorted% and their equilibrium 5itid@l6 is u'set. ?e can tal+ about the 'ro'er ratio o characteristics or each individual 'erson rather than an ideal combination identical or all. $t is rare or a 'erson to have a tem'erament in 'er ect equilibrium. For e3am'le% i ire is the dominant element in a 'articular 'erson% his tem'erament is hot: but i 0ater is dominant% the tem'erament o that 'erson is cold. *here are our such sim'le tem'eraments. *here are also our com'osite tem'eraments. For e3am'le% i hot

and moist qualities are both dominant in a 'erson% that 'erson has a sanguine tem'erament. $ hot and dry qualities are dominant they 'roduce a choleric tem'erament: i cold and dry qualities dominate they 'roduce a melancholic tem'erament: and i cold and moist qualities dominate they 'roduce a 'hlegmatic tem'erament. *hese tem'eraments may be 'resent in a stronger or 0ea+er orm% and this causes di erences amongst individuals. $n addition% tem'erament varies according to the geogra'hic location% season% age and gender. *em'erament should al0ays be ta+en into consideration both in medical treatment and diet. 9ach 'erson should eat in accordance 0ith their o0n tem'erament. Although some 'eo'le may have a strong constitution and be able to eat and digest un0holesome ood% this should not be de'ended u'on% because the bad humours% 0hich cannot be digested% accumulate gradually% damaging the 'erson<s health. ,umans learn in time 0hich oods are harm ul or them. Sometimes a harmless ood that a 'erson has eaten 'reviously might cause harm the ne3t time% and such oods should be avoided. . Ho! Humours In"luence #utrition

Figure 3: A 'lant igure. Source: Abdullah b. Ahmad al-Andalusi $bn 7aytar% Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. SAleymaniye !ibrary% Ayaso ya Collection% MS -(/).

,umours consist o digested nutrients. *he oration o humours through the digestion o nutrients is called 2coo+ing2 5pisme6 in 1ttoman medicine. *he ormation o humours is im'ortant in demonstrating the relation bet0een ood and health. ;igestion starts in the mouth and continues in the stomach% 0here the

ood is trans ormed into a luid called chime 5keyms6 resembling thic+ barley gruel. *he solid 'articles that have no nutrient value are e3'elled rom the body as e3crement. *he 0atery 'art o the chime is absorbed by the stomach and the intestines. "art o the chime is trans ormed into 'hlegm be ore digestion is com'leted. Chime enters the liver through the 'ortal vein. ,ere% a second 'rocess o digestion occurs that is again called 2coo+ing2% leading to the ormation o yello0 bile 5the 2 oam2 o the blood6% blac+ bile 5the sediments o the blood6 and blood itsel . A certain amount o natural blac+ bile% 0hich is accumulated at the mouth o the stomach% arouses the a''etite. 7lac+ bile is ormed as a result o a cold and dry diet. *he blood contains the most valuable 'arts o the digested nutrients. 7lood reaches the heart via the vena cava% leaving the more 0atery 'art o the chime to be dis'osed o by the +idneys. *he third 'hase o digestion occurs in the blood vessels and is distributed to other organs via the arteries. ?ith the ourth and inal 'hase o digestion in the organs% digestion is com'leted. $ne icient digestion results in distorted% diseased yello0 bile and blac+ bile is ormed. $t is because humours are ormed by digested nutrients that the characteristics and amount o 0hat a 'erson eats and drin+s a ects the health o a 'erson either avourably or adversely. "reserving the humoral balance and thus a 'erson<s health is 'ossible by means o 'ro'er nutrition. $ 'ossible% the irst ste' in treating an illness is to correct the distorted humoral balance by means o oods consistent 0ith the 'atient<s tem'erament: that is% by means o an a''ro'riate diet. 1nly i this does not 0or+ is resort made to medication. *he ollo0ing 0ords by the $slamic 'hysician Bazi<s are amous: 2$ you can cure a 'erson by diet% do not suggest medication2. $. %lassi"ication o" Foods &ccording to the Theor' o" Elements

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Figure 4: A 'lant igure. Source: $bn 7aytar% Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. SAleymaniye !ibrary% Ayaso ya Coll.% M, -(/).

*he oods and beverages that a ect the humoral balance are also classi ied according to the theory o elements as being hot% cold% dry or moist. Foods and beverages that are moderate in nature generate blood. 7ecause diseases are also hot% cold% dry or moist in nature% each disease is treated 0ith oods or medicaments 'ossessing the o''osite qualities. *he medical e ects o oods vary according to their essential nature: Cold foods: Foods that are cold create 'hlegm. Cucumber% squash% 'urslane and lettuce are cold vegetables. *hey cause 0ea+ness 5sst6. Hot foods: Foods that are hot by nature create yello0 bile. Such oods mainly consist o s'ices and similar condiments added to ood. For e3am'le% ginger% 'e''er% dry coriander% cumin% cinnamon% onion% garlic and mastic are hot oods. Dry foods: ;ry oods create blac+ bile% a cause o melancholy. *hey lead to loss o a''etite and consti'ation. Foods such as millet% lentils and dried meat are e3am'les o dry oods. Moist foods: Moist oods are those 0ithout strong salty% s0eet% sour or bitter lavours. *hey have a so tening e ect. Noodles and s'inach coo+ed 0ith rice and meat are e3am'les o moist oods.

(. Ho! Foods and )edicaments E*ert an E""ect on the Health

Figure : A 'lant igure. Source: $bn 7aytar% Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. SAleymaniye !ibrary% Ayaso ya Coll.% MS -(/).

Foods and medicaments a ect human health in diverse 0ays: Essential qualities: A ood<s essential qualities 5coldness, hotness, moistness, dryness6 can a ect the 'erson 0ho eats it% and its e ect 0ill be 'ro'ortional to the degree o these qualities. 93am'les o these have been given above. Substance: Foods li+e meat and bread are called absolute nutrients 5mutlak gid6% because they a ect the health solely by their substances. 8arious organs o animals 0hose meat is eaten% and animal 'roducts such as eggs% mil+% honey and cheese are also used in treatment as 0ell as being consumed as ood. *he nutritional strength o these oods varies. For e3am'le% the nutritional strength o undercoo+ed eggs or meat stoc+ is high% 0hereas that o most vegetables and rose0ater is lo0: that o a''les is moderate. Power (kuvvet, h sse, h s!yet": *his is the 'o0er o a oodstu or medicinal substance to 'roduce a 'articular e ect. $ a substance ta+en alone unctions as an analgesic% emetic% la3ative% diuretic or sedative% it is described as a 2medicament 0ith a 'o0er unique to itsel 2: that is% it has medicinal 'o0er. $ the e ect o such a substance 5such as the Mediterranean an 'alm 5Chamaerops humilis6 is in harmony 0ith the nature o human beings it is non-'oisonous. ,o0ever% i the e ect o a substance is against human nature%

