Notes 2013a

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
lecture notes (part 1)

c _ Prof. Giorgio Taricco c _
Politecnico di Torino
2013/2014
1 c Prof. Giorgio Taricco c WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
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Basic concepts
Outline
1
Basic concepts
2
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel
Basic concepts
Section Outline
1
Basic concepts
Model of a digital communication system
Band-pass signalling
Problem set 1
Probability
Gaussian random variables
Complex Gaussian random variables
Signal spaces
Problem set 2
Basic concepts
Reference books in Wireless Communications
S. Benedetto and E. Biglieri, Principles of Digital Transmission:
With Wireless Applications. Kluwer.
A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications. Cambridge University
Press.
U. Madhow, Fundamentals of Digital Communication. Cambridge
University Press.
A. Molisch, Wireless Communications. Wiley.
J. Proakis and M. Salehi, Digital Communications (4th Edition).
McGraw-Hill.
T. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice
(2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall.
D. Tse and P. Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless
Communication. Cambridge University Press.
Basic concepts
Reference books in Wireless Communications
S. Benedetto and E. Biglieri, Principles of Digital Transmission:
With Wireless Applications. Kluwer.
A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications. Cambridge University
Press.
U. Madhow, Fundamentals of Digital Communication. Cambridge
University Press.
A. Molisch, Wireless Communications. Wiley.
J. Proakis and M. Salehi, Digital Communications (4th Edition).
McGraw-Hill.
T. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice
(2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall.
D. Tse and P. Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless
Communication. Cambridge University Press.
Basic concepts Model of a digital communication system
CHANNEL MODEL
The main subject of this course is the study of digital
communications over a transmission channel.
To this purpose, it is useful to characterize the model of a
digital communication system in order to get acquainted with
its dierent constituent parts.
TOP LEVEL CLASSIFICATION
The model can be divided into three sections, as illustrated in
the following picture:
1 The user section
2 The interface section
3 The channel section
CHANNEL MODEL
1 The user section
CHANNEL MODEL
1 The user section
TX ENCODER MODULATOR
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
DEMODULATOR DECODER RX
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
user section interface section channel section
C
H
A
N
N
E
L
user section interface section channel section
D D W
W D D
D=digital
W=waveform
ENCODER
Implements source encoding to limit the amount of
transmitted data (for example, voice can be encoded at 4
kbit/s or sent at 64 kbit/s with conventional telephony).
Implements channel encoding to limit the eect of channel
disturbances
MODULATOR
Converts the digital signal into a waveform to be transmitted
over the channel
CHANNEL
Reproduces the transmitted waveform at the receiver
Its operation is aected by frequency distortion, fading,
additive noise, and other disturbances
ENCODER
disturbances
MODULATOR
over the channel
CHANNEL
ENCODER
disturbances
MODULATOR
over the channel
CHANNEL
DEMODULATOR
Converts the received waveform into a sequence of samples to
be processed by the decoder
DECODER
Implements channel decoding to limit the eect of the errors
introduced by the channel
Implements source decoding
DEMODULATOR
Converts the received waveform into a sequence of samples to
be processed by the decoder
DECODER
Implements channel decoding to limit the eect of the errors
introduced by the channel
Implements source decoding
Basic concepts Band-pass signalling
Band-pass signals
A band-pass signal has spectral components in a limited range
of frequencies f (f
2
, f
1
) (f
1
, f
2
) provided that
0 < f
1
< f
2
.
A certain frequency in the range (f
1
, f
2
) (usually the middle
frequency) is called carrier frequency and denoted by f
c
.
The signal bandwidth is B
x
= f
2
f
1
.
f
B
x
f
1
f
1
f
2
f
2
f
c
f
c
It is often convenient to represent band-pass signals as
equivalent complex signals with low-pass frequency spectrum
(i.e., including the zero frequency).
The analytic signal
A real band-pass signal x(t) can be mapped to a complex
analytic signal x(t) by passing through a linear lter with
transfer function 2u(f) = 2 1
f>0
:
x(t) 2u(f) x(t)
The indicator function 1
A
= 1 if A is true, 0 otherwise.
Summarizing:
The analytic signal is a complex representation of a real signal.
It is used to simplify the analysis of modulated signals.
It generalizes the concept of phasor used in electronics.
The basic properties of the analytic signal derive from the
Fourier transform.
The analytic signal (cont.)
If x(t) is a real signal, then its Fourier transform is a
Hermitian function since:
X(f)
=
_

x(t)
e
+j 2ft
dt =
_

x(t)e
j 2(f)t
dt
= X(f)
Therefore, the spectrum is completely determined by its
positive frequency (or negative frequency) part.
Hilbert transform
Since:
X(f) = 2u(f)X(f) = X(f) + sgn(f)X(f) X(f) + j

X(f),
applying T
1
yields:
x(t) = x(t) +j x(t).
The signal x(t) is called the Hilbert transform of x(t):
x(t) x(t)
1
t
=
1
x()
t
d
Hilbert transform (cont.)
Here, the Cauchy principal part of the integral has been taken,
namely,
lim
0,T
_
t
T
+
_
T
t+
x()
t
d
Spectral properties
Assuming x(t) a zero-mean stationary real random process,
we have
G
x
(f) = [2u(f)[
2
G
x
(f) = 4u(f)G
x
(f)
Therefore,
G
x
(f) =
1
4
[G
x
(f) +G
x
(f)]
Moreover,
E[[ x(t)[
2
] =
_

