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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Contents: Review of subsonic aerodynamics Transonic aerodynamics Supersonic aerodynamics Airplane performance Airplane stability
Literature:
Richard Bowyer: AERODYNAMICS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL PILOT Charles E. Dole: FLIGHT THEORY FOR PILOTS A.C. Kermode: MECHANICS OF FLIGHT, revised by R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot: AIRPLANE FLIGHT D. Stinton: THE DESIGN OF THE AEROPLANE
J.D. Anderson: FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS W.N. Hubin: THE SCIENCE OF FLIGHT H.C. Smith: THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO AERODYNAMICS = 5HQGXOL MEHANIKA LETA

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Review of Subsonic Aerodynamics


Properties of fluid State variables:
Temperature Pressure Density T p [C, F, K] [N/m2 = Pa, bar, atm] [kg/m3]

Equation of state for perfect gas: p = RT


pV = const. T

R = 287 J/kgK

Properties:
Clasification: fluid liquid \ gas Continuum Speed of sound a longitudinal wave motion
a = RT = p

cp cv

= 1.4

R = c p cv

a0 = 340 m/s = 1225 km/h = 1117 ft/s = 661 kts = 761 mph
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Properties of fluid:
Viscosity dynamic viscosity
= dv dy

= (T)

insensitive to changes in pressure air water

0 1.810-5 Pas 0 1.110-3 Pas kinematic viscosity


=

0 1.4610-5 m2/s 0 1.1410-6 m2/s Compressibility


= = 1 d dp =

air water

1 specific volume

1 d dp change in pressure dp results in change of density d


p v p + dp v + dv

d = dp

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Fluid mechanics Buoyancy:


The principle of Archimedes

Continuity equation:
Physical principle: Mass can be neither created nor destroyed
& = Vn A = const. along a streamtube m

Momentum equation:
Physical principle: Force = time rate of change of momentum
Momentum equations for a viscous flow: NavierStokes equations Momentum equations for an inviscid flow: Euler equations

After integration of Euler equations along a streamline for the inviscid and incompressible flow Bernoulli equation can be derived
1 p + V 2 + gz = const. 2

Energy equation:
Physical principle: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change in form

Types of flow:
laminar flow turbulent flow Reynolds number
Re = Vl

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Basic (two dimensional) airfoil theory


Airfoil terminology

Lift generation Kutta-Joukowski condition Pressure distribution


Resultant aerodynamic force Center of pressure Aerodynamic center

Airfoil stall
Thin airfoil stall Leading edge stall Rear stall

Effect of Re, airfoil thickness, chamber High lift devices


Trailing edge flap: flap Leading edge flap: slat

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Wing
3-dimensional flow
Induced drag Downwash Lift distribution along span Effect of aspect ratio on lift and drag characteristic Effect of aspect ratio, sweep and twist on lift distribution along span Winglets

Airplane Arrangement of surfaces


Tailless airplane Conventional Tandem Canard (tail first)

Lift and drag characteristics Propulsion

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Wake turbulence

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Transonic Aerodynamics
Speed of sound a
a = RT = p

a0 = 340 m/s = 1225 km/h = 661 kts at 15C


8 RT 460 m/s = 1650 km/h = 890 kts = 1025 mph

Average molecular velocity =

Influence of temperature and altitude


H [m] 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 10000 11000 20000 T [K] 288 281.5 275 268.5 262 255.5 223 216.5 216.5 a [m/s] 340 336 332 328 324 320 299 295 295 a/a0 [%] 100 99 98 95 94 88 87 87
300 290 0 5000 10000 a [m/s] 340 330 320 310

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Mach number
Flight Mach number
vTAS a - local speed of sound a Local Mach number Ma =

Ma L =

vL aL

aL, vL - speed of sound and speed of flow at point

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course


const. FL and VCAS varying T given Ma varying altitude

} no change in Ma }V
TAS

= Maa

Variation of Ma at varying altitude in the standard atmosphere with constant VCAS and VTAS
VCAS = 100 m/s H [m] 0 1000 5000 10000 11000 15000 20000 T [K] 288 281.5 255.5 223 216.5 216.5 216.5 a [m/s] 340 336 320 299 295 295 295 p [Pa] 101325 89863 53983 26397 22594 12015 5456 [kg/m3] 1.2259 1.1123 0.7362 0.4124 0.3636 0.1934 0.0878 /0 1 0.907 0.601 0.336 0.297 0.158 0.072 VTAS 100 105 129 172 184 252 374 Ma 0.294 0.312 0.403 0.576 0.623 0.854 1.267 Troposphere VTAS = 100 m/s Ma 0.294 0.297 0.312 0.334 0.339 0.339 0.339

