Mechanising welding processes

XA00097420

Contents
Mechanising welding processes . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 MIG/MAG welding with wire electrodes . . . . . . . .6
Shielding gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Welding parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Cored wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Weld yield indicates efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Shielding gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Influencing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Suitable applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Mechanisation using a welding tractor and Railtrac Equipment . .14 Product choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Points to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
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Mechanising welding processes is a sure investment for the future

ESAB is the worlds leading manufacturer of welding consumables, welding and cutting equipment and accessories for improving the working environment within welding and cutting. The groups operates on a virtually worldwide basis and ESAB has manufacturing units on every continent. We have almost 100 years experience of the industry. Semi-automatic welding processes involve automatically feeding a continuous electrode, which is also used as a conductor to generate the arc. These welding methods are mechanised or even robotised. Over a period of many years, improved mechanisation equipment has been developed with new, less complex monitoring/ control units. It is now possible to construct highly complex equipment where the only limit is the users imagination. Gas-shielded processes are commonly used on welding robots in most industrial sectors. PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers) are also widely used in the mechanisation of welding processes.

Submerged arc welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Choice of flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Two types of flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Influencing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Suitable applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Points to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Influencing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Suitable applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Power supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Points to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
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Mechanising or automating welding processes

The mechanisation of welding processes includes welding methods in which it is easy to automate the movement of the welding gun, while performing welding.

The welding gun can be mounted on a beam which moves across the workpiece or is mounted above a rotating positioner in which the workpiece is fixed. It can also be mounted on a self-propelled carriage which moves along the workpiece (welding tractor) or is mounted on a robot arm. Submerged arc welding has been mechanised because the welding head and the feeder for this method are too heavy to handle manually. The welding head and feeder unit are frequently mounted on a welding crane or portal with a moving carriage. The main difference between submerged arc welding and semi-automatic welding is that the molten pool is protected by flux instead of shielding gas. Submerged arc welding is a highly productive and profitable welding method. The MIG/MAG method uses filler wire to transfer the arc to the workpiece and thus melts the filler wire and workpiece surfaces to produce a weld bead. This method of welding is used with various types of consumable such as unalloyed, low alloy, stainless steel and aluminium. It is the dominant welding method within the industry, with varying degrees of mechanisation. The more sophisticated welding

equipment consists of a power source, a wire feeder, a control unit and a welding gun. The feeder pushes the wire along to the welding gun, where current is transferred to the wire via a contact nozzle. The wire, which is normally connected to the positive pole, makes contact with the negative workpiece. The wire and the workpiece surfaces melt, giving rise to a finished weld bead. The wire, which is wound on a spool and packed in a carton, serves as the filler and electrode at the same time and has the task of transferring current through the arc to the workpiece. The wire passes through a hose package on its way from the spool to the welding gun. The molten pool and the arc in which the filler melts must be protected from the atmosphere. A shielding gas is used for this purpose; it is transported to the welding gun inside the hose. The molten metal must be protected from the surrounding atmosphere as it would otherwise react with the oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere, causing welding defects. The shielding gas and wire exit the hose into the swan neck of the gun. They emerge from separate conduits at the gas nozzle and contact tip.

MIG/MAG welding with continuous wire electrodes

MIG/MAG welding with wire electrodes is a semi-automatic process in which the filler is fed automatically. Welding movements are performed manually or by a mechanical device. There are two types of wire, copper coated and non-copper coated.
Copper-coated wire electrodes are resistant to corrosion and have good current transfer characteristics. The surface purity of the wire has a decisive effect on its feeding properties. If the surface is not entirely clean, this will cause the wire eventually to stick in the liner, so that feeding becomes uneven, the current varies and welding must be terminated to allow the wire liner to be cleaned. This is a great disadvantage in a robotised installation, where the cost per hour is high and the wire must be fed with as few problems as possible. A coating is applied to the non-copper-coated wires which have been developed in recent years, to provide good current transfer, as well as good corrosion resistance. If non-copper-coated wire is used in a robot installation, there is no need to worry about contact problems.

Minimal slag is produced when welding with a wire electrode.

Shielding gases
There are two types of shielding gas; inert and active. Inert gas does not participate in the chemical reactions which take place in the arc and the molten pool. An active shielding gas contains carbon dioxide, oxygen or nitrogen oxide. These components take part in the chemical reactions which occur in the arc and in the molten pool. This is how the two names have been derived: MIG = Metal Inert Gas and MAG = Metal Active Gas. It is possible to use 100% carbon dioxide as the active gas, but mixtures of gas are more common and mixed gas is most commonly used. It consists of 80% argon and 20% carbon dioxide. The composition of the shielding gas influences the properties of the weld. Mixed gas produces a

calmer arc than a gas which consists of 100% carbon dioxide. With mixed gases, smaller droplets are formed in the arc, weld spatter and fumes are reduced. Moreover, the weld bead is narrower with mixed gas than with pure carbon dioxide, which means that there is less silicon and manganese burn-off in the arc, producing fewer fumes. This gives the weld better mechanical properties. In MIG welding, pure argon is the most common shielding gas, but mixtures of argon and helium are also used. In some cases, a mixture of argon, helium and oxygen is used. Argon with a small addition of oxygen is sometimes used for welding stainless steel to widen the bead and supply more energy to the arc. Helium and argon mixtures are preferable for welding thickwalled copper or aluminium alloys. Pure argon is used for welding aluminium.