as in the case o sevkern C1D% or e3am'le% it is described as having the 2'o0er o 'oison2. Not0ithstanding that substances are e ective through their qualities: it is their 2'o0ers2 that 'revail. For e3am'le% there is la3ative 'o0er in the dried #uice obtained rom scammony 5Convolvulus scammonia6 root and tur'eth 5 pomoea turpethum6 root. *o give another e3am'le% the 'oison o the vi'er sna+e is hot and scor'ion 'oison is cold% but it is not these characteristics that do the +illing: 0hat is atal is the 2'o0er o 'oison2. #$ount: *he e ect o a substance varies according to the amount that is ta+en. Some that do not have any e ect the irst time they are ta+en become e ective 0hen they are ta+en a second or third time% or 0hen the amount is increased. !affron "Crocus sativus#% 0hich is used as a stimulant and a''etizer% is an e3am'le o this. *here also are oods that become harm ul as the amount is increased. For e3am'le% eating too much onion causes rec+les on the ace and vertigo. +. %lassi"ication o" Foods &ccording to ,igestion Foods are also classi ied according to their being easily digested or not. %entle (l tif" &oods: Most o the 2gentle2 oods are digested 0ith very little residual humour or other residual substances. *he gentle oods also assist in e3'elling ood residues. *he consum'tion o gentle oods results in boiling and burning o the blood% and the 'roduction o additional yello0 bile. Most vegetables 5es'ecially radish and mustard6% meat stoc+% egg yol+% liver% mutton and chic+'ea sou' C>D% young dove% s'arro0% 'ic+les 5ca'ers% onion% garlic% radish 'ic+le 0ith vinegar% beetroot 'ic+le 0ith mustard etc6 are gentle nutrients 5although eating too much 'ic+le causes aging and 0ea+ens the nerves6. 7ecause the 2digestive 'o0er2 o 'eo'le 0ho get little e3ercise and the elderly is diminished% such 'eo'le should eat in moderation and choose mainly 2gentle2 oods. For e3am'le% instead o meat% they should eat sou' made 0ith meat stoc+. Coarse ('al!( )*+" &oods: Coarse oods increase moistness and 'hlegm% so that the quantity o 'hlegm becomes e3cessive. Coarse oods also increase bodily strength and cause 'lum'ness. *hese oods and beverages should be consumed 0hen very hungry and in moderate amounts so that they are 0ell digested% because they cause indigestion. $ a 'erson su ers rom congestion 5sudde6% such as consti'ation% as a result o eating coarse ood% they should eat gentle nutrients% 0hich 0ill unbloc+ the congestion. Accordingly% i congestion occurs a ter eating coarse oods such as herse C/D% shee'<s trotters% unleavened bread or starchhalva C&D% one should eat gentle nutrients such as ca'ers C.D% onion 'ic+le% garlic 'ic+le% radish 0ith vinegar and beetroot 'ic+le 0ith mustard C(D% ollo0ed by a drin+ o sirkengebin C)D% ta+ing care to eat in moderation. Foods such as 'ure 0heat bread% ri'e ruits that have been hung on strings or a e0 days and ully ri'e igs give strength and 'lum'en the body. ?hen e3cessive ullness is elt it is necessary to 2cleanse2 the body% that is% to em'ty the digestion system. 8omiting is a sim'le 0ay o cleansing the body. Alternatively the 'atient may eat less then usual or a e0 days% or drin+ a light la3ative in moderate amounts. *he ollo0ing short recei't is or a medication used or the 'ur'ose o cleansing: 211 dirhems C=D o mastic C1ED: one small 'eeled tur'eth root: 1 dirhem o ginger 'ounded% sieved and 0armed 0ith almond oil: and 1 dank C11D o sugar are ta+en and 'ounded together% sieved and eaten be ore going to bed at night. ;rin+ 0arm 0ater% either 'lain or mi3ed 0ith rose0ater% and go to bed. A good result

0ill be easily obtained by the morning. For some 'eo'le > dirhems o mastic 0ith > dirhems o sugar is su icient.2 -. Foods !ith %urati.e /roperties (0id12'i de.13)

Figure $: A 'ainting o t0o sea creatures: stingray and cuttle ish. Source: $bn 7aytar% Cmiu mufredat al-adviya wa'l-agdiya. SAleymaniye !ibrary% Ayaso ya Coll.% MS -(/).

Substances that are used solely as oods are called gid-i mutlak 5absolute oods6 and these are non'oisonous nourishing nutrients such as meat and bread% 0hich have no medicinal e ect. *hose that are classi ied as medicaments only and described as semm 5'oison6 are called dev'-i mutlak 5absolute medicaments6. Foods consumed or the 'rotection o health or treatment o disease are called dev-yi gid or gid-yi dev5 oods 0ith curative 'ro'erties6. Some substances used both as medicament 5dev6 and as a ood or beverage 5gid6 may be called dev-i gid-i $ hassa or gid-yi dev-i $ hassa 5 oods 0ith 'articular curative 'o0er6. *his category consists o oods 0ith a curative e ect or substances that are em'loyed 'rimarily or curative 'ur'oses but also used as ood. For a substance to be classi ied as a gid-yi dev it must be e ective both in its quality and in its substance. Such substances are non-'oisonous 5n-$ehr6. Foods such as kesk-i c% a ty'e o blancmange made 0ith barley lour and e0e<s mil+: and scariole C1>D that 'ossess both medicinal and nutritive characteristics% 'rovide relie by their cold quality 5brdet6 on one hand and serve as oods on the other. "hysicians 'rescribe such oods and beverages to their 'atients.

8egetables and ruits are curative oods. For e3am'le% igs% ully ri'e gra'es and dates are more curative in their nature and so should be eaten s'aringly. *hose 0ho 0ish to 'rotect their health should avoid a diet consisting solely o ruit and vegetables because these are oods 0ith curative 'ro'erties. 14. E*amples o" Treatment !ith Foods: 5irds and Fish 6sed in Treatment

Figure (: Ma+ers o the s0eet 5halva6 2ma<muniyya2 or the adynamia 5!urnme-i %mayun% year 1&)>6. *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% MS ,1-//.6. Source: &urkish 'edical %istory through 'iniature (ictures )*hibition% 'ublished by Nil Sari-Fl+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

*he seventeenth century *ur+ish 0riter 9vliya Gelebi relates that the meat o various birds 0as given to 'atients as dietary ood at the Fatih Sultan Mehmet ,an Mental ,os'ital and at the 7ayezid ,os'ital in 9dirne: 2H various delicious dishes are 're'ared or the 'atients t0ice a day. *he endo0ment deed or the oundation includes the instruction% Ii 'artridges and 'heasants are not available% nightingales% s'arro0s and 'igeons should be coo+ed and given to the 'atients<H2 7irds 0ere used as invalid ood and or the treatment o diseases. *he meat or at 0as a''lied e3ternally to cure 0ounds and ta+en internally or the treatment o diseases o the muscles and nervous system and or enhancing virility. 9ach s'ecies o bird 0as thought to have an e ect o its o0n. For e3am'le% duc+ meat 0as said to cure hoarseness o the voice% eliminate latulence% increase virility% and atten and strengthen the body: 0hile bene its such as relieving dee' 'ain are ascribed to the at. $t is also stated that duc+ at cleanses and beauti ies the s+in. 7irds 0ere sometimes coo+ed 0ith s'ices and medicinal herbs. For e3am'le% goose 0as coo+ed 0ith vinegar and s'ices: biryn C1-D 0as coo+ed 0ith olive oil and then stu ed 0ith onions and a cou'le o garlic cloves added: or alternatively coo+ed li+e isfidbc C1/D% 0ith the addition o chic+'eas% 0hite 0horehound C1&D and cinnamon. *he addition o carrots and rue C1.D 0as considered very bene icial.

