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PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Contents: Review of subsonic aerodynamics Transonic aerodynamics Supersonic aerodynamics Airplane performance Airplane stability
Literature:
Richard Bowyer: AERODYNAMICS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL PILOT Charles E. Dole: FLIGHT THEORY FOR PILOTS A.C. Kermode: MECHANICS OF FLIGHT, revised by R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot: AIRPLANE FLIGHT D. Stinton: THE DESIGN OF THE AEROPLANE
J.D. Anderson: FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS W.N. Hubin: THE SCIENCE OF FLIGHT H.C. Smith: THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO AERODYNAMICS = 5HQGXOL MEHANIKA LETA
R = 287 J/kgK
Properties:
Clasification: fluid liquid \ gas Continuum Speed of sound a longitudinal wave motion
a = RT = p
cp cv
= 1.4
R = c p cv
a0 = 340 m/s = 1225 km/h = 1117 ft/s = 661 kts = 761 mph
2
Properties of fluid:
Viscosity dynamic viscosity
= dv dy
= (T)
air water
1 specific volume
d = dp
Continuity equation:
Physical principle: Mass can be neither created nor destroyed
& = Vn A = const. along a streamtube m
Momentum equation:
Physical principle: Force = time rate of change of momentum
Momentum equations for a viscous flow: NavierStokes equations Momentum equations for an inviscid flow: Euler equations
After integration of Euler equations along a streamline for the inviscid and incompressible flow Bernoulli equation can be derived
1 p + V 2 + gz = const. 2
Energy equation:
Physical principle: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change in form
Types of flow:
laminar flow turbulent flow Reynolds number
Re = Vl
Airfoil stall
Thin airfoil stall Leading edge stall Rear stall
Wing
3-dimensional flow
Induced drag Downwash Lift distribution along span Effect of aspect ratio on lift and drag characteristic Effect of aspect ratio, sweep and twist on lift distribution along span Winglets
Wake turbulence
Transonic Aerodynamics
Speed of sound a
a = RT = p
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Mach number
Flight Mach number
vTAS a - local speed of sound a Local Mach number Ma =
Ma L =
vL aL
} no change in Ma }V
TAS
= Maa
Variation of Ma at varying altitude in the standard atmosphere with constant VCAS and VTAS
VCAS = 100 m/s H [m] 0 1000 5000 10000 11000 15000 20000 T [K] 288 281.5 255.5 223 216.5 216.5 216.5 a [m/s] 340 336 320 299 295 295 295 p [Pa] 101325 89863 53983 26397 22594 12015 5456 [kg/m3] 1.2259 1.1123 0.7362 0.4124 0.3636 0.1934 0.0878 /0 1 0.907 0.601 0.336 0.297 0.158 0.072 VTAS 100 105 129 172 184 252 374 Ma 0.294 0.312 0.403 0.576 0.623 0.854 1.267 Troposphere VTAS = 100 m/s Ma 0.294 0.297 0.312 0.334 0.339 0.339 0.339
Stratosphere
Ma (V
M a (V
5000
10000 H [m]
15000
d = dp
p 1 = 1 + Ma 2 p0 2
T 1 Ma 2 = 1 + 2 T0
/0
Ma
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Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course Subdivision of aerodynamic flow distinction based on the Mach number Subsonic (Ma < 0.8) the airflow around the airplane is completely below the speed of sound Transonic (0.8 < Ma < 1.2) the airflow around the airplane is partially subsonic and partially supersonic Supersonic (Ma > 1.2) the airflow around the airplane is completely above the speed of sound but below hypersonic speed Hypersonic (Ma > 5) the airflow around the airplane is at very high supersonic speeds, leading to stronger shock waves and high temperatures behind it viscous interactions and/or chemically reacting effects begin to dominate the flow
SUBSONIC TRANSONIC SUPERSONIC
a)
at
b)
at
Vt
c)
shock wave zone of silence
d)
shock wave at
Vt = at
zone of action
Vt
a) body hardly moving Ma 0; b) Speed about Ma = 0.5; c) Speed Ma = 1.0 Body has caught up with its pressure waves; d) Body moving about Ma = 1.9 Angle related to Ma by Ma =
1 = cosec sin
12
Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course Shock wave formation on wings increasing flight Ma
transition point flow breakaway local Mach number MaL = 1.0 incipient shock wave usually near the point of maximum chamber (max. speed) approximately normal to the surface pressure and temperature rise, decrease of speed of flow tendency for a breakaway and turbulent wake
Observation of shock waves light travels more slowly through denser air rays bending towards higher density schlieren method
schlierennem = streaking, striationang
Critical Mach number Macr various definition flight Mach number at which the local airflow at some point reaches the speed of sound flight Mach number at which the first shock wave is formed flight Mach number at which severe buffeting begins (buffet boundary) flight Mach number at which the drag coefficient begins to rise flight Mach number at which the pilot loses the control
Once Macr is exceeded, the airplane is flying in the transonic speed range.
