The Marketing Review 2005, 5, 73-96

www.themarketingreview.com

Pooja Anil Hemdev

University of Strathclyde

Marlboro - A Mini Case Study

"Marlboro. You get a lot to like, filter, flavor, flip-top box." "Where there's a man...there's a Marlboro-with a filter that delivers a smoke of surprising mildness." "Better 'makins'. Marlboro...More flavor...More filter...More cigarette." "If you think flavor went out when filters came in-Try Marlboro." "Make yourself comfortable-Have a Marlboro" "Marlboro. Why don't you settle back and have a full flavored smoke" "Settle Back. You get a lot to like here in Marlboro Country." "Come to where the flavor is. Come to Marlboro Country" "Come to where the flavor is." "Come to Marlboro Country." "Marlboro." A Western landscape, a rugged cowboy and the colour red have come to embody years of advertising tag lines for Philip Morris's Marlboro cigarettes. These three elements, combined or separate, are recognizable as the American call to Marlboro Country even without the brand name, sales pitch or slogan. Consumers know where the flavour is - and that it can be found in Marlboro Country. Philip Morris (PM) - The Parent Company Philip Morris was an Englishman who, in 1854, opened a tobacco shop on London's Bond Street; and in doing so, laid the foundations for what has since grown into a leading international tobacco company. Philip Morris's market for their line of cigarettes is the United States, where it maintains a 5 1 % market share, thanks to its power brand Marlboro (Forbes 2003)^ Since 1970, their operating income has increased from $54 million to $6.3 billion, and today, the company produces 600 billion more cigarettes than they did 30 years ago (source: company website). In 2002, Philip Morris Companies Inc. decided to change its name to Altria Group, Inc. 'Altria' is a reproduction inspired by the Latin word 1. 'Marlboro' was named after the street its London factory was situated on Marlborough (Sharif 1999) Westburn Publishers Ltd.

ISSN 1469-347X/2005/1/0073 + 23 8.00/0

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'altus', which means high or lofty (Blumenthal 2003). The reason for this change was that the company thought the new name better conveyed the diversity of the businesses that the Altria group of companies now operates in. In addition to Philip Morris International and Philip Morris USA, the group includes Philip Morris Capital Corporation and Kraft Foods (source: company website). Philip Morris International (PMI), one of the Altria Group of companies, is the world's leading tobacco company outside the United States. They currently hold a 14.5% share of the international cigarette market, employ 40,000 people worldwide and have an interest in, operate or own more than 50 factories. Further, affiliates manufacture, market, sell and/or distribute the cigarettes in over 160 countries around the world (source: altria.com). In recent years, PM has broadened its single brand strategy to include a number of second line international brands. These brands which include LandM, Chesterfield, Philip Morris and Lark are used tactically to exploit specific price opportunities (e.g. Europe and Latin America), and/or attack dominant competitor positions (e.g. Latin America) or to take advantage of new segments - thereby maintaining overall growth momentum for the PM group and achieving its objective of dominating all major consumer segments (BATCo 1994). The goal of PMI is very clear from its mission statement which reads, "To be the most successful, respected and socially responsible global consumer products company". Knowing this, one may not be so surprised to find a plethora of information about tobacco addiction, issues with tobacco usage, help for quitting, etc. on the company web-site. Other various promotion activities carried out by the company also try to portray the same image (these will be spoken about further into the report).

The Cigarette Industry

The world cigarette market is becoming more concentrated by company. The three largest companies (viz. Phillip Morris, RJR Nabisco Holdings and Loews Corp.'s Lorillard) sell close to two-thirds of the world's total. In individual countries, the degree of concentration can be much higher. The tobacco companies have reacted to the stagnation of demand in their traditional markets in three ways: consolidation (the recent period has seen a wave of mergers and acquisitions), diversification (exploring new markets and new market segments), and raising productivity (van Liemt 2002). Governments face a dilemma. They have an economic and a social interest in tobacco. It provides jobs, tax revenue and (for some) foreign exchange earnings. But governments also have a duty to protect their population's health. Treating people for smoking-related illnesses can be costly. In practice, governments cope with these conflicting pressures by discouraging demand in several ways (and with varying degrees of intensity). Raising cigarette tax is a favorite. Some have sued the tobacco companies in an effort to recover the cost of treating people for smokingrelated illnesses. The major players in this industry are Philip Morris, RJR Nabisco