Welding parameters
B Fa H F 1 Fa F 1 Helium Fa F 1 CO 2

Argon

Influence of protective gas on weld penetration profile

MIG/MAG welding is best for welding sheet metal thicknesses from 1 to 10 mm. The method is commonly used for welding car body components, in shipyards and for other applications in many engineering sectors. The advantage of this welding method is the constant supply of filler, low hydrogen content and higher arc/time factor. A good knowledge of the welding process is 7

essential when using MIG/MAG welding in order to set the correct relationship between current, voltage, gas flow, stick-out, gun angle and welding speed. These parameter settings depend in turn on the base material, the thickness of the workpiece, the diameter of the filler wire, the type of weld joint, the welding position and the shielding gas. Guidelines for these parameters can be found in welding recommendation tables in welding consumable catalogues or by asking the manufacturer of the consumables directly. It is important that the chosen work point is within the recommended working area for the selected wire/shielding gas combination to produce the correct arc properties. The welding speed, gun angle and stick-out are parameters which the welder controls manually during the welding process.

200

300

400

500

600A

Influence of weld current on penetration depth.

Various types of circular container are easy to mechanise.

Limitations
24 28 32 36 40V

Influence of arc voltage on penetration depth.

Advantages
The advantage of MIG/MAG welding is that it is easy to mechanise. In mechanisation the same equipment is used as for manual welding but it is now mounted on a mechanical device. In a robot application it is necessary to supplement the welding equipment with a power source which is integrated with the control system and which can communicate with the robot installation. A separate feeder, which is frequently installed on the robot arm, is also used together with a different type of welding gun which suits the robot. MIG/MAG welding is very flexible when it comes to mechanisation and its limits are set by the users imagination. As standard equipment can be used in mechanisation, it is a very cost-effective way of implementing mechanisation. Solid wire offers the greatest benefits when used with thinner material below 4-5 mm. This is because this is a relatively cold welding process compared with coated electrodes and cored wire. The reduced heat input results in less deformation and associated material stresses. In thicker material more care must be taken with welding sequences and heat input. Low heat input on thicker material results in a lack of fusion between the weld and the workpiece. This results in weld defects such as incomplete penetration. 8

As the process is protected by gas, it is sensitive to external factors such as draughts. If there is a draught, there is a risk that the shielding gas could blow away and cause welding defects in the weld bead. It is important to protect the arc and the molten pool from the surrounding atmosphere. The oxygen in the atmosphere reacts easily with silicon and manganese and forms oxides which cause fumes and slag. This means that the weld bead has a lower silicon and manganese content which can lead to a reduction in the mechanical properties of the weld metal. Care must also be taken with nitrogen, as it can easily be absorbed by the molten metal and reduce the toughness impact. In situations with very poor gas shielding, defects such as pores in the weld can also be produced.
(600)

100 80 60 40 20 0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Wind Velocity (m/sec)

Influence of wind velocity and nitrogen content in weld metal.

Nitrogen content (p pm)

Productivity
The welding current and wire feed rate are linked to productivity, which is measured as kilograms of deposited weld metal per unit of time. A high wire feed rate produces a high welding current. This relationship varies, depending on the cross-sectional area of the filler wire which has a fundamental effect on the electrical resistance. During welding, the current which passes through the arc is measured in amperes. The filler wire that is used has a certain diameter, from which its cross-section can be calculated in mm 2 . The welding current is spread over the cross-sectional area of the wire and from this a unit known as current density, which is given in

Solid wire

Cored wire

Various cross-sections of different filler wires.

amperes/mm 2 , can be calculated. This is a measure of the energy developed in the arc, in other words, the heat. High current density also means high heat production in the arc and rapid melting of the filler wire. As with all other electrical conductors, the wire has resistance which is measured in ohms. If the resistance is high, the arc voltage, stick-out or wire feed speed may need to be adjusted to obtain the desired welding parameters.

Marathon Pac Endless version increases availability in the robot cell.

Equipment
Solid wires are supplied in the following diameters: 0.6-0.8-1.0-1.2-1.4-1.6 mm and sometimes 2.0 mm for gas-shielded welding. The weight of a spool of wire can vary between 0,5 and 470 kg. Endless Pac, which is a further development of the well-known Marathon Pac consists of two series-connected packages of welding wire. By welding the ends of the wires coming from each pac, it is easy to change the drum which is empty and install a new one without stopping production to change the wire. This results in uninterrupted production and therefore greater profitability. Various types of arc occur during welding with solid wire, namely short arc, mixed arc and spray arc. The type of arc used depends on the current and voltage. Spray arc welding has the most stable arc and the least amount of weld spatter. Using a pulsed power source, a stable arc with small droplets of metal can be obtained, using a lower current than is possible with a conventional power source. Using a pulse current power source, droplet size and transfer rate can be accurately controlled while minimising the heat input.