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Ma 2 2 =
2 1 + [( 1) / 2]Ma 1 2 Ma1 ( 1) / 2
p2 2 2 = 1+ Ma 1 1 p1 +1
( + 1) Ma12 2 = 2 1 2 + ( 1) Ma 1
2 2 T2 2 + ( 1) Ma 1 2 Ma1 1 = 1 + 2 T1 + 1 ( + 1) Ma 1
Ma1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ma2 1 0.58 0.48 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.39
p2/p1 1 4.5 10.3 18.5 29.0 41.8 57.0 74.5 94.3 116.5
2/1 1 2.67 3.86 4.57 5.00 5.27 5.44 5.57 5.65 5.71
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18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Ma1
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Effects of shock waves Shock wave is an extremely thin region (order of 10-4 mm) across which the flow properties can change drastically. Shock wave is an almost explosive compression process. At the normal shock wave there is
a great rise in pressure a considerable rise in temperature a rise in density a decrease in speed V2 is always subsonic breakaway of the flow from the surface This all adds up to a: sudden increase in drag (up to 10) loss of lift of an airfoil change in position of center of pressure change in pitching moment severe buffeting behind the shock wave Shock drag energy dissipated in the shock wave wave drag increase in profile drag due to breakaway of the flow boundary layer drag
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SHOCK STALL
considerable changes in longitudinal trim (usually nose heavy Tuckunder) large control forces buffeting aileron buzz loss of control stability problems: - snaking (yaw) - porpoising (pitch) - Dutch roll
Measures:
machmeter regions of higher temperature slow down or accelerate power controls air brake
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slimness
smaller increase of local airflow velocity + + + + + formation of shock wave is delayed increasing Macr reduced intensity of shock wave reduced boundary layer separation reduced drag improved longitudinal handling and stability reduced total lift structural problems
sweepback
component of velocity along span has no effect on the flow across the wing only the component of the velocity across the cord of the wing is responsible for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock wave (shock wave lies parallel to the span of the wing) + higher Macr + lower drag slope and peak drag - swept wing has lower CL comparing to straight wing of same chord and tip stall, pitch-up and high induced drag high minimum drag speed additional wing torsion due to lift aeroelastic effects
18
vortex generators
make the boundary layer turbulent + reduced boundary layer drag + weaken the shock wave and reduce shock drag + vorticity can prevent buffeting
19
Supersonic Aerodynamics
Mach angle
direction of flight shock wave at
sin = a 1 = V Ma
Vt
the greater the Mach number, more acute the angle compressible flow through convergent-divergent nozzle (Laval nozzle) In a Contracting Duct Subsonic Flow Flow accelerates Air rarefies slightly Pressure falls In an Expanding Duct Flow decelerates Air is compressed slightly Pressure rises Flow accelerates Air is rarefied Pressure falls
Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course supersonic flow over wedge compressive flow - shock wave angle - change of direction and speed of flow - effect of change of Ma - effect of change of wedge angle supersonic flow over convex corner expansive flow
V2 V1
w1
u1
V2 Ma2
V1 Ma1
u2
w2
w1 = w2
Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course supersonic flow over airfoil boundary layer and supersonic flow - boundary layer is relatively unimportant in supersonic flow - supersonic flow can turn sharp corners relation between supersonic flow over wedge and cone supersonic wing shapes plan form - at subsonic speeds the airfoil is more important than the plan form of the wing - but at supersonic speeds the plan form of the wing is more important - sweepback increases Macr - leading edge of the wing lies inside the Mach cone - structural disadvantages of sweepback - tip stalling - rectangular wing at high Ma supersonic airfoil sections control surfaces supersonic engine inlets aerodynamic (kinetic) heating
22
Airplane Stability
Definitions: Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium when it is in a state of rest of uniform motion in a straight line and the forces acting on it are balanced out. The definition can be extended to cover those bodies in uniform motion in a curved path. There is, in these cases, a resultant force and an acceleration towards the centre of the curved path, but they can be considered as cases of dynamic equilibrium. Stability is property of the equilibrium state and there are two types of stability to consider, static stability and dynamic stability.