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Holdings and Loews Corp.'s Lorillard. Philip Morris's Marlboro is the market leader, followed by RJR's Camel brand and Lorillard's Newpost. The stakeholders would include: Market players Consumers Employees of the tobacco companies Health institutions Government The society at large Each category of the above mentioned stakeholders will have different expectations of the benefits to be derived from the tobacco industry. However, this being a very vast topic, the author will only look into the category of consumers (since the fate of any given industry is largely dependant upon its consumers). Any industry or product category can provide two types of benefits to the consumers; viz. functional and emotional. Functional benefits would include providing the nicotine that is present in the cigarette. Taste of the tobacco and experiencing a relaxed state of mind are also included in this category. Emotional benefits here would be satisfaction of a craving (in case of an addict), sense of belonging to a particular group, membership to a particular lifestyle, connection with the 'ideal self-concept'^ that one may aspire towards and which might be present in the symbolism that a particular brand creates, etc. Problems Facing the Tobacco Industry Since this industry is already in it's maturity stage (and coupled with the stringent laws passed with respect to advertising and promotions of cigarettes), companies are faced with numerous challenges. The U.S. Surgeon General has declared smoking to be as addictive as heroin and has blamed cigarettes for millions of deaths each year. In 1971, commercials for cigarettes were banned from television and radio. One year later, laws required manufacturers to include health warnings on all advertisements, direct mail, and point of sale material. Anti-smoking education is increasingly popular and heavily funded. Non- smokers are reminded that addicts enjoy annoyances from throat irritation, shortness of breath, loss of sensitivity to taste and smell, to fatal diseases such as lung cancer, emphysema and heart disease (BATCo 1994). Tough antismoking legislation has restricted smoking inside public buildings and on all domestic flights. Further, smokers face growing social disapproval.
^ A person forms an idea of his/her self-concept (an idea of who they are) after interacting with people around him/her. However, when they look inwards and assess themselves, they may wish to change their actual self-concept to what might be the 'ideal self-concept' to them. An ideal self-concept here, refers to what the individual wants to be; and to achieve this, they buy brands that they think will support the aspired self-image (de Chernatony and McDonald 2003).

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hostile stares and angry remarks. Interbrand's Blackett is not wrong in warning the companies that 'the window of branding opportunities for the tobacco industry is getting smaller and smaller'. He predicts that it is going to get more and more difficult as media avenues are closed to tobacco brands. "Legislation could even stretch to preventing color differentiation, meaning black and white packs and a simple typeface. Marketing in this sector is going to cease to exist as we know it" (Anonymous, Brand Strategy 2003). The Marlboro Brand A 'successful brand' has been defined by Peter Doyle as, "a name, symbol, design, or some combination which identifies the 'product' or a particular organisation as having a sustainable differential advantage". The History Behind the Brand Marlboro was first introduced to the public in the 1920s as a premium cigarette for women behind the theme "Mild as May". It targeted a female audience through a series of ads in 1926 showing a feminine hand reaching for a cigarette. It faced trouble in the 1930s and attempted to rejuvenate itself with a clever advertising gimmick, changing the ivory tip to red in order to hide the stains from ladies' lipstick. The slogan used to promote these red filters was "a cherry tip for your ruby lips" (Elinor 1993). During World War I I , however, the brand faltered and had to be taken off the market. Three brands. Camel, Lucky Strike and Chesterfields surfaced with a firm hold on consumers after the war (source: npr.org). Philip Morris saw its chance to reintroduce Marlboro in the early fifties when the first studies linking cigarette smoking to lung cancer were released by Reader's Digest. Consumers began feeling mislead by the established brands and dropped their old allegiances. They were willing to try other brands but were unable to break away from smoking completely, due to what was later attributed to nicotine addiction. Disillusioned consumers turned to Marlboro, the new "safer" filtered brand. Ross B. Millhiser, president of Philip Morris in 1968, looked back on the phenomenon and explained that "the filter revolution caused more switching than all the cigarette manufacturers with all their money could have induced."(BATCo 1994). Unfortunately for Marlboro, formerly known to be "Mild as May", the new filters were considered effeminate. The dilemma that the marketing people faced was to convince the male population to start smoking Mariboros. It was decided to tackle the problem by targeting existing smokers who had a new concern; in other words, addicted men who feared lung cancer. Philip Morris took the challenge to a Midwestern agency, the Leo Burnett Company of Chicago, and reintroduced Marlboro to the nation in 1955 with the "Tattooed Man" campaign. The image of the 'new Marlboro smoker' as portrayed by an ad campaign by the Burnett group was that of a lean, relaxed outdoorsmana cattle rancher, a Navy officer, a flyer whose tattooed wrist suggested a romantic past, a man who had once