0
4G
x
(f)df = 2
_

G
x
(f)df = 2E[x(t)
2
]
Band-pass signalling
Assume that x(t) is a zero-mean stationary band-pass random
process with bandwidth B
x
and carrier frequency f
c
so that
its power density spectrum is nonzero over the frequencies
f (f
c
B
x
/2, f
c
+B
x
/2) (f
c
B
x
/2, f
c
+B
x
/2)
where f
c
> B
x
/2 > 0.
We dene the baseband complex envelope of x(t) as
x(t) = x(t) e
j 2f
c
t
The complex envelope is sometimes called baseband
equivalent signal.
The complex envelope x(t)
Then, we derive the autocorrelation function and the power
density spectrum of x(t):
R
x
() = E
_
x(t +) e
j 2f
c
(t+)
x
(t) e
j 2f
c
t
_
= R
x
() e
j 2f
c
= G
x
(f) = G
x
(f +f
c
).
Then, the power density spectrum of x(t) is nonzero over the
frequencies f (B
x
/2, B
x
/2), i.e., it is a baseband signal
with bandwidth B
x
/2.
In-phase and quadrature components
The real and imaginary parts of x(t) = x
c
(t) + j x
s
(t) are
called in-phase and quadrature components of the signal.
They can be expressed in terms of the signal itself and of its
Hilbert transform:
_
x
c
(t) = !e[ x(t)e
j 2f
c
t
] = x(t) cos(2f
c
t) + x(t) sin(2f
c
t)
x
s
(t) = Jm[ x(t)e
j 2f
c
t
] = x(t) cos(2f
c
t) x(t) sin(2f
c
t)
The previous relationships can be inverted and yield:
_
x(t) = !e[ x(t)e
j 2f
c
t
] = x
c
(t) cos(2f
c
t) x
s
(t) sin(2f
c
t)
x(t) = Jm[ x(t)e
j 2f
c
t
] = x
s
(t) cos(2f
c
t) +x
c
(t) sin(2f
c
t)
Frequency up-conversion = modulation
The modulation (or frequency up-conversion) of a real signal
x(t) consists in the following operation:
x(t) x(t) cos(2f
c
t).
The modulation of a couple of real signals x
c
(t) and x
s
(t)
consists in the following operation:
[x
c
(t), x
s
(t)] x
c
(t) cos(2f
c
t) x
s
(t) sin(2f
c
t).
In the analytic signal domain, modulation can be represented
as follows:
x(t) x(t) = x(t)e
+j 2f
c
t
.
Frequency down-conversion = demodulation
Therefore, demodulation (or frequency down-conversion) in
the analytic signal domain is represented as follows:
x(t) x(t) = x(t)e
j 2f
c
t
.
Correspondingly, in the real signal domain, demodulation can
be represented by:
_
x
c
(t) = x(t) cos(2f
c
t) + x(t) sin(2f
c
t)
x
s
(t) = x(t) cos(2f
c
t) x(t) sin(2f
c
t)
Frequency down-conversion = demodulation (cont.)
In a real system, demodulation can be implemented by
observing that
MULTIPLICATION BY IN-PHASE CARRIER
x(t) cos(2f
c
t +) 2 cos(2f
c
t +)
= x(t) +x(t) cos(4f
c
t + 2)
In other words, multiplication of the signal x(t) cos(2f
c
t +)
by the phase-coherent sinusoid 2 cos(2f
c
t +) returns the
superposition of
the modulating signal x(t);
another modulated signal with carrier frequency 2f
c
.
Low-pass ltering with bandwidth B
x
eliminates the
modulated signal with carrier frequency 2f
c
.
Demodulator
The following picture illustrates the block diagram of a
demodulator with input:
x(t) = x
c
(t) cos(2f
c
t) x
s
(t) sin(2f
c
t).
x(t)
2 sin(2f
c
t) = 2 cos(2f
c
t +

2
)
2 cos(2f
c
t)
LOW-PASS
FILTER
LOW-PASS
FILTER
x
s
(t)
x
c
(t)
Basic concepts Problem set 1
Problem set 1
1 Calculate the analytic signal corresponding to
x(t) = cos(2f
c
t +).
x(t) = sinc(t) cos(20t).
x(t) = sinc(t)
2
cos(20t).
2 Calculate the baseband equivalent signal corresponding to
x(t) = cos(41t) + 2 sin(39t), f
c
= 20.
x(t) = sinc(t) cos(20t), f
c
= 10.
x(t) = sinc(t) cos(20t), f
c
= 9.
Basic concepts Probability
Topics on Probability
Probability is based on the concept of probability space.
A probability space consists of three parts:
1 A set of all possible outcomes.
2 A set of events, T, which are sets of outcomes.
3 A probability function P : T [0, 1], assigning a probability to
every event.
The probability function is a normalized measure:
Topics on Probability (cont.)
1 A weighted sum of the probabilities of the outcomes in an
event E, if they are nite or countable:
P(E) =
E
P().
In this case, outcomes are also events and have nonzero
probabilities.
2 An integral of the probability density function (pdf) over the
event E, if the outcomes are uncountable:
P(E) =
_
E
d().
In this case, outcomes are not events.
Some technical assumptions on T are made in order that
integration can be carried out (-algebra assumption).
3 In all cases, the following normalization holds:
P() = 1,
that is, the probability of the set of all possible outcomes is 1.
Given two events A, B, we can build the union A B and the
intersection A B:
A B = set of outcomes in A or in B.
A B = set of outcomes in A and in B.
The probability of the intersection is called joint probability
and allows to dene the conditional probability as
P(A [ B) =
P(A B)
P(B)
.
Commonly, we write P(A, B) P(A B).
Conditional probabilities satisfy the Bayes rule:
P(A [ B) =
P(A, B)
P(B)
=
P(B, A)
P(A)
P(A)
P(B)
=
P(B [ A) P(A)
P(B)
.
A useful result is the total probability law:
If the events B
i
, i = 1, 2, . . . form a partition of (i.e.,
i
B
i
= and B
i
B
j
= for i ,= j), then:
P(A) =
i
P(A, B
i
) =
i
P(A [ B
i
)P(B
i
).
By the total probability law, one can obtain the conditional
probabilities P(B
i
[ A) from the P(A [ B
i
):
P(B
i
[ A) =
P(A [ B
i
)P(B
i
)
j
P(A [ B
j
)P(B
j
)
.
The above result nds application in the design of digital
communication receivers where the event A represents the
received signal and the events B
i
represent all the possible
transmitted data in a given framework.
The probability of the union has also some special properties.
For illustration, we interpret events as two-dimensional regions
and their probabilities as the areas of the regions.
A
B
_
_
P(A) P(A B)
P(B) P(A B)
P(A B) P(A) +P(B)
= P(A) +P(B) P(A B)
The inequalities derive from the fact that the area of the union
is always greater than or equal to the areas of each event.
Moreover, the sum of the areas is equal to the area of the
union plus that of the intersection, which is counted twice.
This yields the last inequality.
The previous results can be generalized to the case of m
events:
Lower and upper union bounds
Given a set of events A
1
, . . . , A
m
, the following inequalities hold:
max
1im
P(A
i
) P
_
_
i
A
i
_
i=1
P(A
i
). (1)
Random variables
A discrete real random variable X is characterized by its
probability distribution
p
X
(x
n
) = P(X = x
n
)
for n = 1, 2, . . . , N (where N may become innity).
The expectation operator E[] is dened by
E[(X)] =
n
(x
n
)p
X
(x
n
)
for an arbitrary function ().
Random variables (cont.)
Since the expected value of every constant is the constant
itself, we obtain by denition:
E[1] =
n
p
X
(x
n
) = 1.
This property holds for all probability distributions.
The mean of X is
X
= E[X] =
n
x
n
p
X
(x
n
).
The second moment of X is
(2)
X
= E[X
2
] =
n
x
2
n
p
X
(x
n
).
The variance of X is
2
X
= E[(X
X
)
2
] =
(2)
X

2
X
.
The square root of the variance is called standard deviation.
Continuous random variables are characterized by a pdf f
X
(x)
dening the expectation operator as
E[(X)] =
_
I
(x)f
X
(x)dx,
where J is the support of the random variable, i.e., the set of
values where f
X
(x) > 0.
Again, the expected value of every constant is the constant
itself, so that:
E[1] =
_
I
f
X
(x)dx = 1.
This property holds for all pdfs.
The mean, second moment, and variance are given by
X
=
_
I
xf
X
(x)dx
(2)
X
=
_
I
x
2
f
X
(x)dx
2
X
=
(2)
X