Static stability
Static stability is concerned with the forces and moments produced by a small disturbance from the condition of equilibrium. It determines whether or not the body will initially tend to return, of its own accord, towards the equilibrium condition, once the disturbance is removed. a body is statically stable when it tends to return to the equilibrium position a body is statically unstable when it tends to diverge further away from the equilibrium position a body possesses neutral static stability when it remains in the disturbed position Degree of static stability possessed by a body:
Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability is concerned with the subsequent behaviour of a body which possesses static stability. The motion consists of either oscillations about the equilibrium position or aperiodic motion. There are once again three possibilities: a body is dynamically stable when the amplitude reduces with time a body is statically unstable when the amplitude increases with time a body possesses neutral when the amplitude remains constant
Airplane stability
airplane is designed mainly from performance considerations, but it must also posses acceptable handling characteristics, if necessary achieved by artificial methods motion of rigid airplane can be represented as translation along and rotation about three mutually perpendicular axes airplane must be controllable stability and control are closely related Assumptions - rigid airplane - conventional arrangement of surfaces
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System of axes
x, X, u
L, P
C.G.
y, Y, v M, Q N, R
z, Z, w
vrtenje okrog: Y]GROQH RVL valjanje (ang. roll; nem. rollen) RNURJ QDYSLQH RVL sukanje (ang. yaw; nem. gieren) SUHQH RVL " DQJ SLWFK QHP QLFNHQ
axis Ox Oy Oz
Linear velocities
Aerodynamic forces
Angular velocities
Aerodynamic moments
Moment of inertia
Angular displacement s
u v w
X Y Z
p q r
L M N
Ix Iy Iz
25
Stability and control are analysed in three planes: MOTION Pitch Yaw Roll STABILITY Longitudinal Directional Lateral
Cm
b B c C a
Cm0
0
26
a)
MS
b)
Viinski rep s CZ>0
MS
Wing contribution
Zk
aerodinami center SAT
M0k lSAT Xk k
srednja aerodinami tetiva krila SAT
27
M0k
Xk
MS zlSAT
sink k , cosk 1
Fuselage contribution
a)
b)
Vsin
28
Tail contribution
xh Zh
Srednja aerodinami tetiva krila (SAT)
kt- Xh ih
MS zh
kt V V V
Mach
Cmh = Vh ah h = Vh ah ( ik + ih )
Cm Cm < 0 or <0 C z
N0 = h n
Cm = a (h hn )
29
Cm = Cm0 + a(h-hn)
0 masno srediH VSUHGDM h < hn
Pitch control
Viinski stabilizator
a)
arnirna os krmila
lb lhk
yh
arnirna os krmila
b)
lb lh lhk
arnirna os trimerja
30
viinski stabilizator
a)
h Cm h = 0 viinsko krmilo
za uravnote
b)
0
kon uravnote
h > 0
CZ h > 0
c)
kon RT
h = 0
za to
CZ
Vpliv odklona viinskega krmila na Cm in CZ: a) pozitiven odklon krmila, b) diagram Cm - , c) diagram CZ -
31
a)
viinski stabilizator
arnirna os krmila
viinsko krmilo
b)
V
h
Porazdelitev normalne sile na viinskem repu pri: a) spremembi vpadnega kota ob h = 0; b) odklonu krmila h ob = 0
leb h V
Floating elevator
32
Longitudinal manoeuvring stability Effect of thrust on Effect of elasticity of structure on longitudinal stability
Lt
h = -kZh
33
V
y
34
MS
Vn Vx Vy Vz x z
Komponente hitrosti letala