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worked with his hands, who knew the score and who merited respect (source: Virginia.edu). The first advertisements spoke directly to the male audience suggesting in a descriptive paragraph that they try "old fashioned flavor in a new way to smoke." Black and white full-page advertisements were divided between large blocks of information about the new filter and flip-top box and a close-up, weathered, handsome face whose strong tattooed hand held a Marlboro cigarette. The picture had a detailed copy of the then unique selling proposition; "New Flip-Top Box. Sturdy to keep cigarettes from crushing. No tobacco in your pocket. Up to date. Popular filter price." (source: virginia.edu). By December 1975, in just twenty years from being a virtually unknown brand, Marlboro was named the "top selling brand in the United States and the all-time best-seller in the world"(source: company website - PM History). In 1989, Marlboro was "America's best seller by far, with one fourth of all cigarette sales", Philip Morris held 43% of the domestic market, and made $4.6 billion from tobacco sales-nearly two thirds of the company's total profits (US News and World Report, May 1990). By 1992, Financial World ranked Marlboro the world's No. 1 most valuable brand, with a market worth of $32 billion (Fairclough 2000). Marlboro advertisements today reap the benefits of the tradition that precedes them; they capture a complex message which tries to distinguish a product from competitors that are largely the same, in a simple image and a couple of words. Success of the Marlboro brand can also be attributed to the branding strategy used by its' parent company - the Altria Group. Out of the six major branding options being used by today's corporate management (monolithic, variations on a theme, shared or dual, endorsement, conditional and decentralized); Altria makes use of an endorsement strategy. With the endorsement identity strategy, the parent company provides the umbrella under which individual brands and divisions are marketed. This approach combines the brand equity of the parent company (Altria being attributed as the biggest tobacco company in the world), with the value of the individual brands and divisions for greater impact. Benefits of this strategy are that the endorsement leverages equity of parent across divisional and product categories. Individual brands and divisions retain their own nomenclature and can be easily spun off with total equity. This strategy also provides broader shareholder recognition, high cross-sell opportunities, and endorsement credibility for new product launches (Elinor 1993). In order to understand the 'Marlboro' brand better, it would help to make use of various models/frameworks used in branding literature. The following paragraphs will look at the ^Four ieveis of Mariboro as a brand' (viz. core, expected, augmented and potential) and the 'Brand Consumerisation Spectrum' developed by Mary Goodyear (1996). Four Leveis of the Mariboro Brand Buyers of consumer products regard the products as bundles of value that they purchase, based upon their preferences on the differences in

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value added in the competing products offered in the market. The four levels of a brand as shown in Exhibit 1 (Levitt 1980) help an organization to decide ways in which further value can be incorporated into brands to satisfy consumers' needs (de Chernatony and McDonald 2003). The generic level refers to the basic level of an offering that enables a company to be in a particular category. The generic product of Marlboro is tobacco which caters to the need of nicotine consumption. Being a generic industry, there are numerous 'me-too' brands that exist in the cigarette industry. At the expected level, competing brands in a particular category are distinguished through product attributes such as price, name, packaging, design, availability, etc. The added values in this level are in the form of functional characteristics that reinforce the positioning of what the brand does. At this stage, Marlboro provides added value to customers through a rich taste, a highly distinguishable packaging that is valued by many of its consumers and a wide variety of product lines to choose from (Hards, Lights, Ultra Lights, Milds, Marlboro Blends 10, 26 and 27).