The setting of welding parameters is important. The correct relationship must be obtained between current, voltage, stick-out, gas flow, welding speed and gun angles. Stick-out is the distance from the tip of the contact nozzle to the workpiece.

Mechanisation using a loading jig and welding unit.

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Cored wire
The difference between solid and cored wire is that cored wire is tubular. By putting various filling formulations into a tube, it is possible to add alloying materials or minerals to obtain the desired weld metal properties.
Cored wires can be divided into three main groups, depending on the composition of the flux: rutile, basic and metal cored. These cored wires all have different properties, which are used in different applications, sheet metal thicknesses and welding positions. Rutile wire is an all-round wire, which can be used to weld a large number of applications in all welding positions. The rutile powder addition in the wire produces a slag which covers the molten pool and forms the weld bead keeping the molten pool in place when welding out of position. Basic wires contain calcium and produce a basic slag. The volume of the slag is lower which makes it difficult to weld in the vertical and overhead positions. Only the horizontal and downhand vertical positions are normally recommended for welding with basic cored wires. A basic weld metal is cleaner than a rutile and it contains less micro-slags and inpurities. This gives the basic weld metal a higher crack resistance.

A slag covering is produced when welding with cored wire.

Strip reel Flux hopper

Flux poured at this point Draw die Closing rolls

U forming rolls

Reel with formed electrode

is about 97%, which means that 97% of what is melted down into the wire ends up as weld metal. The last 3% is fume and spatters. The recovery is 85-88% for rutile cored wires, 88-89% for basic and 96% for metal-cored wire. Metal-cored wire is frequently used in mechanised welding as it has a high recovery. The welding equipment that is used is basically the same as that used for welding with solid wire, but it is frequently retrofitted with a water-cooling unit as heat generation when welding cored wire is higher than for solid wire. Heat has to be transported away from the welding gun as it could otherwise easily become overheated. The cooling water is transferred to the swan neck, where it turns round and takes the heat away to the cooling unit. At that point, the water passes a heat exchanger and is cooled, before being returned again.

Principle diagram of cored wire manufacture.

The electrode recovery indicates efficiency

Metal cored wire is filled with a fine metal powder which melts during welding. When the efficiency of the filler is studied, the electric recovery is the most important factor. The electric recovery of solid wire

Cored wire cross sections.

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Shielding gases
The shielding gases that are used for welding with cored wire are frequently mixed gases containing argon and carbon dioxide. There are a large number of different gas mixtures, all of which have different properties for welding. Some cored wires are designed for welding with pure carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide produces a broad penetration profile, which reduces the risk of welding defects. When welding contaminated, oxidised or primer-coated sheet metal, the carbon dioxide reduces the risk of pores. The reason for this is that the carbon dioxide is active, which means that it is broken down in the arc and reacts with the gases from the contamination on the sheet metal. Carbon dioxide is also a heavy gas, which means that it is more likely to remain around the molten pool, thereby offering better protection. Mixed gases produce a more stable welding arc and less weld spatter, but they do not provide such effective protection, as argon is a light gas. Sometimes, a third component is added, such as nitrogen oxide. This gas mixture reduces the formation of ozone around the arc. It is not a good idea to breathe ozone, since the gas dries out mucous membranes and can cause allergies. There is a great deal of choice when it comes to selecting the gas mixture for welding with rutile and basic cored wires. The reason for this is that the molten droplets in the arc are covered by a layer of slag which protects them from the atmosphere. For this reason, shielding gases with a mixture of up to 25% carbon dioxide can be used without producing excessive burn-off. It is not necessary to use pure inert gas as the shielding gas with stainless cored wires. It is completely feasible to weld stainless cored wires with ordinary mixed gases and this is also more economical. A higher gas flow is used when welding with cored wire compared with solid wire. This is because more filler material is melted per unit of time and more shielding gas is therefore required to protect the molten pool. However, if this is translated into gas consumption in litres per linear metre of weld, no more shielding gas is used when welding with cored wire than when welding with solid wire.

Robot welding with metal-cored wire produces a clean and spatter-free weld bead.

ated can be increased or reduced in order to improve weldability in specific positions. When solid wire is manufactured, this is already taken into consideration at the steel mill when the raw material for the wire that is going to be drawn is produced.

Limitations
Welding with cored wire does have certain disadvantages, however. As cored wire has higher productivity, more is demanded of the welder during manual welding. As a result of the higher heat generation in the arc, radiant heat increases and makes life hotter for the welder. Slightly more welding fume per unit of time is also generated. Welding fumes can be reduced dramatically by integrating a fume extractor in the welding gun, however. It should be remembered that this could possibly affect the shielding gas (see page 10).