35
Nizkokrilnik
V V Vn Vn V
smernega repa
V
MS
zv
36
Rigid Airplane Dynamic Stability Equations of motion for rigid airplane (6 DOF) for inertial reference frame v v dvc F =m dt for airplane-fixed reference frame
x
P
v v dh G= dt
v i v k
v di v v v = vP = i dt
y
v j
v v vc v v F =m + m vc t
Symmetrical airplane assumption longitudinal dynamic stability (pitch)
v v dh v v G= + h dt
37
Stability derivatives
Xu = Lp = 1 X m u 0 1 Ix L p 0 K Yy = 1 Y m v 0 1 Iy M w 0 K Zw = 1 Z m w 0 1 Iz N r 0 K K
K Mw =
K Nr =
Linearised system of equations: eigenvalues, eigenvectors Aperiodic motion first order linear differential equation Oscillatory motion second order linear differential equation
Time Amplitude
Amplitude
& &+ x
d k &+ x=0 x m m
PIO
Time
38
b)
x' u0 t
Phugoid motion path in (a) fixed reference frame (b) moving reference frame
39
Phugoid mode
change of angle of attack is negligible ( 0) velocity of airplane is approximately tangent to the path the motion is approximately one of constant total energy, the raising and falling corresponding to an exchange between the kinetic and the potential energy long period (T 2min) and lightly damped mode (Nhalf = 2)
Short-period mode
Im
Re
(ni viden)
u2
Vector diagram of short-period mode negligible speed variation (u 0) the motion is approximately pure oscillatory pitch motion of the airplane short period (T 3sec) and highly damped mode (Nhalf = 0.2)
40
Pu
( + 4 , * * 7 4 ( + 5 * 3 2 (
>
<=
'
41
42
Time
Spiral motion
usually weakly damped motion in bank and yaw, with negligible sideslip approximately a correctly banked turn of increasing radius; the airplane flies along a slightly curved path and approaches initial heading often this mode is unstable; the path of motion of the airplane is then a tightening spiral approximately a correctly banked turn of decreasing radius (graveyard spiral) due to large time to double/half the amplitude, there is no quantitative standard of spiral stability; however, time to double the amplitude should exceed 20 sec
43
Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course effect of fin and dihedral increase in airspeed (decrease of AOA) increases stability of the spiral mode CG position does not effects the damping of the mode spiral divergence vs. directional divergence
asimptota
Re
*LEDQMH OHWDOD SUL 'XWFKUROO REOLNL 1DM VH OHWDOR ]DVXND Y GHVQR 2E ]DVXNX OHWDOR ERQR GUVL Y OHYR WDNR GD VPHU OHWD RVWDQH SUHPRUWQD 3UL VXNDQMX Y GHVQR VH OHWDOR ]DQH WXGL YDOMDWL Y GHVQR 0HG WHP NR VH OHWDOR H YDOMD Y GHVQR VH ]DQH OHWDOR VXNDWL OHYR LQ ERQR drseti v desno itn.
45
Increase in equivalent airspeed increases frequency of Dutch Roll motion At higher altitudes damping of the Dutch Roll motion reduces considerably (yaw damper) Effects on Dutch Roll motion Increase in dihedral stability
slightly increase frequency decrease damping increase roll/yaw ratio increase frequency increase damping decrease roll/yaw ratio
G G G G G G
46
Control balance aerodynamic balance of controls mass balance of controls Modification of directional stability characteristics dorsal (zgoraj) fin increase in fin stall angle ventral (spodaj) fin increase in fin area effects stability in stall characteristics
Inertial coupling
47