Potential Brand

Augmented Brand Expected Brand Generic Product

Source: de Chernatony and McDonald 2003

Exhibit 1. The Four Leveis of a Brand Marketers augment their brands in order to maintain customer loyalty and price premiums. This level makes the brand more fluid in the minds of the consumers. Here, the consumers differentiate between various brands based on various factors and choose those which match their motivational needs most closely (de Chernatony and McDonald 2003). Marlboro seeks to position itself as a premium product through high pricing and its promotions. It differentiates itself through the 'Marlboro Man' which stands for the aspirational American who is tough, hard-working, attractive and leads a rugged and adventurous lifestyle. Creating a potential level for a brand is where new added values are infused into the offering. This is the most challenging task whereby the

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organisation faces limitations of creativity of the marketing team and financial resources (de Chernatony and McDonald 2003). Marlboro tries to create a potential level by projecting a socially responsible image in all of it's communications with it's stakeholders. It also conducts sweepstakes such as such as 'Party on the Ranch' and the 'Racing School' which are very popular campaigns. Through successful promotions, Leo Burnett (the advertising agency for Marlboro) has managed to create an aura of mystery and reliability around the brand. Brand Consumerisation Spectrum The Brand Consumerisation Spectrum (Exhibit 2) which was developed by Mary Goodyear in 1996 focuses on the evolving nature of branding over time. It is considered to be a very useful model because rather than tracing the position of an actual brand over time, Goodyear's is a conceptual model of the possible stages that a brand might go through (McEnally and de Chernatony 1999). The 'Unbranded' stage refers to commodities and packaged goods. The supplier enjoys majority of the power in this case since he is responsible for all marketing practices/outcomes. 'Brand as Reference' is where the brand name displayed on the product is of the name of maker and is used solely for identification purposes. Any advertising support focuses on rational/functional attributes rather than emotional ones. However, over time, the name becomes a guarantee of quality/consistency. When a brand can no longer sustain a competitive advantage on the basis of product attributes, management may decide to build a personality for the brand. Thus, 'Brand as Personality' refers to cases where the brand name may be "stand alone". Marketing activities focus on emotional appeal and product benefits. Advertising is used to put the entire concept into context. As the brand becomes well known world-wide, it may become a symbol or icon. In the 'Brand as Icon' stage, the consumer now 'owns' the brand. The brand taps into higher-order values of the consumers. One sees use of symbolic brand language which gives the brand a tangible element and is often established internationally. In the category of 'Brand as Company', brands have complex identities and the company needs to focus on how the corporate communication befits 'diverse' consumers. Therefore, an integrated communication strategy is essential. 'Brand as Policy' refers to a situation where the company and brands are aligned with social and political issues. Consumers now 'own' brands, companies and policies and are able to 'vote' on issues through these companies. Mariboro falls in stage four, which is 'Brand as Icon'. This has been achieved through the 'Marlboro Man' who received the award of the 'icon of the century' in 1999 (Bainbridge 1999). Smokers of Marlboro are given extensive knowledge about the brand through promotional campaigns. The aim, which was to enable consumers to use the Marlboro man as an icon to create their self identity has been successfully achieved. The brilliantly designed campaign - the strong image of the mythical American hero and the cowboy - and a successful series of responses to marketing challenges by the Marlboro team has created an immediately and

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universally recognized icon representing an idealized and appealing American lifestyle. Consumers who want to be perceived as strong, rugged or loners might smoke Marlboro cigarettes. Thus, the cowboy is a symbol or icon of a set of values.

Brand as Policy Brand as Company CMarlboro^ Brand as Icon ^ ^

Brand as Personality Brand as Reference Unbranded

/ / /

4
Source: de Chernatony and McDonald 2003

Exhibit 2. Brand Consumerisation Spectrum Further, in order to be well-entrenched in the consumer's mind, the \con must have many associations - both primary (about the product) and secondary (McEnally and de Chernatony 1999; de Chernatony and McDonald 2003). Primary associations of Marlboro refer to the full taste that one may experience whilst lighting up a Marlboro cigarette. Secondary associations would include the cowboy's demeanor, 'Marlboro Country (come to where the flavor is)' and the hugely popular Formula 1 (due to extensive sponsorships of the car rallying sport). Other branding frameworks proposed by Park, Jaworski and Maclnnis (1986) focus on the strategic intent of the firm. It says that once management chooses a brand concept such as functional or symbolic, it attempts to manage the same concept over the brand's life cycle. In their framework, brands do not shift from functional to symbolic. However, Marlboro doesn't fit in this model since it tries to sell on functional attributes (come to where the flavour is); as well as on symbolic attributes (the Marlboro man). This example cannot be accounted for in the Park, Jaworski and Mclnnis model, but can be accommodated by the Goodyear model.