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Stoc+ made rom young chic+en% hen or rooster is both nutritious in its substance and a medicament% 0hile the brain% testicles and e3crement are medicaments. $t is said that the best roosters are those that have not yet started cro0ing and the best hens those that have not yet laid eggs. ?e ind diverse reci'es or coo+ing chic+en to obtain the required e ects. For e3am'le% i a chic+en is stu ed 0ith mis+ a''les C1(D or quince and then roasted% it is very nutritious. ;rin+ing stoc+ 're'ared by coo+ing a rooster 0ith am'le 0ater and adding 'oly'loidy C1)D is a la3ative. Beci'es are given or dishes to treat certain diseases. For e3am'le% or the treatment o lumbago the ollo0ing dish is 'rescribed: 2*a+e a rooster and add >E dirhems o 'ounded sa lo0er C1=D seed% 1& dirhems o 'oly'ody% a 'inch each o dill C>ED% ennel seed C>1D% cumin and carnation% and some chic+'eas. Ma+e the dish slightly more salty than usual. ?hen 0ell coo+ed strain and drin+ the #uice as sou'. Coo+ed garlic is a cure or latulence.2 8arious ish s'ecies% including the goby% turbot% eel% car'% sea bass% 'i+e% red mullet% 'laice% blue ish% bream% 'icarel% grey mullet% sole% t0o-banded bream% bonito% mac+erel and trout% and also the dol'hin% are described as curative by medical authors. *he bene it o eeding 'atients 0ith red mullet% goby and scor'ion ish is 'articularly em'hasised. *here is e3tensive in ormation in medical boo+s about 0hich ish are best% 0here they are caught% ho0 to coo+ them% and 0ith 0hich oods they should and should not be eaten. Since ish are cold by nature they calm the hot humours and thereby have a bene icial e ect in cases o diseases o a hot nature. For e3am'le% they are good or a dry cough% #aundice% debility% dysentery and issurations. Fish eggs im'rove virility and are good or coughs and dysentery. Medications 're'ared 0ith ish are used in the treatment o various diseases such as chronic uruncles% 0arts% 'oisonous stings such as scor'ion stings% bites by rabid dogs% s0ellings in the anus% high ever% malaria% dea ness% hard lum's on the uvula% 'soriasis and #aundice. Medical 0riters e3'lain 0hich coo+ing and 're'aration methods are to be used or the treatment o 0hich diseases. $n other 0ords% ish reci'es are used or healthy nutrition and or 'rotection rom and treatment o disease. ,ere are some e3am'les o medications containing ish and ish dishes ta+en rom medical manuscri'ts: &ish ,oultice: *his medicament is made 0ith scorched ish and a''lied to s0ellings in the anus. $t is also a''lied to bites rom rabid dogs or stings by 'oisonous animals such as scor'ions. Scorched fish head: *he head o a salted ish is scorched and the ashes s'rin+led on uruncles and 0arts. -urnt fishbone: *he ashes o burnt ishbone are bene icial or 'soriasis. Fish heart: *he heart o the ish cut in hal and coo+ed 0ith vinegar is es'ecially good or those su ering rom malaria or #aundice and those 0ith a hot tem'erament. &ish cooked in vine'ar: Fish coo+ed 0ith vinegar is good or those 0ith malaria and a hot tem'erament. &ried fish: Fish ried in a little oil is good or those 0ho are recu'erating rom a disease because it gives strength.

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&ish la.ative: *he stomach o the ish is slit% illed 0ith sil+ and se0n u' 0ith string. *hen it is 'laced into 1)EE dirhems o 0ater and coo+ed until only -EE dirhems o 0ater remain% then strained. ;rin+ing this 0ater causes e3treme diarrhea. Dol,hin fat: Colocynth C>>D is coo+ed in dol'hin at% 0hich is o a hot tem'erament. *his oil is then dro''ed into the ear to cure dea ness.

Figure +: Ma+ers o a s0eet called 2halva2 5!urnme-i %mayun% year 1&)>6. *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% ,. 1-//.6. Source: &urkish 'edical %istory through 'iniature (ictures )*hibition% 'ublished by Nil Sari-Fl+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

11. & 5alanced ,iet "or /reser.ing Health 7alancing the diet orms one o the leading branches o traditional medicine% 0hich treats this sub#ect 0ithin the rame0or+ o the humoral theory. *he conce't o balanced nutrition to give 'rotection against disease and as a method o treatment is de ined by the 0ord mu'tedil 5moderate6. Medical boo+s discuss ho0 to guard against 'ossible harm ul e ects on the digestion o eating and drin+ing reely by means o eating a ood 0ith the qualities o an antidote. For e3am'le% the harm done by oods li+e ruit and vegetables that 'ossess curative 'ro'erties can be avoided by consuming oods 0ith the o''osite qualities. $ vegetables 0ith cold qualities such as cucumber% squash or lettuce are eaten% the balance is redressed by eating some garlic% lee+% 0hite 0horehound C>-D or mint as a 'recaution against any 'ossible harm that might be caused. 9ating unri'e gra'es% sumac% thyme% 'e''er or ginger together 0ith ish% 0hich is a cold ood: and a ter the ish eating s0eets such as ginger murabb C>/D% honey% halva or rose #am% 0hich are hot% is suggested as a 'recautionary measure. ;rin+ing lemon and honey sherbet C>&D% sour lemon sherbet or sarab-i mselles C>.D 0ith ish hel's its digestion and 'revents adverse e ects. $ a hot ood such as

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garlic% 0hite horehound% onion or the li+e is eaten% its e ects are o set by cucumber% resh 'urslane C>(D% lettuce% squash or sour sherbets. ,o0ever% eating a diversity o oods 0ith o''osing qualities at the same meal is itsel harm ul. $ a ood has the 'ro'erty o obstructing the channels in the body% oods 0ith the 'ro'erty o dissolving and e3'elling ood and beverages are added to the diet. For e3am'le% 0oodcoc+ meat is consti'ating and to avoid this harm ul e ect 0oodcoc+ meat should be eaten 0ith unri'e gra'es and lemon #uice. $ coarse 5gal$6 oods such as keskek% shee'<s trotters or starch halva are eaten% gentle oods such as 'ic+led ca'ers% 'ic+led onions% 'ic+led garlic% radish 0ith vinegar% beetroot 'ic+le 0ith mustard or o3ymel should be eaten together 0ith them. Moist and mildly lavoured oods such as squash and cucumber should be eaten ollo0ing oods that are salty or have a shar' lavour% such as 'ic+les and s'ices. Salty oods are harm ul or the eyes. A meal should consist o oods belonging to certain categories ollo0ing in a s'eci ic order. According to these 'rinci'les% 2delicate% gentle and 0atery oods2 should be eaten irst. So% or e3am'le% sou' is ta+en irst% ollo0ed by tirid C>)D% meat and other oods. *he ailure to digest bread is more harm ul than it is or meat. Follo0ing 'hysical e3ertion or hard 0or+ the body becomes heated and at such times delicate 5na$ik6 oods such as mil+% resh ish% 0ild a'ricots% 'eaches and melons should be avoided. *his is because oods entering the stomach 0hen it is heated are corru'ted% and these corru'ted oods then disru't the humours. 12. Food %om7inations to &.oid Harm Certain oods are thought to be harm ul i eaten together. 1ttoman medical 0riters give the ollo0ing advice on this sub#ect:

;ishes made 0ith yoghurt and unri'e gra'es should not be eaten together. "lums% 0ild a'ricots% 'eaches and sour 'omegranates should not be eaten one a ter another.

;ishes 0ith vinegar should not be eaten together 0ith dishes containing unri'e gra'es% salt ish or dried meat. Bice should not be eaten 0ith vinegar.

Joung 'igeon should not be eaten 0ith garlic% onion and mustard. $ these three oods are eaten together 0ith young 'igeon they boil the blood% 0hich causes s+in 'roblems. Chic+en should not be coo+ed 0ith yoghurt. Chic+en should not be eaten together 0ith ish.

Chic+en together 0ith sour oods should be eaten in moderation. *hese cause abdominal 'ain 0hen eaten in large quantities. $ced 0ater should not be drun+ a ter ruit. ,oney should not be eaten together 0ith the honeycomb.

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1nion should not be eaten together 0ith garlic. ;rin+ing mil+ and 0ine on the same day causes gout.

Fresh ish% mil+% mil+ oods% resh cheese and eggs should not be eaten together. Among the oods that should not be eaten 0ith ish% eggs come irst. $t is even claimed that death may result rom neglecting this dietary rule.

1ne should not drin+ 0ater a ter eating ish% but 'atiently 'ut u' 0ith being thirsty. 1ne should not eat yoghurt 0ith ish.

9ating meat% es'ecially the meat o land animals% together 0ith ish is very harm ul and the cause o chronic disease. 13. ,ietar' 8ules according to Temperament

Figure -: Sou' coo+s. 5+lbum% *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% Ahmed $$$ Collection% MS -.=E6. Source: &urkish 'edical %istory through 'iniature (ictures )*hibition% 'ublished by Nil Sari-Fl+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

9ach individual should eat in accordance 0ith their o0n tem'erament. ?hen 'eo'le have a balanced tem'erament and are there ore in good health their diet should consist o the ollo0ing: meat% in 'articular lamb% veal or goat<s meat: 0heat: an a''ro'riate s0eetmeat: a ragrant and 'ure beverage. Foods a'art rom these serve to 'rotect the health or treat diseases. ;ishes such as those made 0ith vegetables that do not satis y the a''etite or long should be eaten less o ten in 0inter and more o ten in summer.