Stratosphere

0.35 0.34 = 100 m/S)

1.40 1.20 = 1 0 0 m /s) 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00


0 5000 10000 H [m] 15000 20000
Ma VTAS

490 420 350 280 210 140 70 0 20000 = 1 0 0 m /s) V (V

0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29

Ma (V

M a (V

5000

10000 H [m]

15000

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course Compressibility


= 1 d dp = 1 1 d specific volume = dp

d = dp

change in pressure dp results in change of density d

Isentropic variation of density, pressure and temperature with Mach number Ma = 1 1 = 1 + Ma 2 0 2


1 1

= 0.634 0 p = 0.528 p0 T = 0.833 T0

p 1 = 1 + Ma 2 p0 2

T 1 Ma 2 = 1 + 2 T0

Isentropic variation of density Mach number


1 0.8 0.6
5% variation

/0

0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Ma

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course Subdivision of aerodynamic flow distinction based on the Mach number Subsonic (Ma < 0.8) the airflow around the airplane is completely below the speed of sound Transonic (0.8 < Ma < 1.2) the airflow around the airplane is partially subsonic and partially supersonic Supersonic (Ma > 1.2) the airflow around the airplane is completely above the speed of sound but below hypersonic speed Hypersonic (Ma > 5) the airflow around the airplane is at very high supersonic speeds, leading to stronger shock waves and high temperatures behind it viscous interactions and/or chemically reacting effects begin to dominate the flow
SUBSONIC TRANSONIC SUPERSONIC

Shock wave appear

Shock system fully developed

1 2 Mach number (Ma)


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Kinetic heating effects important

Density changes unimportant

Density changes important

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Propagation of pressure waves

a)

at

b)
at

Vt

c)
shock wave zone of silence

d)

shock wave at

Vt = at

zone of action

Vt

a) body hardly moving Ma 0; b) Speed about Ma = 0.5; c) Speed Ma = 1.0 Body has caught up with its pressure waves; d) Body moving about Ma = 1.9 Angle related to Ma by Ma =
1 = cosec sin

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course Shock wave formation on wings increasing flight Ma
transition point flow breakaway local Mach number MaL = 1.0 incipient shock wave usually near the point of maximum chamber (max. speed) approximately normal to the surface pressure and temperature rise, decrease of speed of flow tendency for a breakaway and turbulent wake

Observation of shock waves light travels more slowly through denser air rays bending towards higher density schlieren method
schlierennem = streaking, striationang

QDUHGLWL SURJH UWH  (UQVW 0$&+

Critical Mach number Macr various definition flight Mach number at which the local airflow at some point reaches the speed of sound flight Mach number at which the first shock wave is formed flight Mach number at which severe buffeting begins (buffet boundary) flight Mach number at which the drag coefficient begins to rise flight Mach number at which the pilot loses the control
Once Macr is exceeded, the airplane is flying in the transonic speed range.

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Normal shock waves


1 Ma1 > 1 shock wave p1 1 T1 V1 2 Ma2 < 1 p2 > p1 2 > 1 T 2 > T1 V2 < V1

Ma 2 2 =

2 1 + [( 1) / 2]Ma 1 2 Ma1 ( 1) / 2

p2 2 2 = 1+ Ma 1 1 p1 +1

( + 1) Ma12 2 = 2 1 2 + ( 1) Ma 1
2 2 T2 2 + ( 1) Ma 1 2 Ma1 1 = 1 + 2 T1 + 1 ( + 1) Ma 1