2
X
,
respectively.
Random variables can also be complex. Their properties
derive from the properties of real random variables.
A complex random variable Z = X + j Y has mean
Z
= E[X] + j E[Y ]
and variance
2
Z
E[[Z
Z
[
2
]
= E[(X
X
)
2
+ (Y
Y
)
2
]
=
2
X
+
2
Y
= E[X
2
+Y
2
] (
2
X
+
2
Y
)
= E[[Z[
2
] [
Z
[
2
.
Basic concepts Gaussian random variables
Gaussian random variables
We will be particularly concerned with Gaussian random
variables whose distribution is given by
f
X
(x) =
1
2
2
e
(x)
2
/(2
2
)
and denoted by A(,
2
).
The parameters and are the mean and the standard
deviation of a Gaussian random variable with distribution
A(,
2
).
Gaussian random variables (cont.)
We will often be interested in calculating the probability
P(A(,
2
) > x), i.e., the probability that a Gaussian random
variable with mean and standard deviation exceeds the
real value x.
These probability can be calculated by using the function
Q(x) (referred to as Q-function), which is the counter
cumulative probability distribution function of the normalized
Gaussian random variable A(0, 1).
The Q-function is dened as:
Q(x) P(A(0, 1) > x) =
_

x
1
2
e
u
2
/2
du. (2)
By using the Q-function we can see that
P(A(,
2
) > x) = P(A(0,
2
) > x )
= P
_
A(0, 1) >
x
_
= Q
_
x
_
.
The Q-function cannot be calculated in terms of elementary
functions (such as exp, ln, and trigonometric functions).
However, by applying integration by parts
(
_
udv = uv
_
vdu), we obtain the following simple
inequalities:
e
x
2
/2
2x
_
1
1
x
2
_
Q(x)
e
x
2
/2
2x
.
The upper bound is a good approximation for x 3 and
yields the asymptotic behavior:
Q(x)
e
x
2
/2
2x
.
In some cases, the following crude approximation is used:
Q(x) e
x
2
/2
.
The following diagram compares the Q-function and the two
approximations, which are plotted as the red (
e
x
2
/2
2x
) and
green (e
x
2
/2
) dashed curves, respectively.
We can see that the approximation of the red curve is better
than 10% for x 3.
4 2 0 2 4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Basic concepts Complex Gaussian random variables
Complex Gaussian random variables
We will also consider complex Gaussian random variables with
a special property, namely, that of having zero mean and
independent and identically distributed (iid) real and
imaginary parts.
In other words, if Z = X + j Y , we assume that
X A(0,
2
/2) and Y A(0,
2
/2), where X and Y are
statistically independent.
Complex Gaussian random variables (cont.)
These assumptions lead to the following equivalent pdf
expressions:
f
Z
(z) = f
XY
(x, y)
=
1
2
e
x
2
/
2 1
2
e
y
2
/
2
=
1
2
e
(x
2
+y
2
)/
2
=
1
2
e
|z|
2
/
2
.
The concept can be extended to vectors of complex Gaussian
random variables.
Complex Gaussian random variables (cont.)
If z = (Z
1
, . . . , Z
n
)
T
is a vector of complex Gaussian random
variables with zero mean and covariance matrix
z
= E[zz
H
], then the pdf of z can be expressed as follows:
f
z
(z) = det(
z
)
1
e
z
H
1
z
z
.
In the special case of iid components of z, corresponding to
z
=
2
I
n
, the pdf simplies to
f
z
(z) = (
2
)
n
e
z
2
/
2
,
which is the product of the individual (marginal) pdfs of the
Z
i
s: (
2
)
1
e
|z
i
|
2
/
2
.
Basic concepts Signal spaces
Signal spaces
Signal spaces are linear (or vector) spaces built upon the
concept of Hilbert space, i.e., nite or innite-dimensional
complete inner product spaces.
The elements of a signal space are real or complex signals x(t)
dened over a support interval J, for example J = (0, T).
The inner product of two elements (signals) x and y is dened
as
(x, y) =
_
I
x(t)y
(t)dt. (3)
Signal spaces (cont.)
Correspondingly, the induced norm of x is given by
|x| (x, x)
1/2
. (4)
Accordingly, the set
L
2
(J) = x : |x| <
is dened as a signal space.
Inner products satisfy the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
[(x, y)[ |x| |y|.
If [(x, y)[ = |x| |y|, then the two signals are proportional,
i.e., y(t) = x(t) for some C.
A signal x(t) 1 L
2
(J) if |x| is nite.
The squared norm of a signal x(t) is the signal energy:
E(x) (x, x) =
_
I
[x(t)[
2
dt = |x|
2
.
A nite-dimensional signal space 1 L
2
(J) is identied
through a base [
n
(t)]
N
n=1
.
The elements of a base have the following orthogonality
property:
(
m
,
n
) = 1 if m = n and 0 otherwise.
A signal x(t) 1 L
2
(J) can be represented by the
expansion
x(t) =
N
n=1
x
n
n
(t).
The coecients x
n
in this expansion can be calculated by
x
n
= (x,
n
) =
_
I
x(t)
n
(t)
dt.
In many cases, a signal space 1 is dened as the set of all
possible linear combinations of a set of signals:
1 = /(s
1
, . . . , s
M
)
= x(t) =
1
s
1
(t) + +
M
s
M
(t),
(
1
, . . . ,
M
) C
M
.
The set /(s
1
, . . . , s
M
) is called linear span of s
1
(t), . . . , s
M
(t).
In general, the signal set s
1
, . . . , s
M
is not a base, but a
base can be found by using the Gram-Schmidt algorithm.
The Gram-Schmidt algorithm nds a base (
n
)
N
n=1
of
1 = /(s
1
, . . . , s
M
) by the following set of iterative equations:
For k = 1, . . . , n :
_
_
d
k
= s
k
k1
i=1
(s
k
,
i
)
i
(projection step)
k
=
d
k
|d
k
|
(normalization step)
At every projection step such that d
k
= 0 the corresponding
k
is not assigned and not accounted for in the remaining
steps.
The number of signals in the base is the number of
dimensions of 1.
The Gram-Schmidt algorithm works since, at every step, the
signal d
k
(t) is orthogonal to all previously generated signals
i
(t), i = 1, . . . , k 1. In fact,
(d
k
,
i
) =
_
s
k
k1
=1
(s
k
,
,
i
_
= (s
k
,
i
)
k1
=1
(s
k
,
)(
,
i
)
= (s
k
,
i
) (s
k
,
i
) = 0.
The projection of a signal x(t) 1 over the subspace
} = /(
1
, . . . ,
N
) 1 is a signal x
Y
(t) with the following
properties:
It can be expressed through the base of } as follows:
x
Y
(t) =
N
n=1
(x,
n
)
n
(t).
It is the closest signal in } to x(t):
x
Y
= arg min
yY
|x y|.
The minimum distance is:
min
yY
|x y|
2
= |x|
2
|x
Y
|
2
.
Proof
The previous property can be proved by assuming
y(t) =
N
n=1
y
n
n
(t). Then,
|x y|
2
= (x y, x y)
= (x, x) (y, x) (x, y) + (y, y)
= |x|
2
2!e[(x, y)] +|y|
2
= |x|
2
2
N
n=1
!e[(x, y
n
n
)] +
N
n=1
[y
n
[
2
. (5)
The minimum of |x y|
2
is obtained by minimizing
n
[y
n
[
2
2!e[(x, y
n
n
)] for all n = 1, . . . , N.
Since (x, y
n
n
) = y
n
(x,
n
), we have
n
= [y
n
[
2
2[y
n
[!e[e
j y
n
(x,
n
)]
= [y
n
[
2
2[y
n
[[(x,
n
)[ cos[(x,
n
) y
n
]
Therefore, for a given [y
n
[, the minimum is attained when the
argument of the cosine is 0.
In that case,
n
= [y
n
[
2
2[y
n
[[(x,
n
)[ and the optimum
phase of y
n
is y
n
= (x,
n
).
The minimization over [y
n
[ is straightforward and gives
[y
n
[ = [(x,
n
)[. In this case,
n
= [(x,
n
)[
2
.
Summarizing, the y
n
minimizing |x y|
2
over y } is:
y
n
= [y
n
[e
j y
n
= [(x,
n
)[e
j (x,
n
)
= (x,
n
).
The minimum is:
min
yY
|x y|
2
= |x|
2
n=1
[(x,
n
)[
2
.
A matrix version of the GS algorithm
An alternative approach to the Gram-Schmidt algorithm is