Applications
Cored wires have applications in heavy industry, such as shipbuilding, offshore, excavator and truck manufacture. No small components are welded with cored wire; larger components such as frames, chassis and heavy beams are more suitable. One of the advantages of cored wire is that it is easy to modify the weld metal analysis by changing the composition of the powders in the wire. By adding different constituents to a rutile cored wire, a large number of different sub-grades with specific properties can be produced. The amount of slag that is gener12

Advantages
When welding with cored wire, the arc is more stable compared to that produced by solid wire. This is because more energy is developed in the arc with the same current. When welding with a solid wire at

200 amps and a cored wire at 200 amps, the cored wire has a higher feed rate. This means that more wire per unit of time is fed into the arc and this naturally means that more weld metal is deposited, as the cross-section of the wire (equal to the physical cross-section) is smaller. Calculating the area in square millimetres and then dividing by 200 A produces the amperes per square millimetre. As cored wire is tubular and the flux inside is non-conductive, the cross-sectional area for the current to pass through is smaller. The current therefore becomes more tightly packed, making the energy in the arc higher. The energy which is generated is heat and, if the heat in the arc is high, it can melt a larger amount of filler material more easily. The wire feed rate is higher because cored wire has greater resistance to current than solid wire. The power source senses this and compensates by increasing the feed rate. As the arc looks different, cored wire produces broader penetration. This reduces the risk of incomplete penetration and slag inclusions. The higher energy release and the higher temperature in the arc, together with the broader penetration make welding with cored wire more forgiving. Cored wire is suitable for welding thicker material. Welding plate thicknesses of below 4 mm should be avoided, as the process is too hot. However, there is an alternative for robot applications.

Suitable applications
Metal cored wire is used in both simple mechanisation in the shipbuilding industry, for example, where the gun is mounted on a tractor, or on a portal which moves. Cored wires also function well in large, sophisticated installations with one or more robots. FMS installations are a combination of welding and handling robots, where robots pick components and place them in a fixture. The fixture is then automatically transported to the welding robot. After welding, another robot takes over and removes the finished component from the fixture. Volvos hauler production is a good example; the welding here is done with metal cored wire in an FMS installation. Saab-Scania in Lule also has an FMS installation, where rear axles for its trucks and buses are welded with metal cored wire. In robotised welding with metal cored wire, the welding robot is combined with a positioner which continuously puts the workpiece in the best position. This is done in order to obtain the maximum benefit from the high productivity of the metal cored wire.

Influencing factors
The same factors apply as for solid wire; they are current, voltage, stick-out, welding speed and gun angles.

Influence of shielding gas

PZ6138 - 1,2 mm Plate thickness: 30 mm X - Joint 2/3 - 1/3 Position: PA Shielding gas: 92 Ar/8 CO 2 , 80 Ar/20 CO 2

Analysis (%)
Material C Mn Si Ni Ti ISO-V (40C): Structure: 92 Ar/8 CO 2 0,060 1,37 0,42 0,85 0,078 30-50J Acicular ferrite 80 Ar/20 CO 2 0,054 1,27 0,41 0,98 0,059 130-150J Acicular ferrite/ primary ferrite

Reduced burn-off of Mn, Si och Ti, more hardening and less toughness with shielding gas 92/8.

Robot and positioner in collaboration.

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Mechanisation with welding tractor and Railtrac

Rutile cored wire is seldom used in robotic or FMS installations. On the other hand, rutile cored wire is very commonly used in mechanisation where a welding tractor and Railtrac are used. This type of mechanisation is often found in the shipbuilding industry, where long fillet welds, which are eminently suited for welding with a welding tractor, are frequently used. When ships are designed, the inclusion of as many fillet welds as possible is common. Another application for rutile wire is the butt welding of pipelines. An experienced and skilled welding operator is needed to do this manually. This type of welding is physically very demanding and there is a real risk of musculoskeletal injury. The work can be mechanised with an orbital welding unit,

which involves installing a track around the outside of the pipe. The track has a gear rack and a carriage is mounted on the track and can circle the pipe. The carriage has a welding gun attachment and can oscillate the welding gun. The power source can be programmed to allow welding to be performed with the correct parameters all the way round the pipe. The advantage of this procedure is very steady movement in the welding gun, making it possible to control the welding process more exactly. The quality of the weld is also improved.

Product choice
When choosing between metal cored, rutile and basic cored wires, the choice should be based on the application. In a robot installation, where welding is always performed in the best position, a metal cored wire can be selected.

When welding vertical up with Railtrac , the welding operator can control the process via a remote control.

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Robot welding of small, thin-walled components (2.0 mm) using cored wire.

If mechanised welding is going to be used in different positions, a rutile cored wire should be chosen. If root beads are going to be welded in a joint under considerable restraint, a basic cored wire is suitable. There are various grades of product in each group of wires, so the strength requirements should govern the choice from each group.

Points to consider
It is important carefully to study the workpiece that is going to be welded. When the root bead in a joint is welded under considerable restraint, the root bead must be able to absorb the movement because the plates cannot move. If a rutile cored wire is used, there is a considerable risk that the root bead could crack. This risk can be reduced by cutting the welding current and reducing the arc voltage and welding speed. These measures reduce the risk of cracking, but they also cut productivity at the same time. For this reason, the choice of a basic cored wire can be justified. In all welding with cored wire, it is important that the operator of the robot or mechanical device has considerable knowledge of the process. This is essential in order to create the correct relationship between the welding parameters and thus achieve the optimum result. 15

Equipment
In mechanised or robotic welding, one of the aims is to minimise stoppages in production. A good way to reduce downtime is to use a bulk wire package, a Marathon Pac. This package holds 250 kilograms of wire and can be supplemented with a plastic housing and a straightener which is mounted on the drum. From there, the wire passes through a wire guide on its way to the feeder.