Ma1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ma2 1 0.58 0.48 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.39

p2/p1 1 4.5 10.3 18.5 29.0 41.8 57.0 74.5 94.3 116.5

2/1 1 2.67 3.86 4.57 5.00 5.27 5.44 5.57 5.65 5.71

T2/T1 1 1.69 2.68


Ma2

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6

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Ma2 p2/p1 r2/r1 T2/T1

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

4.05 5.80 7.94 10.47 13.39 16.69 20.39

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ma1

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p2/p1, r2/r1, T2/T1

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Effects of shock waves Shock wave is an extremely thin region (order of 10-4 mm) across which the flow properties can change drastically. Shock wave is an almost explosive compression process. At the normal shock wave there is
a great rise in pressure a considerable rise in temperature a rise in density a decrease in speed V2 is always subsonic breakaway of the flow from the surface This all adds up to a: sudden increase in drag (up to 10) loss of lift of an airfoil change in position of center of pressure change in pitching moment severe buffeting behind the shock wave Shock drag energy dissipated in the shock wave wave drag increase in profile drag due to breakaway of the flow boundary layer drag
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SHOCK STALL

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Behavior of Airplane at shock stall


- high incidence stall - shock stall compressibility correction factor
1 1 Ma 2

considerable changes in longitudinal trim (usually nose heavy Tuckunder) large control forces buffeting aileron buzz loss of control stability problems: - snaking (yaw) - porpoising (pitch) - Dutch roll

Measures:
machmeter regions of higher temperature slow down or accelerate power controls air brake

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Height & speed range


speed limitations: - high incidence buffet boundary - shock stall boundary variations of speed limitations with height and weight High incidence buffet boundary difference between VEAS and VCAS

coffin corner coffin ang

NUVWD SRORLWL Y NUVWR

Raising the Critical Mach Number supercritical wing section (Whitcomb)


higher Macr higher Madiv (-1965, NACA 64 series) increment between Macr and Madiv supercritical airfoils + relatively flat top lover MaL + weaker shock wave - flat top forward 60% of airfoil has negative chamber lowers lift extreme positive chamber on the rearward 30% - high Cm a.c.
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

slimness
smaller increase of local airflow velocity + + + + + formation of shock wave is delayed increasing Macr reduced intensity of shock wave reduced boundary layer separation reduced drag improved longitudinal handling and stability reduced total lift structural problems

sweepback
component of velocity along span has no effect on the flow across the wing only the component of the velocity across the cord of the wing is responsible for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock wave (shock wave lies parallel to the span of the wing) + higher Macr + lower drag slope and peak drag - swept wing has lower CL comparing to straight wing of same chord and tip stall, pitch-up and high induced drag high minimum drag speed additional wing torsion due to lift aeroelastic effects
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

area rule (Whitcomb)


the area of cross-section should increase gradually to maximum and then decrease gradually

vortex generators
make the boundary layer turbulent + reduced boundary layer drag + weaken the shock wave and reduce shock drag + vorticity can prevent buffeting

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Supersonic Aerodynamics
Mach angle
direction of flight shock wave at
sin = a 1 = V Ma

Vt

the greater the Mach number, more acute the angle compressible flow through convergent-divergent nozzle (Laval nozzle) In a Contracting Duct Subsonic Flow Flow accelerates Air rarefies slightly Pressure falls In an Expanding Duct Flow decelerates Air is compressed slightly Pressure rises Flow accelerates Air is rarefied Pressure falls

Flow decelerates Supersonic Flow Air is compressed Pressure rises


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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course supersonic flow over wedge compressive flow - shock wave angle - change of direction and speed of flow - effect of change of Ma - effect of change of wedge angle supersonic flow over convex corner expansive flow

V2 V1

w1

u1

V2 Ma2

V1 Ma1

u2

w2

w1 = w2

Oblique shock geometry


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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course supersonic flow over airfoil boundary layer and supersonic flow - boundary layer is relatively unimportant in supersonic flow - supersonic flow can turn sharp corners relation between supersonic flow over wedge and cone supersonic wing shapes plan form - at subsonic speeds the airfoil is more important than the plan form of the wing - but at supersonic speeds the plan form of the wing is more important - sweepback increases Macr - leading edge of the wing lies inside the Mach cone - structural disadvantages of sweepback - tip stalling - rectangular wing at high Ma supersonic airfoil sections control surfaces supersonic engine inlets aerodynamic (kinetic) heating

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Airplane Stability
Definitions: Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium when it is in a state of rest of uniform motion in a straight line and the forces acting on it are balanced out. The definition can be extended to cover those bodies in uniform motion in a curved path. There is, in these cases, a resultant force and an acceleration towards the centre of the curved path, but they can be considered as cases of dynamic equilibrium. Stability is property of the equilibrium state and there are two types of stability to consider, static stability and dynamic stability.