based on standard linear algebra methods.
It can be noticed that the GS algorithm leads to expressions
of the orthogonal base signals of the following type:
i
(t) =
ji
C
ij
s
j
(t).
These equations can be written in matrix form as follows:
= Cs,
where = (
1
(t), . . . ,
N
(t))
T
and s = (s
1
(t), . . . , s
M
(t))
T
.
C is a lower triangular matrix.
A matrix version of the GS algorithm (cont.)
From the previous equation we get
(,
T
) = (Cs, s
T
C
T
) = C(s, s
T
)C
T
.
The lhs is the identity matrix I
N
since (
i
,
j
) =
ij
.
The rhs can be written as C
s
C
T
where the matrix
s
is
the Gram matrix of the signals in s(t).
The elements of
s
are (
s
)
ij
= (s
i
, s
j
).
If a signal s
i
(t) is linearly dependent from the signals
s
1
(t), . . . , s
i1
(t), the corresponding row and column of
s
must be eliminated because linear combinations of the
previous row and columns.
A matrix version of the GS algorithm (cont.)
A reduced Cholesky factorization can be applied to
s
leading
to the following matrix expression:
E
s
E
T
= LL
T
where the N M matrix E removes the redundant rows and
columns and L is a square nonsingular lower triangular
matrix.
The previous result leads to C = L
1
E.
As an example, if we have four signals but only s
3
is a linear
combination of s
1
, s
2
,
E =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
The matrix product E(s
1
, s
2
, s
3
, s
4
)
T
= (s
1
, s
2
, s
4
)
T
eliminates s
3
.
Problem set 2
1 Calculate the mean and variance of the discrete random
variable X with probability distribution
p
X
(1) = 0.5, p
X
(2) = 0.25, p
X
(4) = 0.25.
2 Calculate the mean and variance of the continuous random
variable X with probability distribution f
X
(x) = e
x
1
x>0
.
3 Calculate the mean and variance of the continuous random
variable X with probability distribution f
X
(x) = 0.5 1
|x|<1
.
4 Calculate the probability P(X > a) for a Gaussian random
variable X A(,
2
).
5 Show that the variance identity holds:
2
X
= E[X
2
] E[X]
2
.
6 Assume support interval J = (0, 1) from now on.
Let 1 be the linear span of cos(2t) and sin(2t). Determine
if the signal cos(2t +/4) belongs to 1.
Problem set 2 (cont.)
7 Given the signals s
1
(t) = u(t) u(t 0.6),
s
2
(t) = u(t 0.4) u(t 1), and s
3
(t) = u(t) u(t 1),
apply the Gram-Schmidt algorithm to nd a base of
/(s
1
, s
2
, s
3
) [u(t) = 0 for t < 0 and 1 for t > 0 is the unit
step function].
8 Given the signals s
1
(t) = cos(2t) and s
2
(t) = sin(3t), apply
the Gram-Schmidt algorithm to nd a base of /(s
1
, s
2
).
9 Check Schwarzs inequality for the signals
s
1
(t) = u(t) u(t 0.6), s
2
(t) = u(t 0.4) u(t 1), and
s
3
(t) = u(t) u(t 1).
10 Let } = /(s
1
= sin(t), s
2
= cos(3t)). Find the projection
of x(t) = u(t) u(t 1) over } and calculate |x x
Y
|
2
(notice that s
1
and s
2
are orthogonal).
11 Apply the matrix GS algorithm to nd the matrix C
determining the orthogonal base to the set of signals
s
1
= 1
0<t<.36
, s
2
= 1
.36<t<1
, s
3
= 1
0<t<1
, s
4
= 1
0<t<.5
.
Outline
1
Basic concepts
2
Section Outline
2
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel
Linear digital modulation
Digital receiver design
Baseband digital modulation
Band-pass digital modulation
Signal detection
Error probability
Standard digital modulations
Problem set 3
Power density spectrum of digital modulated signals
Comparison of digital modulations
Problem set 4
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel
AWGN channel
This channel model is specied by the equation
y(t) = Ax(t) +z(t) (6)
where:
Channel parameters
A is the real channel gain.
x(t) and y(t) are the channel input and output signals.
z(t) is the zero-mean additive white Gaussian noise process. It has
autocorrelation function and power density spectrum:
R
z
() = E[z(t +)z(t)] =
N
0
2
(),
G
z
(f) =
N
0
2
.
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Linear digital modulation
Linear modulations
We consider the following modulated signal:
x(t; a) =
N
n=1
a
n
n
(t) (7)
where
N is the number of dimensions of the modulation scheme.
The vector a = (a
n
)
N
n=1
represents a modulation symbol
vector and is taken from a nite set / =
1
, . . . ,
M
.
/ is called modulation alphabet or signal constellation.
n
(t) is the nth shaping pulse of the modulated signal.
We assume that each
n
(t) ,= 0 only for t (0, T).
We also assume that (
m
,
n
) =
mn
= 1 if m = n and 0
otherwise (Kroneckers delta).
Linear modulations (cont.)
The signal x(t; a) allows us to send one symbol vector every
T time units so that T is called symbol time, symbol interval,
or signalling interval.
The signal x(t; a) belongs to the Hilbert space 1 generated by
all possible linear combinations of the base signals (
n
)
N
n=1
.
The corresponding received signal
y(t) = A
N
n=1
a
n
n
(t) +z(t) (8)
does not necessarily belong to 1 = /(
1
, . . . ,
N
).
Linear modulations (cont.)
The projection of y(t) on 1 is given by:
y
H
(t) =
N
n=1
y
n
n
(t) =
N
n=1
(Aa
n
+z
n
)
n
(t). (9)
In this expression we nd the nth received signal and noise
components:
y
n
= (y,
n
) =
_
T
0
y(t)
n
(t)dt and
z
n
= (z,
n
) =
_
T
0
z(t)
n
(t)dt
Here, z
n
, is a Gaussian random variable.
A receiver calculating the vector y = (y
1
, . . . , y
N
) from y(t) is
called correlation receiver.
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Digital receiver design
Receiver design
The goal of a digital receiver is to recover the transmitted
symbol vector a from the received signal y(t).
The correlation receiver projects y(t) on 1 to obtain (9) and
outputs the coecients y
n
= Aa
n
+z
n
for n = 1, . . . , N.
In the absence of noise, the correlation receiver outputs a
scaled version (by the channel gain A) of the transmitted
symbol vector.
When noise is present, the receiver guesses which symbol
vector from / was transmitted with the goal of minimizing
the error probability.
This process is called detection or decision.
Receiver design (cont.)
The correlation receiver can be interpreted as a matched lter
by observing that:
y
n
=
_
T
0
y(t)
n
(t)dt
=
_
T
0
y(t)h
n
(T t)dt
= [y(t) h
n
(t)]
t=T
,
where we dened the impulse response of the matched lter
as h
n
(t) =
n
(T t).
Sequential receiver design
The signalling model described can be repeated over many
symbol times.
We can write the sequential modulated signal as:
x(t; a
0
, . . . , a
L
) =
L
i=0
N
n=1
a
i,n
n
(t iT).
The corresponding received signal over the AWGN channel is:
y(t) = A
L
i=0
N
n=1
a
i,n
n
(t iT) +z(t).
Sequential receiver design (cont.)
The matched lter structure lends itself to a sequential
implementation accounting for the transmission of successive
modulated symbols in time.
The bank of matched lters receiver is illustrated as follows:
y(t)
1
(T t)
2
(T t)
.
.
.
N
(T t)
y
i,1
y
i,2
y
i,N
t = (i + 1)T
The output of the nth matched lter at time t = (i + 1)T is
given by:
y
i,n
= [y(t)
n
(T t)]
t=(i+1)T
=
_