Marlboro - A Mini Case Study The Marlboro Man

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To get into the consumer's mind, you inave to sacrifice. You have to reduce the essence of your brand to a single thought or attribute. An attribute that nobody else already owns in your category.' - Al Ries and Laura Ries. The attribute that Al and Laura Ries talk about was developed by Leo Burnett in 1955 in the form of the Marlboro man; and has come a long way since then. Even today, it continues to be an awe inspiring image which Philip Morris has developed to its full potential. One look at an image of a cowboy, and everyone knows what the icon stands for. What is it that creates such an appeal for this imagery? The author of this report feels that the roaring success of the Marlboro man is attributable to the following factors: On the surface, the cowboy and Marlboro country are simplistic, but underneath them lies a rich mixture of ideas. There is something for everybody and it holds a variety of implicit promises according to who sees it. The cowboy is strong, serious and clever. Since he never talks, he has the added appeal of mystery. He can be both thoughtful (standing for the good guy with honest virtues) and macho. Although he comes across as a solitary figure, he is also sociable and shares the campfire with his fellow workmen. After all, sociability of smoking in a group is a theme that the smoker can identify with. The world of the cowboy is outdoor, clean and unspoilt, providing a mood of great relaxation and smoking satisfaction. Portrayal of smoking a cigarette as a reward for completing a task is a very real display of the behaviour of tobacco consumers. The use of rich colors (red, brown), flavours and aromas (the campfire, cooking and coffee), textures (leather) and dramatic landscapes is emotionally appealing. The underlying themes of adventure, freedom, independence, being in charge of your destiny, open spaces and escapism for the urban dweller have proved appealing to several generations. They still have contemporary relevance; the cowboy is an icon of sturdy independence, the kind of person who chooses to smoke and signifies a quiet defender of free choice. No other cigarette brand has used television so well (nor will there ever be) (source: Virginia.edu).

Marketing and Brand Strategies of Marlboro It is posited by various marketing gurus that branding should not be regarded as a tactical tool directed towards one element of the marketing mix; rather, it should be seen as the result of strategic thinking, integrating a marketing programme across the complete marketing mix. Al Ries and Laura Ries aptly say that 'Marketing is not selling. Marketing is

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building a brand in the mind of the prospect.' In order to gain a deeper insight of the branding and marketing strategies of Marlboro, the author of this report will look at issues such as the generic branding strategy of Marlboro, and a brief description of the elements in its' marketing mix. Generic Brand Strategy of Marlboro The matrix for determining the generic strategy of a brand was adapted from Porter in 1985. According to this matrix, a brand's strategy is determined by the degree of competitive advantage of the brand in the market-place and its' competitive scope (de Chernatony and McDonald 2003).

Broad
d Q. O U

Broad Cost

Broad Differentiation CVlarlboro^

E o u

0) Q.

Narrow

Focus Cost

Focus Differentiation

Low Cost

Value Added

Competitive advantage

Source: de Chernatony and McDonald (2003)

Exhibit 3. Generic Strategies for Brands Marlboro is in a line of business that sells a generic product, i.e. cigarettes. However, through careful positioning and communication of the brand, PM has been able to achieve a distinct place in the minds of consumers. It commands a majority of the market share and charges a premium for its cigarettes. This has been possible through the valueadded that consumers perceive they get when they smoke a Marlboro. Thus, one can say that Marlboro has a competitive advantage over it's competitors (mainly due to the strong imagery that it has developed). Further, the brand is consumed by a wide band of consumers. The

