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kVAr required = kW (tan 1 tan 2) Where, 1 = cos-1(PF1) and 2 = cos-1(PF2) PF1 and PF2 are initial and final PF respectively
Initial PF
0.4 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.55 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.68 0.7 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.8 0.82 0.84 0.85
0.9
1.807 1.676 1.557 1.5 1.446 1.343 1.248 1.158 1.074 1.034 0.995 0.92 0.849 0.781 0.716 0.685 0.654 0.594 0.536 0.48 0.425 0.398 0.371 0.318 0.266 0.214 0.162 0.135
0.91
1.836 1.705 1.585 1.529 1.475 1.372 1.276 1.187 1.103 1.063 1.024 0.949 0.878 0.81 0.745 0.714 0.683 0.623 0.565 0.508 0.453 0.426 0.4 0.347 0.294 0.242 0.19 0.164
0.92
1.865 1.735 1.615 1.559 1.504 1.402 1.306 1.217 1.113 1.092 1.053 0.979 0.907 0.839 0.775 0.743 0.712 0.652 0.594 0.538 0.483 0.456 0.429 0.376 0.324 0.272 0.22 0.194
0.93
1.896 1.766 1.646 1.589 1.535 1.432 1.337 1.247 1.163 1.123 1.084 1.009 0.938 0.87 0.805 0.774 0.743 0.683 0.625 0.569 0.514 0.487 0.46 0.407 0.355 0.303 0.251 0.225
0.96
2 1.869 1.749 1.693 1.639 1.536 1.44 1.351 1.267 1.227 1.188 1.113 1.042 0.974 0.909 0.877 0.847 0.787 0.729 0.672 0.617 0.59 0.563 0.511 0.458 0.406 0.354 0.328
0.97
2.041 1.91 1.79 1.734 1.68 1.577 1.481 1.392 1.308 1.268 1.229 1.154 1.083 1.015 0.95 0.919 0.888 0.828 0.77 0.713 0.658 0.631 0.605 0.552 0.499 0.447 0.395 0.369
0.98
2.088 1.958 1.838 1.781 1.727 1.625 1.529 1.44 1.356 1.315 1.276 1.201 1.13 1.062 0.998 0.966 0.935 0.875 0.817 0.761 0.706 0.679 0.652 0.599 0.547 0.495 0.443 0.417
0.99
2.149 2.018 1.898 1.842 1.788 1.685 1.59 1.5 1.416 1.376 1.337 1.262 1.191 1.123 1.058 1.027 0.996 0.936 0.878 0.821 0.766 0.739 0.713 0.66 0.608 0.556 0.503 0.477
Notes:
1. It is considered uneconomical in industrial applications to improve power factor by individual compensation for motor ratings below 15 HP. 2. For motor ratings above 250 HP, the capacitor kVAr rating would be about 25% of the motor rating in HP. 3. In all cases it should be ensured that the capacitor current at rated voltage is always less than 90% of the no load current of the motor. This is due to the fact that when capacitor current exceeds the no load magnetizing current of the motor, excessive voltage surges can occur due to self excitation in the event of
an interruption in power supply which will prove harmful to both the motor as well as the capacitor. 4. The capacitor kVAr values indicated in the above table are after taking into consideration the condition specified in the point 3 above and assuming motor loading of greater than 80%. 5. If the motor is loaded less than 80% the capacitor kVAr required may be greater than the values indicated in the above table. In such cases the capacitor should be connected upstream in group or central compensation mode.
S. No. 1. 2. 3.
kVA rating of the transformer Upto 315 kVA 315 kVA 1000 kVA Above 1000 kVA
kVAr required for compensation 5% of kVA rating 6% of kVA rating 8% of kVA rating
The objective of power system protection is to isolate a faulty section of electrical power system from rest of the live system so that the rest portion can function satisfactorily without any severer damage due to fault current.
Actually circuit breaker isolates the faulty system from rest of the healthy system and this circuit breakers automatically open during fault condition due to its trip signal comes from protection relay. The main philosophy about protection is that no protection of power system can prevent the flow of fault current through the system, it only can prevent the continuation of flowing of fault current by quickly disconnect the short circuit path from the system. For satisfying this quick disconnection the protection relays should have following functional requirements.