y(t
1
)
n
(T (i + 1)T +t
1
)dt
1
=
_
T
0
y(t
2
+iT)
n
(t
2
)dt
2
= A
L
j=0
N
m=1
_
T
0
a
j,m
m
(t
2
+iT jT)
n
(t
2
)dt
2
+
_
T
0
z(t
2
)
n
(t
2
)dt
2
= A a
i,n
+z
i,n
The previous expression holds since the shaping pulses are
orthogonal and time-limited to the signalling interval (0, T).
Therefore,
_
T
0
m
(t
2
+iT jT)
n
(t
2
)dt
2
=
m,n
i,j
.
This is just an extension of the digital receiver operation
described over the rst signalling interval (0, T).
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Baseband digital modulation
Baseband digital modulation
If the symbols a
n
and the shaping pulses
n
(t) are real,
x(t; a) in (7) represents a baseband digitally modulated
signal.
A simple example of digital modulation is the binary antipodal
modulation with alphabet / = 1.
If a = (+1, +1, 1, 1, 1, +1, 1, +1, +1, 1), the signal is
illustrated as follows.
x(t)
t
+1 +1 1 1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 1
g(t)
T
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Baseband digital modulation
Baseband digital modulation (cont.)
Another example (same data symbols).
x(t)
t
+1 +1 1 1 1 +1 1 +1 +1 1
Baseband digital modulations are represented in a
one-dimensional space.
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Band-pass digital modulation
Band-pass digital modulation
Next, we deal with band-pass digital modulations.
We start from the baseband equivalent signal:
x(t; a) = a g(t),
where g(t) is a real baseband signal of bandwidth lower than
f
c
and we assume that a / = a
1
, . . . , a
M
is a complex
modulation symbol.
Then, we obtain the corresponding band-pass signal as:
x(t; a) = !e
_
x(t; a)e
j 2f
c
t
_
= !e(a) [g(t) cos(2f
c
t)]
+ Jm(a) [g(t) sin(2f
c
t)],
Band-pass digital modulation (cont.)
The signal x(t; a) can be interpreted as a two-dimensional
linear modulation.
In fact, it can be represented as a linear combination of:
_

1
(t) = g(t) cos(2f
c
t)
2
(t) = g(t) sin(2f
c
t)
(10)
with coecients !e(a) and Jm(a).
Now, assume that the bandwidth of g(t) is B
g
< f
c
, i.e., its
Fourier transform G(f) = T[g(t)] is equal to 0 for every
f f
c
.
Then, G
2
(f) T[g(t)
2
] = G(f) G(f) has bandwidth
2B
g
< 2f
c
.
Band-pass digital modulation (cont.)
As a consequence,
G
2
(2f
c
) =
_

g(t)
2
e
j 4f
c
t
dt = 0.
Using the above result,
|
1,2
|
2
=
_

g(t)
2
1 cos(4f
c
t)
2
dt =
1
2
|g|
2
and
(
1
,
2
) =
1
2
_

g(t)
2
sin(4f
c
t)dt = 0.
Thus, if |g|
2
= 2, the signals (
1
,
2
) are orthogonal and
form the base of a two-dimensional signal space 1 provided
that the bandwidth of g(t) is smaller than the carrier
frequency f
c
.
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Signal detection
Detection of transmitted symbols
The receiver outputs an estimate of the transmitted symbol a
based on the received signal y(t) over t (0, T).
The rst stage of the receiver converts y(t) into the vector
y = Aa +z
where a = (a
1
, . . . , a
N
) and z = (z
1
, . . . , z
N
).
We dene a generic decision rule (or detection rule):
a(y) = ( a
1
(y), . . . , a
N
(y)). (11)
a(y) maps 1 into the modulation alphabet /.
The decision rule can be optimized according to some
goodness criterion.
Typically, the goal is minimizing the error probability.
Optimum digital receiver
We can write the (average) error probability as follows:
P(e) =
M
m=1
P(
m
)P(e [
m
) (12)
where
P(
m
) is the a priori probability of transmitting
m
.
P(e [
m
) is the probability of error conditioned on the
transmission of
m
.
We notice that
P(e [
m
) = P
_
a(y = A
m
+z) ,=
m
_
,
i.e., the probability that the decision rule returns a symbol
dierent from the transmitted one.
Optimum digital receiver (cont.)
It is plain to see that minimizing the (average) error
probability is equivalent to maximizing the (average)
probability of correct decision P(c) since P(c) = 1 P(e).
Let us dene
The pdf of y given the transmitted symbol : f(y[).
The decision regions
!
m
y : a(y) =
m
), m = 1, . . . , M.
Notice that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the
set of decision regions and the decision rule.
Since the decision rule a(y) is a well dened (i.e.,
single-valued) function for all y 1 = R
N
(the signal space),
the decision regions do not intersect and their union lls 1
itself:
M
m=1
!
m
= 1
(
denotes the union of disjoint sets).