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National Household Survey on Drug Abuse carried out by the U.S. federal government in 1999 found that 55% of smokers aged 12 to 17 smoke Marlboro. Another study conducted by Fairciough in 2000 revealed that 78% of smokers in the age group of 18-24 years also favored Marlboro. The same survey also found that the reasons given by the remaining percentage of teen population for not smoking Marlboro included that the brand was consumed by their fathers/grandfathers and thus they did not consider it 'hip' enough. Therefore, one can safely state that the competitive scope of Mariboro is broad. Looking then at the matrix for generic strategies, it can be concluded that Marlboro follows a 'Broad Differentiation Strategy' wherein it continually strives to set itself apart from its competitors through value additions (perceived or real) and premium pricing in order to protect it's position of a market leader. Another thing that can be noticed from Marlboro's brand strategy is that PM stresses on long term profitability, sacrificing short term profits in order to grow long term share in international markets. Once markets are established, PM uses line extensions and a broader product portfolio to maintain volume and share growth. Having achieved market leader status: Marlboro sets the price for the whole market and gets overproportional trade support. Marlboro benefits from taste leadership giving it research and development and leaf buying cost advantages.

All these factors enable PM to achieve critical mass and most importantly, maximize profitability (source: altria.com).

Marketing Mix
To facilitate an understanding of the tactical aspect of the marketing and branding strategy of Marlboro, it would help to have a look at the marketing mix which consists of product, packaging, price and promotion. Product Consumer-product companies thrive on new packaging, advertising and products to keep their brands fresh and relevant to consumers. Most big brands constantly introduce line extensions (Fairciough 2003). A key reason for Marlboro's ongoing success has been its line extension strategy which has broadened its appeal to new smoker segments, whilst keeping the brand current and constantly in the mind of both smokers and the trade. By managing the family as a brand umbrella and using line extensions to build the overall family franchise, PM has achieved spending synergies. Tauber has spoken about different ways of extending brands and concluded that there exist seven types of brand extensions. These are: Same product in different form Distinctive taste, ingredient or component

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Pooja Anil Hemdev Companion product Same customer franchise Expertise Unique benefit, attribute or feature owned by the brand Designer status or image

In reviewing the nature of these extensions, the author concluded that Mariboro resorts to the strategy of 'unique benefit, attribute or feature owned by the brand'. This implies that since Marlboro stands out for it's uniqueness on a particular attribute (its image); it seeks to extend the same to other introductions (de Chernatony and McDonald 2003). Currently, Marlboro's portfolio boasts of successful extensions such as Menthol, 100s, Lights, Ultra Lights, 10s and 26s which were all introduced in the late 1960s (source: altria.com). More recent additions include Marlboro Milds introduced in 2000 (as an attempt to boost its share of the market for menthol cigarettes) (Fairciough 2000); a 'super-premium, holiday tobacco blend' called 'M' introduced during the Christmas of 2001 (Fairciough 2001); and Blend No. 27 (introduced in April 2003); which comes in a box with a copper-colored top and the slogan: "Smooth, rich and mellow". Much of Marlboro's recent worldwide momentum has come from the Lights version which over the last five years has grown on average by 21 % per annum; compared with just under 8% for the Red version (which in 1992 declined for the first time ever in its international markets) (Source: altria.com). Packaging At the time of it's' introduction, the Marlboro packet was used as one of the unique selling points of the cigarette. It was an innovative design strengthened by the strong geometric design of the red, white and blacklettered flip-top package. It was designed by Frank Gianinoto in 1954 and carefully tested through consumer surveys by Elmo Roper and Associates and the Color Research Institute (Advertising Age, September 1988). The public embraced the red box as a symbol of membership to the club that recognized the Marlboro Man as their spokes-person. A 1959 ad showed the Flip-top box as a unifying element "From the Klondike to Key West.... Every man is a 'Marlboro Man' once he discovers that Marlboro is for real smoking." The box is considered as a carrying card available to everyone and a visible proof of participation in or appreciation for a certain idealized way of life that not many get to experience (Advertising Age, September 1988). Consumers carrying the box are considered to be aligning themselves and their reputation in the positive image of the Marlboro Man. One can therefore see how PM carefully integrated all elements of its' offering to create and maintain a single image. Another advantage of the design of the package is its easy adaptability. Because the design is so simple and the Marlboro lettering so distinctive, changes in colors (the gold for Lights, grey-silver-blue for Ultra Lights and green for menthol) do not fundamentally alter the pack design. When the