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"eo'le 0ith a hot tem'erament should ta+e ood and beverages that are light and o a cold quality. $n the mornings these 'eo'le should eat one or t0o morsels o bread soa+ed in a sour sherbet made o 'omegranate% sour gra'e% sour a''le or lemon #uice% and drin+ a sour sherbet o this +ind. ;ishes such as sour sherbet% ste0 0ith unri'e gra'es% ste0 0ith 'lums% ste0 o lentils 0ith vinegar% or marro0 kalye C>=D are 'ro'er nutrients or a 'erson 0ith a hot dis'osition. ;ue to its cold quality ish calms hot humours and is there ore bene icial or 'eo'le 0ith hot tem'eraments. $ a 'erson 0ith a hot tem'erament eats ish they should drin+ o3ymel or some vinegar. $ a 'erson 0hose stomach is very hot eats late it 0ill cause a headache. A 'erson 0ho gets 2hot2 a ter meals should be care ul not to eat ast and should divide the meal into t0o small meals. A 'erson 0ho is 'hlegmatic% that is% has a moist and cold tem'erament should eat gentle and hot oods: or e3am'le% mutton and chic+'ea sou'% young 'igeon% s'arro0% and hot herbs such as mastic% cinnamon and cumin. "lum' 'eo'le 0ith a moist tem'erament should eat red meat ried in 0alnut oil or olive oil% and seasoned 0ith cumin% cinnamon and garlic. 1ne dirhem o 'ounded blac+ 'e''ercorns tied in a 'iece o muslin and coo+ed 0ith chic+'ea sou' lends strength to the dish. 7ecause ish have a cold and moist quality and increase 'hlegm% they are harm ul or those 0ith a cold tem'erament and those 0ith 'hlegm in the stomach. An e3cess o 'hlegm is harm ul or the nerves and brain% causing lumbago% a'o'le3y and 'aralysis. *o e3'el this harm ul 'hlegm rom the body% la3ative herbs% hot 0ater or honey 0ith vinegar should be ta+en. "eo'le 0ith a cold and dry melancholic tem'erament should eat moist oods and avoid dry oods such as millet% lentils% dried meat and salty oods. For e3am'le% salt ish seasoned in vinegar% a dry and cold oodstu % 'revents the building u' o yello0 bile in the stomach% 0hich causes indigestion and an increase o blac+ bile% resulting in uruncles and itching. "eo'le 0ith a choleric tem'erament and dry nature should eat cold and moist oods: or e3am'le% noodles% s'inach coo+ed 0ith rice and meat. Foods li+e salt ish% 0hich is hot and dry% should be avoided since the 'o0er o the salt causes an increase in yello0 bile. 14. &d9usting ,iet &ccording to the :eason

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Figure 14: *he "alace head co ee ma+er 5+lbum% *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% Ahmed $$$ Collection% MS -.=E6. Source:&urkish 'edical %istory through 'iniature (ictures )*hibition% 'ublished by Nil Sari-Fl+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

Foods are closely related to the seasons% because the seasons a ect the density o the humours. *here ore% diet should also be ad#usted according to the season. *he nature o s'ring is hot and moist. So cold and dry oods should be eaten in am'le amounts in the mornings and evenings as these 'revent the blood rom being corru'ted. 8ery s0eet oods that have bad e ects on the blood should be avoided. ;uring s'ring% oods such as meat and sherbet should be consumed. *he nature o summer is hot and dry. 7ecause yello0 bile increases in summer% oods that activate or 'roduce yello0 bile should not be eaten: 0hile oods that cause the body to become cold and moist should be consumed in am'le amounts. Sour oods and beverages are very a''ro'riate or summer. Foods that decrease yello0 bile% such as ruits% the #uice o 'omegranates% unri'e gra'es% lemons% roses and a''les: cold vegetables li+e cucumbers% marro0 and 'urslane% and dishes or sou's lavoured 0ith vinegar and other sour ingredients are bene icial. Foods 'reserved in brine% and those that are salty% s'iced or have a strong lavour should be avoided in summer.

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$n autumn blood decreases and blac+ bile increases. *he tem'erament o this season is cold and dry. *here ore during this season one should avoid dry and salty ood% instead eating oods that are hot and moist. ;uring 0inter 'hlegm increases and there ore one should avoid oods and beverages that increase this humour. *he nature o this season is cold and 0et% so it is a''ro'riate to eat hot and dry oods during 0inter: or e3am'le% dishes coo+ed 0ith garlic% onion or s'ices such as 'e''er and ginger: roast meat 5kebab6 and s0eetmeats. Cold yahni C-ED should be avoided in the 0inter. ;ishes should be consumed hot in 0inter% and cold or 0arm in summer. At the same time oods and beverages should not be either e3cessively cold or e3cessively hot. *here is a list o dishes to be eaten according to the season in a document 5;.=&==6 in the *o'+a'i "alace archive. $n this document the dishes are listed by the season% ta+ing into account the humoral theory that orms the basis o classical 1ttoman medicine. For e3am'le% in summer% sour ood and beverages% ruits and vegetables 'redominate and s'ices are avoided% as 'rescribed or 'eo'le 0ith a hot dis'osition: 0hereas in 0inter% coarse oods such as +ebabs and s0eets% and dishes seasoned 0ith s'ices are recommended. *he dishes consumed throughout the our seasons% such as 'ila 0ith meat and chic+en +ebab% are those classi ied as 2moderate2% and do not u'set the humoral balance. *he document is entitled 2an account o oods a''ro'riate or the our seasons2. 7elo0 are some e3am'les o daily menus recommended or the summer months: :ummer :eason: Additional light sou's should be coo+ed rom the beginning o summer to the end and hot 'lants 5s'ices6 should be avoided. ,riday- Fried 'ila 0ith meat C-1D% sour gra'e sou'% stu ed aubergine% barberry C->D sou'% 'lain chic+en sou' 0ithout rice% chic+en +ebab. !aturday- Bice coo+ed 0ith mil+% marro0 burani C--D 0ith unri'e gra'es C-/D% lemon sou'% chic+en sou' 0ith lemon #uice% chic+en +ebab. !unday- 8egetable 'ila % +alye 0ith S0iss chard% stu ed marro0 0ith unri'e gra'es% chic+en sou' 0ith sour 'omegranate #uice% and chic+en +ebab. 'onday- "ila % sumac C-&D sou'% ried marro0% meat kalye 0ith lemon #uice% 'lain chic+en sou'% chic+en +ebab. &uesday- "ila % marro0 coo+ed 0ith unri'e gra'es% pide C-.D 0ith marro0 illing% rice coo+ed 0ith sour #uiceC-(D% chic+en sou'% chic+en +ebab. .ednesday- Bice coo+ed 0ith mil+% ried aubergine 0ith meat% bozca sou' C-)D% mint sou'% chic+en sou' 0ith lemon #uice and eggs% chic+en +ebab. &hursday- So t boiled rice% ried marro0% tutmac C-=D 0ith sour #uice% 0hite sou' C/ED 0ith sour 'omegranate #uice% chic+en +alye 0ith chic+'eas and onion% chic+en +ebab.

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From time to time these seasonal dishes may be re'laced by the ollo0ing dishes: Noodle sou'% umac sou' C/1D% sour almond sou'% sour sou's% +alye 0ith sour #uice% hekim asi C/>D. 1 . )eal Times and &mounts

Figure 11: A 'arade o syru' ma+ers. 5!urnme-i %mayun% year 1&)>6. *o'+a'i "alace Museum !ibrary% MS ,1-//.6. Source: &urkish 'edical %istory through 'iniature (ictures )*hibition% 'ublished by Nil Sari-Fl+er 9r+e% $stanbul: $S,$M% >EE>.