Now, we can write the probability of correct decision as a
function of the a priori probabilities P(
m
), f(y[), and the
decision rule. Since a(y) =
m
for y !
m
, we get:
P(c) =
M
m=1
P(
m
)P( a(y) =
m
[
m
)
=
M
m=1
_
yR
m
P(
m
)f(y[
m
)dy
=
M
m=1
_
yR
m
P( a(y))f(y[ a(y))dy
=
_
H=R
N
P( a(y))f(y[ a(y))dy (13)
Maximizing P(c) requires to maximize the integrand in (13),
which can be accomplished by selecting the symbol /
that maximizes
P()f(y [ )
for all possible received vectors y.
The resulting optimum decision rule is:
a
opt
(y) = arg max
A
P()f(y [ ). (14)
Since applying the Bayes rule, we have
P(
m
[ y) =
P(
m
)f(y [
m
)
f(y)
,
the optimum decision rule is equivalent to maximizing the a
posteriori probability P(
m
[ y).
Thus, the optimum decision rule is called maximum
a-posteriori (MAP) decision.
When transmitted symbols are equiprobable, i.e.,
P(
m
) = 1/M, the MAP rule reduces to a maximum
likelihood (ML) rule:
a(y) = arg max
m
f(y [
m
)
This name comes from the name of the functions f(y [
m
)
(likelihood functions in radar theory).
The decision regions can be represented as follows:
!
m
=
_
_
_
y : P(
m
)f(y [
m
) > P(
n
)f(y [
n
) n ,= m MAP
y : f(y [
m
) > f(y [
n
) n ,= m ML
Special case: The AWGN channel
Proposition. The additive noise components of an AWGN
channel are iid Gaussian random variables with zero mean and
variance N
0
/2.
Proof.
We have, by denition,
z
n
=
_
T
0
z(t)
n
(t)dt
for n = 1, . . . , N.
Then,
E[z
n
] =
_
T
0
E[z(t)]
n
(t)dt = 0
since the additive noise random process has zero mean.
Special case: The AWGN channel (cont.)
Moreover,
E[z
n
z
n
] = E
_ _
T
0
z(t)
n
(t)dt
_
T
0
z(t
)
n
(t
)dt
_
=
_
T
0
_
T
0
E[z(t)z(t
)]
n
(t)
n
(t
)dtdt
=
_
T
0
_
T
0
N
0
2
(t t
)
n
(t)
n
(t
)dtdt
=
_
T
0
N
0
2

n
(t)
n
(t)dt
=
N
0
2

n,n
.
In other words, dierent components of the noise vector z are
uncorrelated (and hence independent since Gaussian), and
each one has variance N
0
/2.
As a result, the conditional pdf of the received vector y is
f(y [ ) = f
z
(y A)
= (N
0
)
N/2
e
yA
2
/N
0
. (15)
It is worth noting that the joint pdf (15) depends only on the
distance of the received signal from the transmitted one
scaled by the channel gain A.
Using (15), the logarithms of the likelihood functions are
readily obtained as follows:
ln f(y [
m
) =
N
2
ln(N
0
)
1
N
0
|y A
m
|
2
.
Since these functions depend on a distance, they are called
decision metrics.
The MAP and ML decision rules can be expressed in terms of
decision metrics for the AWGN channel as follows:
a(y) =
_
arg min
m
_
|y A
m
|
2
N
0
ln P(
m
)
_
MAP
arg min
m
|y A
m
|
2
ML
As a result, the ML decision rule for the AWGN channel is
often referred to as minimum distance decision.
The decision regions on the AWGN channel can be
represented as follows:
!
m
=
_
_
y : |y A
m
|
2
N
0
ln P(
m
) <
|y A
n
|
2
N
0
ln P(
n
) n ,= m MAP
y : |y A
m
|
2
< |y A
n
|
2
n ,= m ML
Here is an example of minimum distance decision regions (aka
Voronoi regions):
(2, 1)
(+2, +1)
(2, +1)
(+2, 1)
Here is another (asymmetric) example of minimum distance
decision regions:
(2, 1)
(+2, +1)
(1, +1)
(+1, 1)
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Error probability
Error probability
Using the optimum decision rule (14) and assuming that
m
has been transmitted, we can see that the symbol decision is
incorrect if one or more of the following events occur:
_
P(
n
)f(y [
n
) > P(
m
)f(y [
m
) [
m
_
.
for n = 1, . . . , M and n ,= m.
Notice that all the pairwise error events contain the
conditioning clause [
m
. This clause is equivalent to the
assumption that
m
was transmitted.
Error probability (cont.)
Thus, the error probability, conditioned on the transmission of
m
, is given by
P(e [
m
)
= P
_
_
n=m
_
P(
n
)f(y [
n
) > P(
m
)f(y [
m
)
_
m
_
where represents the union of events.
The above expression of the error probability is too complex
to calculate analytically, whereas the pairwise error
probabilities (PEPs)
Pairwise Error Probability
P(
m

n
)
P
_
P(
n
)f(y [
n
) > P(
m
)f(y [
m
)
m
_
can be calculated very simply!
Thus, lower and upper bounds are used to approximate
P(e[
m
).
Applying the bounds (1) to the conditional probabilities
P(e[
m
), we obtain
Error probability lower and upper bounds
M
m=1
P(
m
) max
n=m
P(
m

n
) P(e)
M
m=1
P(
m
)
n=m
P(
m

n
)
(16)
Assuming the MAP decision rule over the AWGN channel, and
letting A = 1, the PEPs are given by
Pairwise error probability
P(
m

n
) = Q
_
|
m
n
|
2
+N
0
ln[P(
m
)/P(
n
)]
2N
0
|
m
n
|
_
.
(17)
Equation (17) is based on the Q-function (2) and will be
derived in detail in a problem.
Error probability of binary modulations
The inequalities (16) yield the exact error probability in the
case of for binary modulations (M = 2):
P(e) = P(
1
)P(
1