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Submerged arc welding

Submerged arc welding differs considerably from semiautomatic welding with solid or cored wire. Instead of protecting the molten pool with a shielding gas, a flux is used.
In submerged arc welding, the molten pool is protected by a flux. This flux is supplied by a separate feed system. Surplus flux is re-cycled by a flux recovery unit. Wire diameters ranging from 1.6 mm to 6.0 mm are used. As the wire has a larger diameter, heavier objects can be welded and most of the welding which is done using a submerged arc is mechanised.

slag Ve
POWER SOURCE

welding flux

weld metal molten pool

Principle of using submerged arc welding. Flux is deposited through the flux nozzle in submerged arc welding.

1, 6 m m m m

6 4 2 200

One major advantage of submerged arc welding is that the method is environmentally friendly. The arc is concealed by the flux and the slag, which counteracts heat and ultra-violet light radiation. Submerged arc welding is the only method of welding which does not generate any welding fume, thereby benefiting the welders working environment.

2,

Advantages

2,

3,

When welding with the submerged arc process, a flux is supplied to the welding head at the same time as the welding wire. When the process controller activates the power source and the wire feed unit, an arc is struck when the wire makes contact with the workpiece. The arc is submerged beneath the flux deposit. Part of the flux melts as a result of the heat created in the arc and the surplus infused flux is recycled by a flux recovery unit.

Welding speed

5,
m

0 4, 0 m m

kg/h 16 14 12 10

400

600

800

1000

6,

Welding current

Typical welding data using single wire.

Deposition rate Welding current

Amp

17

Example of multi-electrode array for high productivity welding.

Welding with the submerged arc process offers considerable freedom, because it is possible to modify the properties of the consumables used in this process. There are several different combinations of flux and wire. Fluxes are subdivided into acid and basic types. The properties of an acid flux make the weld bead flow out better. Basic fluxes produce cleaner welds which are less prone to cracking. Most fluxes are neutral and are only intended to protect the molten metal. There are also alloying fluxes. The alloying components in these fluxes melt in the arc and mix with the weld metal. In this way, different mechanical properties can be achieved in the weld.

duced by semi-automatic welding. Submerged arc welding is highly productive and is the most economical welding method, but it is limited to welding in the flat and horizontal-vertical positions.

Productivity
The productivity of submerged arc welding is considerably higher than that produced by the semiautomatic process. The weld metal deposition rate increases and decreases according to variations in the stick-out length. The welding wire is fed through insulated wire liners and is guided through the contact tube to the contact jaws where the current is transferred to the wire. As a result, the wire feed is very stable. The distance from the wire feed motor to the welding head can then vary from 250 mm to 2,000 mm. Single wire or twin wire feed systems are available. Welding with twin wire (such as 2 x 2.5 mm) increases the deposition rate compared with single wire. Twin-wire welding uses a single power source, normally DC. Tandem welding is also possible; in this case, there are two separate wires and the leading wire runs on DC, while the trailing wire runs on AC. Two power sources and two process controllers are utilised in this case. Synergic cold-wire feed can be used when a noncurrent-bearing wire is fed into a molten pool, gen-

Limitations
The limitation of this method is the material thickness and the configuration of the workpiece to be welded. Not all joints are suitable for submerged arc welding. The plate thickness should not be less than 2.5-3 mm. All cylindrical objects, such as tanks with wall thicknesses of 4-5 mm, are excellent objects for submerged arc welding. In this case, a positioner or roller bed is added to rotate the object. As large diameter wires are used, the increase in arc voltage and current means that the weld deposition rate (productivity) is far higher than that pro18

erated by a wire bearing a current. Productivity (deposition rate) increases, together with toughness. Adding cold wire reduces the heat input and the molten pool freezes more rapidly, giving the weld a finer grain structure.

Deposition rate

kg/h C = 100 mm 15,7 B = 65 mm

Choice of flux
The choice of flux/wire combinations is very important as specifications and requirements must be complied with. An order for a pressure vessel, for example, includes a specification which states the standard according to which the weld must be classified. The first step is to select the wire, which is fairly easy as there are not that many grades to choose from. Certain flux/wire combinations are approved by different classification societies for different grades of plate. There are catalogues available for this task and they offer information about the wire and flux combinations that match the required mechanical properties. It is common practice to take account of the yield stress, tensile strength and impact properties. They differ depending on the basicity of the flux in question. When selecting the correct flux, the first thing to consider is the weld deposit and the demands imposed on the final product.

13,6 11,3 9,1 6,8 4,5 A = 35 mm

200

300

400

500

600

700 Ampere
Welding current

Influence of stick-out on deposition.

Agglomerated and fused fluxes

Both agglomerated and fused fluxes are available. Fused fluxes are produced by first mixing all the ingredients together and then heating them to melt them. When the flux has hardened, it is crushed into

Combination of roller bed and column and boom for internal welding. 19

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small grains,1-2 mm in size. Agglomerated flux is produced by mixing all the ingredients and sifting them in a mixer before adding fluid. The semi-wet mixture is then tipped out into an inclined rotating oven and, after a while, the mixture turns into granules. When the granules reach a certain size, they fall off and are allowed to dry. The grains of agglomerated flux are not as strong as fused flux. As a result, agglomerated flux is sensitive to rough handling. Agglomerated flux is also sensitive to moisture and can absorb it from the air. It must therefore be handled with extreme care and should be stored in special plated flux systems.