Static stability
Static stability is concerned with the forces and moments produced by a small disturbance from the condition of equilibrium. It determines whether or not the body will initially tend to return, of its own accord, towards the equilibrium condition, once the disturbance is removed. a body is statically stable when it tends to return to the equilibrium position a body is statically unstable when it tends to diverge further away from the equilibrium position a body possesses neutral static stability when it remains in the disturbed position Degree of static stability possessed by a body:

Restoring effect produced as a result of the disturbance Magnitude of the disturbance


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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability is concerned with the subsequent behaviour of a body which possesses static stability. The motion consists of either oscillations about the equilibrium position or aperiodic motion. There are once again three possibilities: a body is dynamically stable when the amplitude reduces with time a body is statically unstable when the amplitude increases with time a body possesses neutral when the amplitude remains constant

Airplane stability
airplane is designed mainly from performance considerations, but it must also posses acceptable handling characteristics, if necessary achieved by artificial methods motion of rigid airplane can be represented as translation along and rotation about three mutually perpendicular axes airplane must be controllable stability and control are closely related Assumptions - rigid airplane - conventional arrangement of surfaces

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

System of axes
x, X, u

L, P

C.G.

y, Y, v M, Q N, R

z, Z, w

vrtenje okrog: Y]GROQH RVL valjanje (ang. roll; nem. rollen) RNURJ QDYSLQH RVL sukanje (ang. yaw; nem. gieren) SUHQH RVL " DQJ SLWFK QHP QLFNHQ

axis Ox Oy Oz

Linear velocities

Aerodynamic forces

Angular velocities

Aerodynamic moments

Moment of inertia

Angular displacement s

u v w

X Y Z

p q r

L M N

Ix Iy Iz

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Stability and control are analysed in three planes: MOTION Pitch Yaw Roll STABILITY Longitudinal Directional Lateral

Airplane longitudinal static stability pitch motion


Cm Cm0 A
0 Balanced but unstable Balanced and stable

Cm
b B c C a

Unbalanced and unstable

Cm0
0

Unbalanced and stable

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Possible arrangement of wing and tail surfaces

pozitivna ukrivljenost Cm0 < 0

simetriQL SURILO Cm0 = 0

negativna ukrivljenost Cm0 > 0

a)
MS

Krilo s pozitivno ukrivljenostjo pri CZ=0

Viinski rep s CZ<0

b)
Viinski rep s CZ>0

MS

Krilo s pozitivno ukrivljenostjo pri CZ=0

Wing contribution
Zk
aerodinami center SAT

M0k lSAT Xk k
srednja aerodinami tetiva krila SAT

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course


Zk

Aerodinami center SAT


M0k

Xk

MS zlSAT

k hnk lSAT V hlSAT lSAT

Srednja aerodinami tetiva krila

Cmk = Cm a.c. + a(h ha.c. )

Cmk = Cm a.c. + CZ (h ha.c. )

sink k , cosk 1

Fuselage contribution
a)

b)

Vsin

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Tail contribution
xh Zh
Srednja aerodinami tetiva krila (SAT)

kt- Xh ih

MS zh

kt V V V

Mach

Srednja aerodinami tetiva viinskega repa


 

Aerodinami srednje aerodinami tetive viinskega repa


Cmh = Vh ah h = Vh ah ( ik + ih )

Pitch moment of complete airplane

C m = C m fus + C m a.c. + a(h ha.c. ) Vh a h ( ik + ih ) + C m F + C m D


Cm = 0

Balance or equilibrium: Static stability: Neutral point:

Cm Cm < 0 or <0 C z
N0 = h n

Cm = a (h hn )
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course


Cm Cm0 masno srediH zadaj h > hn h = hn

Cm = Cm0 + a(h-hn)
0 masno srediH VSUHGDM h < hn

Pitch control

9SOLY OHJH PDVQHJD VUHGLD QD JUDGLHQW NROLQLND PRPHQWD

Viinski stabilizator

a)
arnirna os krmila

lb lhk

Viinsko krmilo Trimer


arnirna os trimerja

yh

arnirna os krmila

b)
lb lh lhk

arnirna os trimerja

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

viinski stabilizator

a)
h Cm h = 0 viinsko krmilo
za uravnote
    

b)