*here is nothing so harm ul as becoming e3cessively hungry or eating to e3cess. Meals should not be eaten be ore one is really hungry% nor delayed or long a ter one is really hungry. $ the a''etite is not ul illed% the stomach becomes u'set and illed 0ith un0holesome 5fsid6 humours. ?hen there is true hunger% one should not delay eating. *he meal should be eaten 0ith a 2loyal a''etite2 5sdik istih6% that is% a real a''etite% but one should sto' eating be ore the a''etite is entirely satiated. $t is better to eat quic+ly and leave the table rather than sit all through the re'ast eating continuously and unnecessarily. 7ecause 0hen a re'ast is 'rotracted% the ood eaten earlier is digested% but that eaten later is not% giving rise to disorders. 1ne should not eat too soon a ter a re'ast% but 0ait until the 'revious meal has been digested% to avoid harm ul e ects. $ one is obliged to eat% then one should lie do0n and rest or a 0hile a ter eating% and then do slo0 but 'lenti ul e3ercises. *o hel' digestion one should ta+e some cvris C/-D as a''ro'riate to the tem'erament. 1ver-eating brings about accumulation o blood and satiation. 93cessive consum'tion o either ood or beverages is very harm ul and could even cause death rom congestion.

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"re erably meals should be arranged as ollo0s: three times every t0o days: that is% morning and evening meals on one day and lunch on the second day. ,o0ever% a 'erson 0ho is in the habit o eating t0ice a day becomes 0ea+ i they start to eat once a day. And i a 'erson in the habit o eating once a day then starts eating t0ice a day% they become 0ea+ and su er rom indigestion and distension o the stomach. 1$. Importance &ttached to Food /reparation and to the %oo; $n ormation about the 're'aration o ood to be used in 'rotecting against and treating diseases is ound in boo+s called mfredt 5materia medica6 and mrekkebt 5com'ound medicines6 consisting o recei'ts or drugs and medicaments% as 0ell as in general medical 0or+s. *he sub#ect o 0hich coo+ing methods and ingredients should be used to ma+e a dish healthier is regarded as an integral 'art o medical science. *his can be illustrated by the ollo0ing e3am'le recommending that ish be coo+ed in vegetable oils o various +inds: 2C ishD should be coo+ed in 0alnut oil or olive oil% and should be served s'rin+led 0ith 'e''er: or it should be coo+ed in sesame oil% 0alnut and almond oil. *his latter method 'rovides s'ecial 'rotection against the harm ul e ects o ish2. $n another e3am'le 2grilling ish 0ith unri'e gra'e and sumac2 is described as 2the most a''ro'riate coo+ing method2 and 2better2 than rying in oil. $t 0as essential that the 'erson 0ho 're'ared the ood and beverages so crucial to human health be an e3'ert. ?hen the close relationshi' bet0een ood and health in 1ttoman medicine is considered the im'ortant role o the coo+ in the treatment o 'atients can be understood. For e3am'le% the 'erson a''ointed as tabbah5coo+6 to a hos'ital 're'ared not only ood or the 'atients but also syru's and medicaments +no0n asmatbht C//D% al0ays ollo0ing reci'es and ormula 'rescribed by the 'hysician 2according to the tem'erament o the 'atients2. *he im'ortance given to nutrition in the treatment o 'atients is clearly evident in the endo0ment deeds o hos'itals. For e3am'le% the endo0ment deed or the Fatih Sultan Mehmed oundation 5vakif6 s'eci ies that 2t0o ine u'standing coo+s2 be a''ointed to 're'are meals or the 'atients in the hos'ital. *hese t0o coo+s must 20or+ hard to lighten the 0retched 0ounded hearts o the 'atients: coo+ ood to nourish the li e orce o these su ering 'eo'le 0hose s+ins are as sallo0 as an autumn lea % 0ho are a licted by so many troubles% debilitated by diverse ailments% in need o com'assion% in des'air o a cure.2 *heir 0ages 0ere three ak/e a day. 9vliya Gelebi 0rites that in the ,os'ital o 7ayezid $$ in 9dirne delicious dishes 0ere distributed rom the +itchen to every 'atient% 0hether their illness be mental or 'hysicial% and each dish 0as 're'ared in accordance 0ith their individual needs. $n the endo0ment deed o the hos'ital it is em'hasised that the coo+s 're'are diet ood in accordance 0ith the instructions o the 'hysicians: 2*0o ca'able% clean% honest% u'right master coo+s shall do their utmost to coo+ 0hatever dishes the 'hysicians may 'rescribe according to the malady o each 'atient in the mental hos'ital +itchen: and to carry out all the duties 0hich by custom are their res'onsibility quic+ly and in a cleanly manner.2 At the SAleymaniye ,os'ital 0e ind that our master coo+s are to be em'loyed: t0o res'onsible or beverages and t0o or ood. $t is s'eci ied in the endo0ment deed that the t0o 2beverage coo+s2 5tabbh-i ashrba6 be 'eo'le 2accom'lished and e3'ert% 0hose s+ill at coo+ing syru's has been clearly demonstrated% and 0ho 0ill serve unceasingly 0ith com'lete dedication% endeavour and 'erseverence.2 Mean0hile the t0o 2 ood coo+s2 5tabbh-i at'ima6 must be 'eo'le 20hose understanding and +no0ledge o coo+ing ood is com'lete in every 0ay2 and they are e3'ected to 2're'are diet dishes and other oods in accordance 0ith the instructions given by the 'hysician to suit the dis'ositions% tem'eraments and maladies o the 'atients% and ma+e sure that the lavour and other attributes o the ood they coo+ is as it should be.2

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*he conditions laid do0n or the t0o coo+s to be a''ointed to the Ati+ 8alide ,os'ital 0ere as ollo0s: 2they shall coo+ oods a''ro'riate or the 'atients such that a clever master 'hysician may 'lace trust and con idence in them% and they shall be diligent and ta+e great 'ains that the ood they coo+ shall arouse the a''etite o the 'atients.2 *he ,alvahane 5,alva Kitchen6 at *o'+a'i "alace is o 'articular note in illustrating the im'ortance attached to the +itchen and the coo+ 0ith res'ect to health. As 0ell as 're'aring s0eet dishes o all +inds or the table the ,alvahane 0as also a dis'ensary 0here medicines in the orm o tissanes% 'reserves% sherbets and macun5a ty'e o electuary% having a so t te3ture and s0eetened 0ith honey or sugar6 0ere 're'ared. A boo+ +e't by the ,alvahane coo+s discovered by Nasid 7aylav and translated by him into modern *ur+ish contains numerous recei'ts or medicines C/&D. "alace 'hysicians used ood and beverages to 'rotect the health and treat the medical disorders o members o the 'alace household. A re'ort by the chie 'hysician dated 1E February 1->. 5>- February 1=116 'reserved in a *reasury Begister sho0s clearly ho0 'hysicians attached im'ortance to coo+ing as an integral 'art o medical care right u' to the end o the 1ttoman 'eriod: 2,ere0ith it is strictly commanded that as a medical necessity s'ecial care shall be given to coo+ing the chic+en and lamb cutlets or the table o her ladyshi' the irst avourite% that chic+en coo+ed in various 0ays shall be 'rovided every day% and that similar care shall be ta+en 0hen coo+ing cutlets and other dishes or her.2 1(. /rescriptions "or Foods and 5e.erages <ritten 7' /h'sicians "or &iling )em7ers o" the /alace Household 1ttoman 'hysicians 'rescribed 'articular oods and beverages as 'art o their treatment. ,o0ever% $ had never seen any surviving medical 'rescri'tions o this +ind 0ritten or 'articular 'atients until some e3am'les 0ere discovered in a *reasury register. *hese 'rescri'tions 0ritten by the chie 'hysician and other 'hysicians used such 'hrases as 2by medical necessity2% 20ith regard to hisLher ailment2% 2as a''ro'riate or health2% 2in accordance 0ith medical requirements2 and 2as medical science requires2 to e3'lain the diet s'eci ied. *hese documents sho0 ho0 seriously the relationshi' bet0een ood and medicine 0as regarded in 1ttoman medical 'ractice. ?e can assume that similar documents o an earlier date remain to be discovered. 93am'les o such 'rescri'tions in the orm o medical re'orts to the 'alace authorities given belo0 reveal that 'reventive and clinical medicine continued to attach im'ortance to ood and beverages until the early >Eth century. Since traditional medicine had already been su'erseded by 9uro'ean medicine in both medical training and 'ractice% it is conceivable that traditional a''roaches to diet had been observed to 'roduce avourable results. 7elo0 are some e3am'les rom the irst 'age o the register containing dietary 'rescri'tions 0ritten or members o the 'alace household or curative or 'reventive 'ur'oses: 2*his re'ort here0ith submitted 'rescribes as a medical requirement a bo0l o yogurt 'er day or her lady chie cler+ o the ,arem. > March o the year ->( 51& March 1=116. Chie "hysician.2 2*his re'ort 'rescribes that "eyvend +al a o the ,arem !aundry 1 ice be given chic+en and sou' or ive days in accordance 0ith the dictates o medical science. 1= March o the year ->( 51 A'ril 1=116. 9vlamyus.2