Submerged arc welding is only done in mechanised form. Robots are rarely used in SAW applications because of the excess weight of the heavy wire and the flux through the robot arm. In this case, a more powerful robot would be needed to bear the weight.

Equipment
As submerged arc welding is only carried out in mechanised form, more comprehensive and expensive equipment is needed compared with manual welding. The wires have a larger diameter, which means that heavy-duty wire feeders are needed. The basic equipment consists of an AC or DC power source with a capacity of at least 1,000 amperes, a flux delivery system, a wire feed unit and a fixture for the welding head. A column and boom is frequently used. This is a welding crane that is able to put the welding head in many different positions. The welding head is located at one end of the horizontal boom. The wire feed unit comprises a feed roll, pressure roll and wire straightener. The feeder pushes the wire through a 220-275 mm long contact tube with a large diameter. The outlet end of the contact tube is equipped with what are known as contact jaws that are spring pressured, enabling good current transfer to the welding wire. These jaws are wear parts and are changed when they wear out. The flux outlet nozzle is also attached to the end of the contact tube. To recycle unused flux and return it to the flux hopper during welding, an additional flux recovery unit is available. This flux recovery unit is powered by compressed air. The remaining slag detaches itself from the weld. An automatic joint-tracking device is a welcome ancillary unit using which wire stick-out and joint positioning are kept constant to the welding joint. The most significant joint-tracking equipment that is currently marketed by ESAB is the ABW system which uses a laser and camera matrix to position the head and calculate the joint volume.

Influencing factors
There are certain things to take into consideration when using submerged arc welding. Factors such as stick-out, current, arc voltage and welding speed influence the result of the finished weld in different ways. Magnetic arc blow can occur when welding with DC as a magnetic field forms around all electrical conductors. The magnetic field surrounding the welding wire affects the stability of the arc, especially when welding dissimilar materials with different magnetic properties. When these two plates are joined together, the magnetic field surrounding the arc can shift it from one side of the joint to the other, resulting in weld defects. When the arc pulls to one side and does not melt into the other side, incomplete penetration occurs. This can be influenced by re-establishing the position of the earth clamp. An alternating current can also be passed through one of the plates. If the object is cylindrical, a few turns of welding cable can be wrapped round it and AC can then be passed through the cable to neutralise the magnetic field.

Suitable applications
All cylindrical objects with longitudinal or circumferential joints are ideal for submerged arc welding. This applies in particular to downhand/horizontal butt joints and downhand/horizontal vertical fillet welds (PA and PB positions). There are a large number of applications for these types of weld, first and foremost in the shipbuilding industry. Fixed welding heads where the workpiece passes underneath are frequently used in industry. One can also choose to mechanise the movement of the welding head. The welding head can be mounted on a tractor. There are a number of different types of welding tractors which can weld the workpiece. The welding head can be easily repositioned using a remote control with joystick. Moreover, the process control box is easy to program.

Points to consider
Sometimes it is essential to modify the design of the weld before mechanising with a sub-arc system. Joints should be easily accessible for the welding head. A great deal of heat can be generated and it can then deform thinner plate, so it is important to plan the weld sequence to ensure that the least possible deformation occurs. This is done by test welding to obtain the most suitable welding procedure. It is also important to choose the best flux/wire combination to match the requirements of the application.

21

22

Aluminium
Two main methods are used for the production welding of aluminium.

One of these methods is TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas). In most cases, the TIG welding of aluminium is performed on alternating current. For some reason, AC is able to break down the aluminium oxide which is always present on aluminium objects. TIG welding is a slow process, but it is extremely easy to control. High-quality welds are produced and the surface after the weld usually requires no finishing. This method is used almost exclusively for the most demanding welding jobs. In the TIG process, the arc is struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode of a certain diameter. To obtain an electric arc, an inert gas, normally argon, is required. The tungsten electrode is a changeable part of the TIG torch. The welding current and inert gas are supplied through the TIG torch to the tungsten electrode which is surrounded by a highly heat-resistant ceramic gas cup. The heat from the arc melts the aluminium and a filler wire is applied to the leading edge of the molten pool manually or using a wire feeder. The other method is MIG (Metal Inert Gas) where the consumable is used to produce the arc.

No slag is produced in aluminium welding.

Advantages
The method which is most commonly used to weld aluminium in industry is the MIG process. It has few limitations and all the welding positions can be used. Plentiful supplies of aluminium are available all over the world. Scrapped aluminium is easy to recycle and about 90-95% can be re-used. Pure argon is the most used gas but also a mix between argon and helium can be used. Finally, only inert gases are used to weld aluminium.

PUSH up to 3,5 m (12 ft)

300 mm (12 in)

Limitations
300 mm (12 in)

PULL up to 3,5 m (12 ft)

PUSH-PULL up to 9 m (30 ft)

300 mm (12 in)

SPOOL ON GUN 1000 mm (4 in)

MIG electrode wire feeder systems.