0
kon uravnote
     

h > 0
 

CZ h > 0

c)
kon RT
  

h = 0
za to
                    

CZ

Vpliv odklona viinskega krmila na Cm in CZ: a) pozitiven odklon krmila, b) diagram Cm - , c) diagram CZ -

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

a)

viinski stabilizator

arnirna os krmila

viinsko krmilo

b)
V
h

Porazdelitev normalne sile na viinskem repu pri: a) spremembi vpadnega kota ob h = 0; b) odklonu krmila h ob = 0

leb h V

Floating elevator
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Longitudinal manoeuvring stability Effect of thrust on Effect of elasticity of structure on longitudinal stability
Lt

h = -kZh

Sprememba vpadnega kota viinskega repa pri deformaciji trupa

The aft C.G. limit


The permissible aft C.G. limit is determined by the stability considerations. It is based on the location of the stick-free neutral point hn when manual controls are employed, and on the stick-fixed neutral point hn if the elevator control is irreversible. Conservative practice is to keep the aft limit a small distance forward of the computed relevant neutral point due to the effects of wing flaps, the propulsive system, aeroelastic deformation and to provide safe handling characteristic.

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

The forward C.G. limit


As the C.G. moves forward, the stability of the airplane increases and larger control movements and forces are required to maneuver the airplane. The forward C.G. limit is therefore based on the control considerations and may be determined by one of the following requirements: 1. the stick-force per g should not exceed a specific value, 2. the stick-force gradient at trim, dP/dV, shall not exceed a specified value, 3. the stick-force required to land, from a trim at the approach speed, shall not exceed a specified value and 4. the elevator angle required to land shall not exceed maximum up elevator.

Airplane directional static stability Sideslip


C n >0
x

V
y

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Airplane lateral static stability


Vzgon

MS

Sile na letalo v nagibu


Ravnina tetive krila

Vn Vx Vy Vz x z
Komponente hitrosti letala

Vpliv diedra oz. V-loma krila na vpadni kot krila

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course


Visokokrilnik

Nizkokrilnik

9SOLY WUXSD QD XLQHN GLHGUD  Cl

V V Vn Vn V

9SOLY SXLFH NULOD QD XLQHN GLHGUD


aerodinami
" ! # $! % $&

smernega repa

V
MS

zv

Vpliv smernega repa na Cl

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Rigid Airplane Dynamic Stability Equations of motion for rigid airplane (6 DOF) for inertial reference frame v v dvc F =m dt for airplane-fixed reference frame
x
P

v v dh G= dt

v i v k

v di v v v = vP = i dt
y

v j

v v vc v v F =m + m vc t
Symmetrical airplane assumption longitudinal dynamic stability (pitch)

v v dh v v G= + h dt

lateral-directional dynamic stability (roll-yaw)

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Small disturbance theory


F & F && F F & F = u+ u +L+ & v + v & & & u u 0 0 v 0 v 0

Stability derivatives
Xu = Lp = 1 X m u 0 1 Ix L p 0 K Yy = 1 Y m v 0 1 Iy M w 0 K Zw = 1 Z m w 0 1 Iz N r 0 K K

K Mw =

K Nr =

Linearised system of equations: eigenvalues, eigenvectors Aperiodic motion first order linear differential equation Oscillatory motion second order linear differential equation
Time Amplitude
Amplitude

& &+ x

d k &+ x=0 x m m

2 & & + 20 x & + 0 x x=0

PIO
Time

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Airplane Longitudinal Dynamic Stability 2 oscillatory modes Phugoid mode


Im 1 0.02 1 (ni viden) u1 0.85 1 Re

Vector diagram of phugoid mode


a)
x x

b)
x' u0 t

Phugoid motion path in (a) fixed reference frame (b) moving reference frame
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Phugoid mode
change of angle of attack is negligible ( 0) velocity of airplane is approximately tangent to the path the motion is approximately one of constant total energy, the raising and falling corresponding to an exchange between the kinetic and the potential energy long period (T 2min) and lightly damped mode (Nhalf = 2)

Short-period mode
Im

Re
(ni viden)

u2

Vector diagram of short-period mode negligible speed variation (u 0) the motion is approximately pure oscillatory pitch motion of the airplane short period (T 3sec) and highly damped mode (Nhalf = 0.2)

40

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Short-period motion path Root locus plot

Pu korenov kratkoperiodi pomikanju masnega sredi


( + . ' )* , * / 01 * 23 * 2 1 6* ' /

Pu
( + 4 , * * 7 4 ( + 5 * 3 2 (

>

<=

smer pomika lege korenov fugoidne


, , .