Fig 3.13: Basic Connection Diagram of Protection Relay In the picture the basic connection of protection relay has been shown. It is quite simple. The secondary of current transformer is connected to the current coil of relay. And secondary of voltage transformer is connected to the voltage coil of the relay. Whenever any fault occurs in the feeder circuit, proportionate secondary current of the CT will flow through the current coil of the relay due to which mmf of that coil is increased. This increased mmf is sufficient to mechanically close the normally open contact of the relay. This relay contact actually closes and completes the DC trip coil circuit and hence the trip coil is energized. The mmf of the trip coil initiates the mechanical movement of the tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and ultimately the circuit breaker is tripped to isolate the fault.
Selectivity
The relay must be operated in only those conditions for which relays are commissioned in the electrical power system. There may be some typical condition during fault for which some relays should not be operated or operated after some definite time delay hence protection relay must be sufficiently capable to select appropriate condition for which it would be operated.
Sensitivity
The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it can be operated reliably when level of fault condition just crosses the predefined limit.
Speed
The protective relays must operate at the required speed. There must be a correct coordination provided in various power system protection relays in such a way that for fault at one portion of the system should not disturb other healthy portion. Fault current may flow through a part of healthy portion since they are electrically connected but relays associated with that healthy portion should not be operated faster than the relays of faulty portion otherwise undesired interruption of healthy system may occur. Again if relay associated with faulty portion is not operated in proper time due to any defect in it or other reason, then only the next relay associated with the healthy portion of the system must be operated to isolate the fault. Hence it should neither be too slow which may result in damage to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result in undesired operation.
Protective gear
Consists of mainly power system protection relays like current relays, voltage relays, impedance relays, power relays, frequency relays, etc. based on operating parameter, definite time relays, inverse time relays, stepped relays etc. as per operating characteristic, logic wise such as differential relays, over fluxing relays etc. During fault the protection relay gives trip signal to the associated circuit breaker for opening its contacts.
Station Battery
All the circuit breakers of electrical power system are DC (Direct Current) operated. Because DC power can be stored in battery and if situation comes when total failure of incoming power occurs, still the circuit breakers can be operated for restoring the situation by the power of storage battery. Hence the battery is another essential item of the power system. Some time it is referred as the heart of the electrical substation. A Substation battery or simply a Station battery containing a number of cells accumulate energy during the period of availability of A.C supply and discharge at the time when relays operate so that relevant circuit breaker is tripped.
Fig. 3.14: Switchgears at Substations We all familiar with low voltage switches and re-wirable fuses at our home. The switch is used to manually open and close the electrical circuit in our home and electrical fuse is used to protect our household electrical circuit from over current and short circuit faults. In same way every electrical circuit including high voltage electrical power system needs switching and protective devices. But in high voltage and extra high voltage system, these switching and protective schemes becomes complicated one for high fault current interruption in safe and secure way. In addition to that from commercial point of view every electrical power system needs measuring, control and regulating arrangement. Collectively the whole system is called Switchgear and Protection of power system. The electrical switchgears have been developing in various forms.
Switchgear protection plays a vital role in modern power system network, right from generation through transmission to distribution end. The current interruption device or switching device is called circuit breaker in Switchgear protection system. The circuit breaker can be operated manually as when required and it is also operated during over current and short circuit or any other faults in the system by sensing the abnormality of system. The circuit breaker senses the faulty condition of system through protection relay and this relay is again actuated by faulty signal normally comes from current transformer or voltage transformer.
Fig. 3.15: 123kV Switchgear Bay A switchgear has to perform the function of carrying, making and breaking the normal load current like a switch and it has to perform the function of clearing the fault in addition to that it also has provision of metering and regulating the various parameters of electrical power system. Thus the circuit breaker includes circuit breaker, current transformer, voltage transformer, protection relay, measuring instrument, electrical switch, electrical, miniature circuit breaker, lightening arrestor or surge arrestor, isolator and other associated equipment.
Electric switchgear is necessary at every switching point in the electrical power system. There are various voltage levels and hence various fault levels between the generating stations and load centres. Therefore various types of switchgear assembly are required depending upon different voltage levels of the system . Besides the power system network, electrical switchgear is also required in industrial works, industrial projects, domestic and commercial buildings.