This process is sensitive because of the properties of aluminium. Aluminium is also highly susceptible to external contamination, so it is important that the joint surfaces are as clean as possible. Joint surfaces must be kept free from oxide and contaminants such as dirt, oil and grease. The diameter of the filler wire is of great importance when welding aluminium. As feeding can be sensitive, the wire diameter tolerances are vital, as the fit between the wire and the feed rolls must be as precise as possible. Feed rollers have grooves through which the wire passes and they must have a diameter that is exactly the same as that of the wire. If the diameter of the wire differs, it will be deformed. The entire feed sequence from the feeder to the arc must be perfect, or malfunctions and welding defects will easily occur. 23

Influencing factors
There are considerable differences in the physical properties of aluminium and steel. Aluminium is considerably softer, has a lower density, a lower melting point and the ability to oxidise much more rapidly in contact with oxygen. Oxide occurs in fractions of a second on a pure aluminium surface. In welding, this ability causes problems as the oxide coating has a much higher melting point than pure aluminium and is harder. Surface appearance is also very important. When a polished metal surface is studied through a microscope, it is not as fine as it appears, as it actually consists of a number of peaks and valleys. The surface finish is a measure of the difference between the highest peaks and the lowest valleys and this difference must not be too great, as the surface finish should be relatively high. For this reason, many wire manufacturers machine the wire with a cutting tool that rotates around the wire and cuts off material, resulting in a very fine finish. The surface resulting from a cut is considerably finer than that obtained when the wire is drawn. Tighter dimension toleran-

ces can also be maintained. High-quality wires are generally always machined. Cleanliness in the feeder and in production is very important. If dirt gets into the feeder around the feed rollers through which the wire passes feed problems can easily occur, thereby interrupting welding. Dirt causes porosity in the weld.

Applications
Welding with aluminium is often practised in shipbuilding. Many modern high-speed ferries are made entirely of aluminium. The method is also used in the automotive industry, where aluminium is becoming increasingly common. Audi, for example, produce a chassis which is made entirely of aluminium. Aluminium welding is both mechanised and robotised. Aluminium has a much lower melting point and higher thermal and electrical conductivity than steel. For this reason, the heat supplied during welding must be relatively high, to keep the temperature above melting point. This also requires a very accurate welding speed. If the speed is too low, there is a considerable risk of

ELEMENTS

ALLOY FAMILY
Al Cu 2xxx

PROPERTY

WIRE ALLOYS

Cu

Al Cu Mg 2xxx

Mg
Al Mg Si 6xxx

Zn Al

Al Zn Mg 7xxx

Al Zn Mg Cu 7xxx
HEATABLE

Mn

Al Mg 5xxx

Al Mn 3xxx

Si
Al Si 4xxx

WORKING HARDENING

MELTING TEMP. & FLUIDITY

99.xx Pure

Al 1xxx
HIGH PURITY

System for classifying consumables for aluminium welding.

24

Production of aluminium high-speed ferries.

burning holes through the material. As the welding speed is high and the operator moves quickly in manual welding, the risk of defects increases. For this reason, MIG welding is frequently automated and wall thicknesses of 1.5 mm and above can be welded.

Productivity
The productivity of MIG welding in aluminium is entirely dependent on the welding current. Just as with other methods of welding, where filler wire is used to transport the current from the positive pole to the negative, the deposition rate depends on the amount of current passing through the arc. The shielding gas and its flow rate are also very important. As a light, inert gas is used, the method is sensitive to draughts and welding should therefore be done indoors.

tool is pressed into the aluminium to soften it with frictional heat. FSW is mechanised and is used in shipbuilding and in the automotive and aerospace industries. In the automotive industry, only robots are used. An assembly line consists of several welding stations. Production is set up in a fashion similar to that used in the white goods industry. Mechanisation is widely used in shipbuilding, where an operator-controlled Railtrac or Miggytrac can be used.

Equipment
It is important to pay great attention to the equipment when welding aluminium. It is desirable to have the smallest number of stoppages for wire changes. Aluminium wire cannot be stored in drums as it is soft. It is instead wound onto large spools which are mounted horizontally on a stand and there is also a disc, known as a dancer on an arm fixed to the stand. This dancer is connected to a motor which pulls the wire at the same time as it senses the resistance in the dancer. When the resistance increases, the motor also increases its speed. This permits friction-free feed from the large drum to the feeder. The design is linked to the welding gun and feeder. The spools used at robot stations hold a great deal of wire and are easy to change. There are a large number of different welding guns for aluminium. In some cases a push-pull feed system is used. The wire is pushed from the wire 25

Suitable applications
A great deal of work is put into the development of welding procedures. As the method is sensitive, it is essential to maintain small tolerances for all the parameters, such as current, arc voltage, stick-out, shielding gas flow, welding speed and gun angle. Welding is commonly done manually, but mechanisation is being used to an increasing degree to obtain improved control of all parameters. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is another welding method in which no filler material is used. A rotating

feeder into the feed unit in the gun. This system allows uniform, stable wire feed to be achieved. The feeder in the gun is driven by either electric or pneumatic motors and there are several different types of feed system. One system consists of two rollers which press against each other while the wire passes in between. Another system has angled rollers which are concentrically arranged around the wire, so-called planetary feed. A planetary feeder is relatively small and reliable. Teflon is used as a liner in the wire guide to reduce friction. Teflon resists both heat and friction and is used in as many places as possible where the wire passes through the feeder. The motors in the feeder have very accurate speed control as it is very important that feed is uniform when welding aluminium. More sophisticated speed control is used in the feeder, which quickly reacts if any changes occur in speed or motor resistance and immediately compensates for them.