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2*his re'ort 'rescribes that as a''ro'riate or her ailment 7edrsa a +al a shall be given mutton cho's and a''le com'ote every day until a second re'ort shall be submitted. >( March o the year ->( 5= A'ril 1=116. Nizameddin.2 2*his re'ort here0ith submitted 'rescribes that or medical reasons the meal on the table o ,er ,ighness the mother o ,is ,ighness "rince Nazim shall consist o 0ell coo+ed cutlets% and sometimes grilled meatballs and occasionally ried meat% and that sometimes mil+ 'udding and 'asta shall be 'rovided. >= March o the year ->( 511 A'ril 1=116. ,ead-'hysician.2 2*his re'ort here0ith submitted 'rescribes that Nevin +al a o the ,arem *reasury 1 ice be given noodle sou' made 0ith chic+en stoc+% mallo0 and o+ra every morning and evening or a 0ee+. 11 A'ril o the year ->( 5>/ A'ril 1=116. Nazi .2 2*his re'ort has here0ith been 0ritten concerning the illness o Nevin Kal a o the ,arem *reasury 1 ice% 'rescribing that boiled chic+en and t0o cutlets be added to her meals on alternate days or the 'eriod o a 0ee+. 1/ A'ril o the year ->( 5>( Nisan 1=116. Nazi 2 2*his re'ort 'rescribes that 0ith res'ect to the illness o the honorable Nevin o the ,arem *reasury 1 ice she shall be served as ormerly 0ith chic+en and cutlets on alternate days% together 0ith articho+es coo+ed 0ith minced meat in meat stoc+% marro0 kalye and stu ed marro0 to be served in turn% instead o sou' and o+ra and mil+ 'udding. >E A'ril ->( 5- May 1=116. Nazi .2 2*his re'ort 'rescribes that on medical grounds the honorable chie clar+ shall be given our resh eggs every day or a month. > May 1->( 51& May 1=116. Ahmed2 2*his re'ort here0ith 'rescribes that as a medical requirement 7esim Aga% gentleman-in-0aiting% shall be given sou'% cutlets% marro0 and o+ra or three days on account o his illness. >1 Mune ->( 5/ Muly 1=116.2 1+. From Toda'=s /erspecti.e "hysicians 0riting in the 1ttoman 'eriod used to com'ile in ormation ta+en rom various medical boo+s% sometimes adding their o0n e3'eriences to those recorded by earlier 'hysicians. *his meant that 0hile the e ects o a 'articular substance 0ere re'eated in many sources% sometimes quite di erent e ects 0ere attributed to the same substance. $t is di icult to determine 0hether such in ormation 0as ne0 +no0ledge irst recorded by the 0riter. ,o0ever% the use o ood in 'reventive and clinical medicine is a common a''roach to all these 0or+s. Similarly use o the humoral theory to determine the tem'erament o 'atients% their ailments and a''ro'riate medication% and in e3'laining diagnosis and treatment 0as also common to all 'hysicians. As can be seen% most o the methods o treatment by means o oods and beverages that $ have illustrated here 0ith e3am'les rom 1ttoman 'eriod medical boo+s di er considerably rom reci'es to 0hich 0e are accustomed today. Nevertheless there are some similarities bet0een this in ormation and modern culinary 'ractices in *ur+ey today. For e3am'le% ish is still coo+ed 0ith sour ingredients li+e unri'e gra'es% vinegar or lemon: 0e still eat a s0eet course a ter ish% usually halva: and 0e still avoid eating yogurt 0ith ish.

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Such customs% 0hose origin 0e rarely sto' to consider% are relics o traditional medicine that survive in our gustatory tastes. 1-. :ources )anuscripts

9mir Gelebi 5Seyyid Mehmed et-*abNb es-SehNr bi-9mir Gelebi6: +nm$a0 al- &ibb 51.>&6. $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory Museum% no. =.. $bn 7aytar 59bu Mehmed Abdullah b. Ahmed Piyaeddin6: 1itab +l-2mi' al-'ufradt al+dwiya wa al-+gdiye3 *rans. Abdurrahman b. Jusu : &ar0amat al-'ufradt3 SAleymaniye !ibrary% KiliQ Ali "asa% no. (1.L/.

$bn 7aytar 59bu Mehmed Abdullah b. Ahmed Piyaeddin6: 1itab +l-2mi' al-'ufradt al+dwiya wa al-+gdiye3 *rans. ,ezar en ,Aseyin 9 endi: &ar0amat al-'ufradt 51(th century6% SAleymaniye !ibrary% !ala $smail% no. -)=L=% ,amidiye% no. 1E1. and Ayaso ya -(/&.

$bn Sina 59bu Ali el-,Aseyin b. Abdullah6: al-4nn f +l-tibb3 *rans. Musta a b. Ahmed b. ,Aseyin el-*o+adN: &abh$ al-'athn 51)th century6% SAleymaniye !ibrary% ,amidiye% no. 1E1&. $bn-i Seri : 5digr f al-&ibb 51&th century6% $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Medical ,istory Museum !ibrary% no. 1&& and -11. $sa 9 endi b. Ali el-Sa+izN: 'ufradat sa )fendi f +l-&ibb 51(th century6% SAleymaniye !ibrary% ,e+imoglu no. &.( and Jeni Camii no. 11(/: $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory Museum !ibrary% no. &)E.

1itb min al-&ibb f al-+hkm al-1ulliyt wa al-+dviyt al-'ufradt3 SAleymaniye !ibrary% Ayaso ya no. -(/). Mehmed MA<min et-*an+abuni 51..=6: &uhfat al-'umnn. *rans. Ahmed S@nN b. ,Aseyin b. ,asan:6unyat al-'uhassiln f &ar0amat &uhfat al-'umnn 51(--6. SAleymaniye !ibrary% Fatih% no. -&)=: $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory Museum !ibrary% no. -&=% &.>.

NidaN: 'anf' +l-ns3 $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory Museum !ibrary no. &> and .&. SiyahN 5el-KaramanN min 7eled-i !arend ;ervis Siyahi6: 7ugat 'ushkilt-i +0$ 51(th century6% $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory Museum !ibrary no. 1=L> and /1-. SuRrN: &a'dil al-+m$i0a3 $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory Museum !ibrary no.% >(=. &abiatnma 5*ranslated rom "ersian% 1/th century6: $n this 0or+ the relation bet0een nutrition and health is e3amined under the headings% 7read% ?ater% Meat% 8egetables% S'ices% S0eets and Fruits. *he acsimile edition 'ublished by "ro . ;r. $smail ,i+met 9rtaylan has been used.

An old medical boo+ on coo+ing in the Millet !ibrary 5Ali 9miri !ibrary6 MAte erri+ No. 1/- is a valuable source or our ood history. $t contains many reci'es or meat and vegetable dishes% s0eet dishes and sherbets% and s'eci ies their e ects on health.

Peynel Abidin b.,alil: !hifa al-,uad% $stanbul Oniversity Cerrah'asa Faculty o Medicine Medical ,istory and ;eontology Science 7ranch !ibrary% no. -&.

>>

&rchi.e ,ocuments

"rime Minister 1ttoman Archive%: ,att-i ,umayun ;e teri% nr. -E.)..

8,usl-i erbaya mnsib gidlarin beyn edildigi defter8: *o'+a'i "alace Archive No. ;. =&==. *he document lists dishes to be served during the our seasons o the year to the em'loyees o the 'alace. *he archivists date the document to the si3teenth century. /rinted <or;s

Adivar% A. Adnan: 9smanli &rklerinde lim. Bemzi% $stanbul 1=(E.