2
) +P(
2
)P(
2

1
)
= P(
1
)Q
_
|
1
2
|
2
+N
0
ln[P(
1
)/P(
2
)]
2N
0
|
1
2
|
_
+ P(
2
)Q
_
|
1
2
|
2
N
0
ln[P(
1
)/P(
2
)]
2N
0
|
1
2
|
_
.
Error probability of binary modulations (cont.)
With equiprobable signals, i.e., P(
m
) = 1/M, inequalities
(16) yield:
1
M
M
m=1
max
n=m
P(
m

n
) P(e)
1
M
M
m=1
n=m
P(
m

n
)
Here, P(
m

n
) = Q(|
m
n
|/
2N
0
).
High SNR approximation
In most situations, one is mostly interested to the high SNR
(and then low N
0
) case.
Since the Q function decreases very quickly, we can keep in
the bounds only the terms with minimum distance:
d
min
min
m=n
|
m
n
| (18)
and disregard the others which are very small.
To be conservative, we use the upper bound to P(e) and
obtain this approximation:
P(e) N
min
Q
_
d
min
2N
0
_
(19)
where N
min
=
1
M
n
1
n
=d
min
.
Standard plots of P(e)
In most cases, the error probability is plotted in log-log
graphics where
the abscissa is the energy ratio E
b
/N
0
expressed in dB on a
linear scale;
the ordinate is the error probability in logarithmic scale.
E
b
is the energy per information bit. For the uncoded
modulations considered, we have:
E
b
=
E
s
log
2
M
E
s
=
m
P(
m
)|
m
|
2
,
and E
s
is called the energy per symbol.
Bit error probability
In some applications, it is better considering the bit error
probability P
b
(e) than the symbol error probability P(e).
Typically, modulation symbols are assigned to bit vectors (bit
mapping), so that a symbol error corresponds to having a
received bit vector dierent from the transmitted one.
The bit error probability is the average number of errors in the
received bit vector divided by the vector size:
P
b
(e) =
E[N
b
]
log
2
M
,
where N
b
denotes the number of bit errors.
Of course, P
b
(e) depends on the bit mapping.
Assuming high SNR, most errors occur between minimum
distance symbols.
Bit error probability (cont.)
For some modulations it is possible to select a bit mapping
such that all minimum distance symbols dier in their
corresponding bit vectors at only one position (Gray
encoding). For example,

3 + +3
00 01 11 10
In this case, with high probability, every symbol error
corresponds to 1 bit error (out of log
2
M transmitted bits).
In general, we have N
b
= 0 with probability 1 P(e) and
N
b
1 with probability P(e). If the probability that N
b
> 1 is
very small, then
P
b
(e)
0 (1 P(e)) + 1 P(e)
log
2
M
=
P(e)
log
2
M
.
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Standard digital modulations
PAM = Pulse Amplitude Modulation
The alphabet of M-PAM is / = (2mM 1)
M
m=1
.
For example, the constellation of 8-PAM is as follows:

7 5 3 + +3 +5 +7
The error probability of M-PAM is:
P(e) = 2
M 1
M
Q
_
_
6 log
2
M
M
2
1
E
b
N
0
_
. (20)
QAM = Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
The alphabet of M-QAM is
/ = (2m
M 1) + j (2n
M 1)
M
m,n=1
.
For example, the constellation of 16-QAM is as follows:

QAM = Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (cont.)
The error probability of M-QAM is:
P(e) 4
M 1
M
Q
_
_
3 log
2
M
M 1
E
b
N
0
_
. (21)
PSK = Phase Shift Keying
The alphabet of M-PSK is / =
E
s
e
j (2m1)/M
M
m=1
.
For example, the constellation of 8-PSK is as follows:

PSK = Phase Shift Keying (cont.)
The error probability of M-PSK is:
P(e) 2 Q
_
_
2 sin
2

M
log
2
M
E
b
N
0
_
. (22)
In the special case of M = 4 we have:
P(e) 2 Q
_
_
2
E
b
N
0
_
.
Orthogonal modulations
The alphabet of an orthogonal modulation consists of M
vectors in R
M
with a single nonzero coordinate equal to
E
s
.
For example, a quaternary orthogonal modulation is
represented by the following four signals:
1
= (
_
E
s
, 0, 0, 0),
2
= (0,
_
E
s
, 0, 0),
3
= (0, 0,
_
E
s
, 0),
4
= (0, 0, 0,
_
E
s
).
The error probability of an M-ary orthogonal modulation is:
P(e) (M 1)Q
_
_
log
2
M
E
b
N
0
_
. (23)
Orthogonal modulations (cont.)
Two examples of orthogonal modulations are given as follows.
1 Pulse position modulation (M-PPM): Given the signal pulse
(t), the modulated signals are:
x
m
(t) =
M(Mt (m1)T), (24)

i.e., (t) is contracted in time to (0, T/M) and shifted by
(m1)T/M.
2 Frequency shift keying (M-FSK):
x
m
(t) =
2 cos[2(f
c
+mf)t] (25)
where f
c
T and f T are integer numbers.
Asymptotic comparison of digital modulations
Consider two digital modulation schemes with approximate
union bounds to the error probability
P(e)
i
Q
_
_
i
E
b
N
0
_
for i = 1, 2.
The asymptotic behavior of the error probability (when E
b
/N
0
is very large) is dominated by the Q-function term and can be
approximated by
P(e) e
(
i
/2)E
b
/N
0
for i = 1, 2 (we used Q(x) exp(x
2
/2)).
If
1
>
2
, the rst modulation is better than the second
since its error probability is smaller at the same E
b
/N
0
.
Asymptotic comparison of digital modulations (cont.)
The same asymptotic error probability is obtained when
1
_
E
b
N
0
_
1
=
2
_
E
b
N
0
_
2
,
disregarding the
i
.
Hence, we dene the asymptotic gain of the rst modulation
with respect to the second one as the dB-dierence between
(E
b
/N
0
)
2
and (E
b
/N
0
)
1
, which are the E
b
/N
0
ratios required
to have the same asymptotic error probability:
G = 10 log
10
_
E
b
N
0
_
2
10 log
10
_
E
b
N
0
_
1
= 10 log
10
2
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Problem set 3
Problem set 3
1 Derive the PEP (17).
2 Derive the union bound approximation (19) along with the
expression of N
min
by keeping only those terms from the
upper bound
1
M
M
m=1
n=m
P(
m

n
)
corresponding to minimum distance errors, i.e., such that
|
m
n
| = d
min
.
3 Derive the error probability in (20).
6 Check the orthogonality of the signals in (24) and (25).
8 Calculate the error probability of the 32-QAM modulation
characterized by the following signal set:
5 3 1 +1 +3 +5
5
3
1
+1
+3
+5
9 Find the error probability of the binary modulation whose
signals are
s
1
(t) = 1
0<t<0.8
, s
2
(t) = 1
0.4<t<1
, T = 1.
Hint: it is not necessary to represent the signals in a
normalized signal space, only the average energy and the
distance are required.
10 Consider the quaternary modulation obtained by using the
following four signals:
s
1
(t) = A[u(t) u(t T)]
s
2
(t) = A[u(t) u(t T/4) +u(t T/2) u(t 3T/4)]
s
3
(t) = A[u(t) u(t T/4) u(t T/2) +u(t 3T/4)]
s
4
(t) = A[u(t) 2u(t T/2) +u(t T)]
Calculate i) the average energy per bit E
b
, ii) the minimum
distance d
2
min
, and iii) the average symbol error probability
(high-SNR approximation) in the form Q(
_
E
b
/N
0
).
11 Calculate the error probability of a 4-PSK signal set assuming
that the receiver has a constant phase oset that rotates the
decision regions by an angle .
12 Calculate the error probability of an octonary signal set whose
signals are located over two concentric circles with rays 1 and
0.5 +
1.5. The signals are equally spaced over each circle