'

oblike pri pomikanju masnega sredi


C C : ? = D ? ? E? F ? A

Tretja oscilatorna oblika

Root locus plot of short-period motion

Root locus plot of phugoid motion

41

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Phugoid motion summary:


the motion is approximately one of constant total energy, the raising and falling corresponding to an exchange between the kinetic and the potential energy change of angle of attack is negligible velocity of airplane is approximately tangent to the path long period and lightly damped mode moving CG back lowers static stability and consequently reduces frequency of the phugoid mode increase in equivalent airspeed reduces frequency of the phugoid mode at higher altitude the damping of the phugoid mode is reduced

Short-period motion summary:


the motion is approximately pure oscillatory pitch motion of the airplane negligible speed variation, short period and highly damped motion as for the phugoid mode, shifting the CG back lowers static stability (aerodynamic stiffness) and therefore reduces frequency of the short-period motion damping and frequency of the short-period mode are proportional to the equivalent airspeed with increasing altitude the damping of the short-period mode is reduced motion should be considerably damped in order to prevent PIO

42

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course Airplane LateralDirectional Dynamic Stability

2 aperiodic modes and oscillatory mode Roll mode


very heavily damped, almost pure single DOF rolling motion damping is reduced with decrease in airspeed and increase in altitude CG position has no effect on roll motion it is very important to determine the roll response characteristic of the airplane

Time

Variation of roll rate p with time for pure rolling motion

Spiral motion
usually weakly damped motion in bank and yaw, with negligible sideslip approximately a correctly banked turn of increasing radius; the airplane flies along a slightly curved path and approaches initial heading often this mode is unstable; the path of motion of the airplane is then a tightening spiral approximately a correctly banked turn of decreasing radius (graveyard spiral) due to large time to double/half the amplitude, there is no quantitative standard of spiral stability; however, time to double the amplitude should exceed 20 sec
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course effect of fin and dihedral increase in airspeed (decrease of AOA) increases stability of the spiral mode CG position does not effects the damping of the mode spiral divergence vs. directional divergence

asimptota

divergentna spiralna oblika

Dutch Roll oscillation


Dutch Roll motion consists of a relatively short period oscillations, which may be either damped or divergent, involving rolling yawing and sidesliping motions roll/yaw ratio is important characteristic of Dutch Roll because it affects the pilots assessment of the handling qualities snaking the motion consists mainly of yawing
44

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course


Im

Re

Vector diagram of Dutch Roll mode

*LEDQMH OHWDOD SUL 'XWFKUROO REOLNL 1DM VH OHWDOR ]DVXND Y GHVQR 2E ]DVXNX OHWDOR ERQR GUVL Y OHYR WDNR GD VPHU OHWD RVWDQH SUHPRUWQD 3UL VXNDQMX Y GHVQR VH OHWDOR ]DQH WXGL YDOMDWL Y GHVQR 0HG WHP NR VH OHWDOR H YDOMD Y GHVQR VH ]DQH OHWDOR VXNDWL OHYR LQ ERQR drseti v desno itn.
45

Sketch of Dutch Roll motion

Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Increase in equivalent airspeed increases frequency of Dutch Roll motion At higher altitudes damping of the Dutch Roll motion reduces considerably (yaw damper) Effects on Dutch Roll motion Increase in dihedral stability
slightly increase frequency decrease damping increase roll/yaw ratio increase frequency increase damping decrease roll/yaw ratio
G G G G G G

Increase in weathercock stability

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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Control balance aerodynamic balance of controls mass balance of controls Modification of directional stability characteristics dorsal (zgoraj) fin increase in fin stall angle ventral (spodaj) fin increase in fin area effects stability in stall characteristics

Inertial coupling

47

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