7ar+an% S.!.: 2Sehirlerin *ese++Al ve $n+isa i *arihi 7a+imindan 1smanli $m'aratorlugunda $maret Sitelerinin Kurulus ve $sleyis *arzina Ait Arastirmalar.2 stanbul :niversitesi ktisat ,akltesi 'ecmuasi% 1ctober 1=.>- February 1=.-% No. 1->. ''. >-=->=..

7ar+an% S.!.: 2Fatih Cami ve $mareti *esislerinin 1/)=-1/=E Jillarina Ait Muhasebe 7ilanQolari2 stanbul :niversitesi ktisat ,akltesi 'ecmuasi% 1ctober 1=.>- February 1=.-% No. $->% ''. >=(--/1.

7ar+an% S.!.: 2Saray Mut aginin )=/-)=& 51/)=-1/=E6 Jilina Ait Muhasebe 7ilanQosu2. stanbul :niversitesi ktisat ,akltesi 'ecmuasi% 1ctober 1=.>- February 1=.-% ''. -)E--=). 7ar+an% S.!.: 2$stanbul Saraylarina Ait Muhasebe ;e terleri2% ;elgeler% *Ar+ *arih Kurumu% No. 1-% vol. $T. An+ara% 1=(=. 7ro0ne% 9.4.: Arabian Medicine. Cambridge Oniversity "ress% !ondon% 1=.>.

;ramur% Bengin: 2,elvahane<de Macun $malN $Qin Kullanilan 9czanin *emini2. &ip <nyasi% v. &=% No. -% May-Mune 1=).% ''. //-.E. 4runer% 1. C.: &he Canon of 'edicine of +vicenna ncorporating a &ranslation of the ,irst ;ook3Augustus M. Kelley% Ne0 Jor+% 1=(E. ,alici% Feyzi: +li )sref <ede'nin 5emek =isalesi3 AtatAr+ KAltAr ;il ve *arih JA+se+ Kurumu% AtatAr+ KAltAr Mer+ezi% An+ara% 1==>. $brahim ,a++i% 9rzurum ,asan+aleli: 'arifetname. vol.-% >nd ed. "ut into modern *ur+ish by *urgut Olusoy% Ahmed Said% $stanbul% 1=(&. KagitQi% M.A.: ;esin 1ilavu$u. $stanbul% 1=/=. K@hya% 9. 5tr6: bn-i !ina )l-1nn fi't-&ibb3 7oo+ 1. AtatAr+ KAltAr Mer+ezi 7as+anligi% An+ara% K@hya% 9. 5tr.6: )l-1nn fi't-&ibb bn-i !ina. 7oo+ >. AtatAr+ KAltAr Mer+ezi 7as+anligi% An+ara%

1==&.

>EE-.

KAtA+oglu% S. M.: 21EE= 51.EE6 *arihli Narh ;e terlerine 4Ure $stanbul<da Gesitli 9sya ve ,izmet Fiyatlari.2&arih )nstits <ergisi% No. =% $stanbul 1=(). Mehmet K@mil: 'elce-i &abbhn. Vsir 9 . Matbaasi% 1>(&L1)&=.

>-

1sman ,ayri MArsid b. ,alil *arsusN: 1en$'s-!ihhat'l-)bdaniye )ser-i 'rsid-i 9smaniye. Matbaa-i 1smaniye% $stanbul% 1>=)L1))1. Szden% M.A.: 2$bn Sina *ibbina 7ir 7a+is2 7AyA+ *Ar+ Filozo ve *ib Fstadi $bni Sina Sahsiyeti ve 9serleri ,a++inda *et+i+ler.2 *Ar+ *arih Kurumu% Series: 8$$% No. 1% $stanbul% 1=-(. (hilosophy of 'edicine and !cience3 (roblems and (erspectives. Com'iled by ;e'artment o "hiloso'hy o Medicine and Science. $nstitute o ,istory o Medicine and Medical Besearch% Ne0 ;elhi 1=.>.

Sari% Nil: 21smanli "alace<nda Jeme+lerin Mevsimlere 4Ure ;Azenlenmesi ve ;evrin *ababetiyle $lis+isi2. 1 'rint rom &rk 'utfagi !empo$yumu ;ildirileri >? )kim-? 1asim ?@A?% An+ara% 1=)>% ''. >/&->&(.

Sari% Nil: 21smanlilarda Jeme Adetlerinin Klasi+ ;evir *i' Anlayisi ile $lis+isi2. Catering 6ourmet% BUnesans% $stanbul% 1=)(% ''. >>--E. Sari% Nil: 2*Ar+ *i' *arihinde Jeme+ ile *i' Arasinda+i $lis+iye Ait Srne+ler 5*he Belation 7et0een Food and Medicine in *ur+ish Medical ,istory62. Bnd nternational ,ood Congress &urkey ">-?C !eptember ?@AA#% Konya KAltAr ve *urizm 8a+ i% An+ara% 1=)=% ''. -=>-/E>.

Sari% Nil% M. 7edizel PAl i+ar 5Aydin6: 27eslenme ile Sagli+ Arasinda Kurulan $lis+i ve *abiatn@me2. ;ursa &ip &arihi 6nleri !empo$yumu "?D-?E 'ayis ?@@B# 1onferans ve ;ildiri F$etleri% *Ar+ *i' *arihi Kurumu ve Oludag Fni. *i' Fa+Altesi *i' *arihi ve ;eontolo#i Anabilim ;ali% $stanbul% 1==>% ''. >..

Sari N% 7. PAl i+ar: 2$slam *ibbindan 1smanli *ibbina Kuslarla *edavi2. G3 'illetlerarasi 5emek 1ongresi ">-H )yll l@@B, 1onya# ;ildirileri3 Konya KAltAr ve *urizm 8a+ i% 1==-% ''. >&=->(l. Sari N% M. 7. Aydin: 21smanli *i' Jazmalarinda 7ali+ "isirme ve Meal *ari leri. G3 'illetlerarasi 5emek 1ongresi "?-> )yll l@@D, +nkara# ;ildirileri% AtatAr+ KAltAr Mer+ezi 7as+anligi% 1==/% ''. >&E>&..

Sari N% 7. Aydin: 2*i' Jazmalarinda 7ali+la *edavi2. &arih ve 'edeniyet 1==&% No. >>% ''. &(-.E.

Sari N: 21smanli ;arAssi alarina *ayin 9dilece+ 4Urevlilerde Aranan Niteli+ler.2 5eni &ip &arihi +rastirmalari% No. 1% $stanbul% 1==&% ''. 11-&/. Sari N% 7. Aydin: 2Kuslarla *edavi2. &arih ve 'edeniyet% 1==.% No. >-% ''. ./-.).

Sari N% B. *ug: 29nderun-i ,Amayun Kil@r-i ,assa 7as+ullu+Qusu ;ervis Mehmed<in 51(./L&1)/E6 ;Ahn *er+i'lerine Ait Bisalesi2. G3&rk )c$acilik &arihi &oplantisi "D-E %a$iran l@@A# ;ildirileri3 9d: 9. ;Ulen. Marmara Fniversitesi 9czacili+ Fa+Altesi% >EEE% ''. >-)->=(.

Shah% ,. M.: &he 6eneral (rinciples of +vicenna's Canon of 'edicine. Naveed Clinic% Karachi

1=...

*erzioglu% Arslan: %elvahane <efteri ve &opkapi !arayi'nda )c$acilik ")ine ;isher Inbekannte +r$neien m &opkapi-!chloss in stanbul Ind hre ;edeutung ,ur <ie 6eschichte <er (harma$ie#% Ar+eolo#i ve Sanat% $stanbul% 1==>.

&heories and (hilosophies of 'edicine. Com'iled by "hiloso'hy o Medicine and Science% $nstitute o ,istory o Medicine and Medical Besearch% *ughlaqabad% Ne0 ;elhi% 1=(- No. .>. JAcel% ,asan Ali: ;ir &rk %ekimi ve &ibba <air 'an$um ;ir )ser. ;evlet 7asimevi% $stanbul Ollmann% M.: slamic !urverys slamic 'edicine3 9dinburgh Oniversity "ress% 9dinburgh% 1=(). 1=-(.