and have a phase oset of /4 radians between the
corresponding signals over dierent circles.
13 Calculate the error probability of the digital modulation based
on the following four signals:
s
m
(t) = sin
_
5
2T
_
t (m1)
T
5
__
1
|tmT/5|T/5
for m = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Power density spectrum of digital modulated signals
Power density spectrum of digital modulations
The power density spectrum of x(t) =
n
a
n
(t nT),
where a
n
is a wide-sense stationary sequence with
autocorrelation function R
a
(p) = E[a
n+p
a
n
], can be expressed
as the product of two terms:
Power density spectrum: G
x
(f) = S
a
(f) G
(f)
_
_
S
a
(f)

p
R
a
(p)e
j 2pfT
(data spectrum)
G
(f)
1
T
[(f)[
2
(pulse spectrum)
In many circumstances, the bandwidth of a digital signal is
approximated by an expression depending only on the
signalling interval T.
Shannon bandwidth
A common approximation to the bandwidth of a digital signal
is the Shannon bandwidth:
W
sh
N
d
1
2T
where N
d
is the signal space dimension and T is the symbol
interval.
It can be shown that this approximation is very good when
the number of dimensions is large.
However, even with N
d
= 1, the bandwidth overhead is
limited for suitably chosen pulses, as illustrated in the
following example.
Bandwidth of antipodal signals
Consider a binary PAM signal with iid equiprobable symbols
a
n
1. The shaping pulse, (t), is one of the following:
(t) =
_
1
t(0,T)
square pulse
2 sin(t/T)1
t(0,T)
sinusoidal pulse
The power density spectrum is given by G
x
(f) = [(f)[
2
/T,
and (check as homework):
(f) =
_
_
Tsinc(fT)e
j fT
square pulse
2
e
j fT
cos(fT)
2T(f
2
1/(2T)
2
)
sinusoidal pulse
Bandwidth of antipodal signals (cont.)
The following diagram plots the fractional power content
(W) =
_
W
W
G
x
(f)df
_

G
x
(f)df
versus the normalized bandwidth WT (normalized with
respect to the signalling rate 1/T).
This quantity represents the fraction of power of the digital
modulation signal contained in the bandwidth W with respect
to the total power.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
WT
(
W
)

square
sine
One way to limit the bandwidth occupation of a digital
modulation signal consists of extending the duration of the
modulation pulse beyond the signalling interval (0, T).
When the signalling pulse is limited to the signalling interval,
the modulation signal is called full response. When its
duration exceeds T, it is called partial response.
Stretching in time the signalling pulse by a factor
corresponds to an equivalent stretching in the frequency
domain by the inverse of :
(t) (t/) (f) (f) (W) (W).
The price to be payed is related to the generation of
intersymbol interference.
Digital modulations over the AWGN channel Comparison of digital modulations
Key parameters
The performance of dierent modulation schemes is described
by three system parameters:
1 Error probability (symbol or bit).
2 Spectral eciency, i.e., the ratio between the bit rate R
b
and
the occupied bandwidth W.
3 The signal-to-noise ratio E
b
/N
0
.
For N
d
-dimensional signal sets, the occupied bandwidth is
approximately equal to the Shannon bandwidth
W
sh
= N
d
1
2T
=
N
d
R
b
2 log
2
M
Hence, the spectral eciency is given by
b

R
b
W
sh
=
2 log
2
M
N
d
.
Spectral eciency
The spectral eciency
b
grows slowly (logarithmically) with
the constellation size M and decreases rapidly (linearly) with
the number of dimensions N
d
.
For a xed M, PAM modulations have higher spectral
eciency than orthogonal modulations. Therefore,
PAM modulations are used in channels with limited bandwidth
(bandwidth limited channels) and high power.
Orthogonal modulations are used in channels with limited
power (power limited channels) and large bandwidth.
Shannons bound
Shannons theorem yields the maximum bit rate that can be
sustained with arbitrarily low error probability by an
N
d
-dimensional digital modulation with symbol interval T
over an AWGN channel:
R
b
=
N
d
2T
log
2
_
1 +
S
N
_
. (26)
Here, S is the received power, N is the noise power, and S/N
is called signal-to-noise ratio.
We assume that the signal bandwidth is W
sh
= N
d
/(2T).
Shannons bound (cont.)
Since the noise power is N = N
0
W
sh
and the signal power is
S = E
b
/T
b
= R
b
E
b
, (26) can be written as:
R
b
W
sh
log
2
_
1 +
R
b
E
b
W
sh
N
0
_
.
Since the spectral eciency is
b
= R
b
/W
sh
, we obtain:
b
log
2
_
1 +
b
E
b
N
0
_

E
b
N
0
b
1
b
.
Finally, for
b
0, we have
E
b
N
0
ln 2
_
E
b
N
0
_
dB
10 log
10
(ln 2) 1.6 dB.
Shannons bound (cont.)
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
R
b
/W [bit/s/Hz]
E
b
/
N
0

[
d
B
]

Power-limited
region
Bandwidth-limited
region
4-PPM
1024-PPM
2-PAM
1024-PAM
-1.6 dB
Shannon's bound
P
b
(e)=1e-4
P
b
(e)=1e-6
P
b
(e)=1e-8
Problem set 4
1 Derive the power density spectrum formula
G
x
(f) = S
a
(f) G
(f) for the signal

x(t) =
n
a
n
(t nT), (27)
where
a
n
is a wide-sense stationary sequence with autocorrelation
function R
a
(p) = E[a
n+p
a
n
];
S
a
(f)
p
R
a
(p)e
j 2pfT
is the data spectrum;
G
(f)
1
T
[(f)[
2
is the pulse spectrum.
Hint: Consider the (randomly delayed and stationary) signal
x(t ), with uniformly distributed in (0, T), and calculate
the Fourier transform of its autocorrelation function to obtain
the power density spectrum.
2 Calculate the power density spectrum of the signal (27)
assuming that the symbols a
n
are uncorrelated with mean
a
and variance
2
a
.
3 Calculate the power density spectrum of the signal (27)
assuming that the transmitted symbols a
n
have zero mean
and correlation R
a
(m) =
|m|
(where (0, 1)), (t) has
unit energy, and the average signal power is P.
4 Calculate the power density spectrum of (27) assuming that
the transmitted symbols are iid and taken from a 4-PSK
signal set with probabilities (0.7, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1).

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WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

lecture notes (part 1)

X(f) = 2u(f)X(f) = X(f) + sgn(f)X(f) X(f) + j

denotes the union of disjoint sets).

109 c Prof. Giorgio Taricco c WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

111 c Prof. Giorgio Taricco c WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

M(Mt (m1)T), (24)

1.5. The signals are equally spaced over each circle

(f) for the signal

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