Power supplies
The power supplies used for aluminium welding differ from those used for welding ordinary ferritic steel. In MIG welding, pulsed arc is often used. This means that low nominal DC is superimposed on high
Despooling machine for pay-off packs.

Choice of fillers for MIG and TIG welding of aluminium alloys.

Base Swedish International material Standard Standard ESAB name 4244 4425 4212 4104 4107 4163 4140 4120 4106 4054 4007 4010

SS Al
4007 4010

ISO
Al-99.5 Al-99.0

OK
18.01 18.11 18.04 18.15 18.01 18.11 18.04 18.15 18.01 18.11 18.04 18.15 18.04 18.15 18.04 18.15 18.10 18.04 18.15 18.16 18.04 18.15 18.04 18.15 18.04 18.15 18.04

SHFK

SHFK

SHFK

SHFK

SHFK

SHFK

SHFK

SHFK
ABAB AACB BABB BBAA ABAA AABB AABA BBAA ABAA AABB AABA

SHFK
BBAA ABAA AABB BBAA ABAA AABB

SHFK
BBAA ABAA AABB

AAAB

AABA BAAB

AABB BAAB

AABB BAAB

AABB BAAB

AABC AAAB

AABC AAAB

AlMn
4054 Al-Mn 1

AAAB

ABBB BBAA

ABBB BAAB

ABBB BAAB

AABB BAAB

ABBC AAAA

AABD BAAB

AlMg
4106 Al-Mg 1

AAAC ABAC AAAC ABBC AAAC ABBC AAAC ABAB ABAB ABBA AAAB ABAA

ABBB BBAB BBAA BBAA

4120

Al-Mg 4,5 Mn

ABBB BAAB ABBB BBAB ABAB ABBB BBAB ABBB BBAB BBAB BABB

ABBB BAAB ABBB BBAB ABBB ABAB ABBB BBAB ABBB BBAB

AABB BAAB AAAA ABAA AABA ABAA AABA

ABBC AAAA AAAA ABAA AABA

AABB AAAA ABBC AAAA

4140

Al-Mg 1.5

4163

Al-Mg5Si G

BBAA ABBB ABAB ABBB BBAB ACBC BBAB

AlMgSi

4104 4107 4212 4425 4244

Al-Mg Si Al-SiMgMn Al-Zn5Mg Al-Si7Mg G

AlZn AlSi

SHFK clarification. S = ease of welding, H = strenght, F = ductility, K = corrosion resistance

26

Seam welding equipment for the butt welding of aluminium.

DC and each pulse melts away one droplet. In this way it is possible to control droplet transfer by changing pulse frequency and duration. As aluminium has an oxide coating with a higher melting point a current high enough to melt the oxide coating is required. A more stable arc is achieved by means of pulsing, as the variation in current values provides greater control of the droplet transfer. Power supplies are sophisticated and several different types are available. Varying methods of current control are also available; one variant involves setting both the basic and peak current, as well as pulse width and frequency, manually. Using this method, many settings have to be checked, but there are also pre-programmed power sources. They have just one control and all the input parameters are adjusted automatically in accordance with pre-set welding programs. All the operator needs to do is select the type of shielding gas, wire diameter, alloy composition of the wire and plate thickness. The power source then chooses a program which suits the application. Some parameters can also be precision-adjusted manually, but the machine generally works of its own accord. Nowadays, it is relatively easy to re-program welding equipment using a PC and upgrades can be transferred by modem.

Points to consider
To sum up, the difficulties associated with aluminium welding are related to mechanical factors where feed and power supplies are the most complicated issues. There are a large number of different aluminium alloys. Silicon, magnesium and manganese are used to produce various desirable properties in the finished material. Ship construction requires an aluminium which resists saltwater corrosion and, in other applications, an aluminium alloy which can resist heavy loads at low temperatures (aircraft aluminium) is required. The welding process causes negative changes in aluminium. For this reason, the product designers must ensure that welded joints are placed in areas with the lightest loads. It is easy to choose consumables for different types of aluminium and the choice is based on a number of criteria. It is easy to find the various types of aluminium in charts describing the ways in which consumables can be selected and combined. For example, there are very complicated aluminium alloys which have been given greater strength by ageing the material at temperatures higher than room temperature. It is difficult to weld these kinds of aluminium and aircraft aluminium cannot be welded at all, so they are riveted instead. 27

ESAB AB Herkulesgatan 72, Box 8004 S-402 77 Gothenburg, Sweden Tel +46 31 50 90 00, Fax +46 31 50 91 70 E-mail info@esab.se Hemsida www.esab.com

Tuvemark / SG id & tryck ab, Gteborg 12 2000/15225