>/

Fnver% A. S.: &arihte EC &rk 5emegi3 $stanbul Fniversitesi *i' *arihi 9nstitAsA% No. -=. $stanbul%

1=/).

Fnver% A. S.: ,atih <evri 5emekleri3 $stanbul Fniversitesi *i' *arihi 9nstitAsA% No. />% $stanbul 1=&>. 5$n this 0or+ the 7gat/e-i )t'imeJ&ercme-i 1en$'l stiha by Ahmet Cavid% *o'+a'i "alace !ibrary ,azine No. 11).% 0ritten at the end o the eighteenth century is studied in the light o Fnver<s earlier 0or+% ,atih <evri 5emekleri.6

Fnver% A. S. 5tr. ,azmi *ura6: 8 bni !ina'nin &edbirl 'safirin =isalesi83 &rk &ib &arihi +rkivi% 8ol. -% No. 1E% 1=-)% ''. ---/). Fnver% A. S.: 2Anadolu ve $stanbul<da $maretlerin Ashane% *abhane ve Misa irhanelerine ve MAesseslerinin BuhN Kem@llerine ;air.2 stanbul :niversitesi &ip ,akltesi 'ecmuasi% No. 1)% 1=/1% ''. >-=E->/1E.

Jalt+aya% M. S.: 2$bni Sina<nin *ibdan bir Frcuzesi.2 &ib &arihi +rkivi% 8ol. $% No. /% 1=-&% ''. 1>(-

1/>.

Footnotes
C1D 1. ,emloc+ Conium maculatum3 B3 %elleborus. A 'oisonous substance called heleborin is e3tracted

rom some s'ecies o this genus.

C>D Kohud-b: chic+'eas are boiled in 0ater% drained and coo+ed 0ith chic+en or meat stoc+. C-D Although the 0ord gal$ means coarse or thic+% in a medical conte3t it re ers to oods that are di icult to

digest and high in calories% containing large 'ro'ortions o at% carbohydrates or sugar. *he 0ord l$cet% 0hich means viscous% is similarly used. For e3am'le% gal$ oods 0ith e3cess l$cet cause 'hlegm.
C/D %erse: a dish made 0ith mutton and 0hole 0heat grains coo+ed together until tender and then beaten to

a 'orridge.
C&D A 'udding made by coo+ing starch in butter and then adding 0ater and honey or sugar. C.D 6emmae capparidis. 7uds o the Capparis spinos 'lant used to ma+e 'ic+les. *hey are congestive and

strengthening.

>&

C(D Mustard enhances the a''etite. *able mustard is made o seeds o the blac+ 5;rassica nigra6 and 0hite

5!inapis alba6 mustard 'lants.

C)D 13ymel. A drin+ made o honey and vinegar. C=D <irhem: a''ro3imately -.-> grams. C1ED Besin o the mastic tree% (istacia lentiscus var. latifolius. C11D <ank: a measurement that varies over 'lace and time% being equivalent to one si3th or sometimes one

quarter o a dirhem.
C1>D "ric+ly lettuce% 7actuca scariola% or 'ossibly chicory Cichorum intybus. C1-D ;iryan: meat that is irst braised 0ith no or little 0ater and then roasted. $n regional *ur+ish cuisine

this dish is called pren "biryn# and coo+ed in a 'it oven.

C1/D sfidbac: an ancient Arab dish or 0hich meat is irst coo+ed 0ith tail at% chic+'eas% onion% coriander%

dill and almond mil+% and then egg yol+s% cumin and cinnamon are added. *his dish is recorded in in 1ttoman *ur+ish cuisine in the si3teenth century.
C1&D 'arrubium vulgare3 C1.D =uta graveolens3 C1(D Mis+ or mis+et a''le: a ragrant variety o a''le. C1)D (olypodium vulgare3 C1=D Carthamus tinctorius3 Medicaments are 're'ared rom the seeds% 0hich have a la3ative e ect. *he

lo0ers are sometimes added to ood.

C>ED +nethum graveolens. An in usion o the ruits o this 'lant is used or latulence and to aid digestion.

*he aromatic leaves are used as a culinary herb.

C>1D Fennel is used to relieve gastric com'laints and latulence. C>>D Citrullus colocynthis.

C>-D 'arrubium vulgare. *he sa' e3tracted rom this 'lant or s0eets made 0ith this sa'. C>/D 'urabb: Fruit 'reserve in the orm o a #elly or marmalade.

>.

C>&D Sherbets are s0eetened drin+s made o ruit #uice or lavoured 0ith s'ices or herbs. C>.D !arab-i mselles: gra'e #uice or 0ine boiled do0n to a third o the original quantity. C>(D (ortulaca oleracea. 7esides being eaten as a vegetable% 'urslane leaves are ta+en as a diuretic or used as a 'oultice or the treatment o hemorrhoids. C>)D &irid: a dish o bread soa+ed in mil+ or stoc+. C>=D 1alye: a dish o vegetables or ruit coo+ed 0ith small 'ieces o meat that have been ried. C-ED 5ahni: 7oiled meat dishes served 0ith the #uice. C-1D <ne birinc. $n a manuscri't in the Ali 9miri !ibrary the author 0rites that dne birinc 2 attens the body and strengthens the mind. $t strengthens the heart and liver and is a most a''ro'riate ood or those 0ith a sound constitution.2 5 . >)b6. C->D ;erberis vulgaris. ;ried barberries 0ere requently used in coo+ing. C--D ;urn: a dish consisting o a vegetable% o ten aubergine% coo+ed 0ith ried meat% s'ices% sa ron and eggs. $t enhanced the a''etite and 0as said to be a''ro'riate or all tem'eraments. C-/D 1oruk: unri'e ruit% es'ecially sour unri'e gra'es. C-&D *he ruits o =hus coriaria. *he sour sumac ruits 0ere dried and used as a substitute or lemon #uice. C-.D "itta bread. *his ty'e o thin leavened bread 0as o ten s'read 0ith a illing be ore ba+ing in the oven. *he various illings included cheese% and% as here% marro0. C-(D )ksi: the sour #uice o lemon% sumac% 'omegranate etc. C-)D Sou' made 0ith yogurt% chic+'eas and coarsely ground 0heat or barley. C-=D &utma/: noodle sou' 0ith yogurt. *he noodle 'aste is cut into long stri's and then cut cross0ays into narro0 'ieces. *hese are then boiled brie ly in boiling 0ater and coo+ed 0ith onion% butter and minced meat. Jogurt is added i desired. C/ED +k sorba: sou' made 0ith lour and yogurt% or 0ith buttermil+ and hulled 0hole 0heat grains. C/1D Imac sorbasi: sou' made 0ith small noodles coo+ed in 0ater 0ith butter and tomato 'aste. *he sou' is served s'rin+led 0ith mint. C/>D %ekim asi: no reci'e has been ound or this dish.

>(

C/-D Cvris: an electuary or aiding digestion. *hese 0ere in the orm o a 'aste mi3ed 0ith honey. C//D 'atbht: a general name or medicines in the orm o tissanes 're'ared by boiling or stee'ing 'lants in 0ater. C/&D *his translation by Nasid 7aylav 0as later 'ublished by Arslan *erzioglu. L (rofessor Kil !ari, (h3 <3, from stanbul Iniversity Cerrahpasa 'edicine ,aculty, <epartment of <eontology and %istory of 'edicine, is a world e*pert scholar in the history of medicine, slamic medicine and culture and 9ttoman science and medicine3 (rofessor !ari is also a key ,!&C associate3 &his article was first published in 8&urk 'utfagi "&urkish Cuisine#8, edited by +rif ;ilgin-9$ge !amanci, +nkara1ultur ve &uri$m ;akanligi 5ayinlari, BCCA3 .e are grateful to (rofessor Kil !ari, author of the article and, for allowing publication3 &he article was translated from &urkish by 'ary sin3

93cer'ted rom Muslim ,eritage htt':LL000.muslimheritage.comLarticleL ood-medicine-muslim-civilization

>)