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European directive (in force since 30 September 2003) banned cigarette companies from using the 'Light', 'Mild' or 'Low Tar' descriptors on their packs; most tobacco companies' reaction was to change the name of the extensions or the color of the packaging (source: Virginia.edu)^. However, instead of following suit, PM simply dropped the prohibited words from the packs since its packaging spoke for itself. This gave them a competitive advantage over their rivals. Perhaps the most intelligent tactic used by PM was placing a pamphlet between the cigarette packet and its cellophane wrapper, which had started circulating in Switzerland since June 2003 and was launched shortly after in the UK (Wall Street Journal 2003). These pamphlets contained blunt messages from the company which gave information such as, "smoking causes many serious and fatal diseases including lung cancer, heart disease and emphysema. Your risk of getting a disease from smoking is very high. Do not think that smoking won't affect your health." Professor Gerard Hastings, Chairman of CRUK's tobacco control unit, agrees that 'honesty is the best policy' is an attractive strategy for tobacco brands. He also goes on to opine that "The company (PM) is undertaking a charm offensive, saying 'look, we're the good guys now" (source: Virginia.edu). Price PM has had a long term premium pricing strategy for Marlboro with the aim of achieving higher margins through lower costs and higher price. However, the tobacco industry is characterized by a rise and ebb of prices due to economic conditions, taxation laws, heavy debts due to settlements to the courts (for various cases initiated by consumers) and the 'profit hungry' nature of all big enterprises. The fluctuations in the pricing strategy can be seen with the help of the following time-line: April 1993: The infamous day on which PM cut down the prices on its cigarette for the first time in history in order to lessen the gap between premium brands and generic brands (which was almost 60%) (Klein 2000). This day, referred to as 'Marlboro Friday' was a desperate attempt to protect PM's market share since consumers had become extremely price-sensitive due to recession. The following graph depicts the falling consumption rates of tobacco in developed countries. 1994-2002: After a few months of Marlboro Friday during which PM's stock took a major beating, PM again increased prices to regain lost profits. The rivals followed suit. March 2002: Prices reached an all time high where the retail price for a pack of Marlboros reached $3.58, up about 90% since 1997 (Wall Street Journal 2002). The rise was driven by the companies' hunger for everlarger profits, their initial large payments under the state settlements and a wave of state excise-tax increases in the United States. In New York City, where taxes were particularly heavy, a pack of full-price cigarettes ^ Benson and Hedges replaced the prohibited words with 'gold' and 'silver'; whereas Silk Cut used simple colour indicators of white, purple and lilac.

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was selling for $7.50 or more (Fairclough 2002). October 2002: Increased prices of cigarettes and emergence of new, cheaper brands were causing many smokers to either give up smoking or then switch to these lower priced brands. This drove all major tobacco companies, including PM, to introduce temporary discounts on their cigarettes. During this period, along with offering discounts on the retail prices of the cigarettes, PM was also extending a 'three-for-two' promotion on Marlboro cartons (Dipasquale 2002). January 2003: PM again managed to cause a major stir in the market by introducing what amounted as the biggest cigarette price cut since the infamous "Marlboro Friday" in April 1993. Discounts reached as high as 80 cents per pack and a worldwide promotional spending of $350 million was announced by the company for July 18 2003 (Fairclough 2003). Panic was so intense that critics dubbed the day as 'Marlboro Thursday'.

Trends in annual per adult cigarette consumption in developed and developing countries (1970-92)

0 197&-72

1990-92 Source: WHO 1997

Promotion Promotions mean exposure, an important element in marketing of which Marlboro has taken full advantage. In the 1950s Marlboro had twelve different advertising agencies and seven different campaigns in Europe. Having tested the US advertising against local advertising in a number of markets, the Cowboy was rolled out as standard in most markets. PM works on the philosophy of making the Marlboro advertising instantly recognizable across the world (BATCo 1994). Even forty years later there are few competitor brands that can claim to have truly global campaigns.

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Adaptations were made for local markets, such as Australia where the cowboy was seen as a laborer rather than a symbol of free spirit and open spaces. Instead Marlboro Country and a horseman, a ranch owner who is a successful business man with a ranch and a string of horses rather than a cowboy have proved more successful. In Argentina, a sports oriented campaign has been used instead of the cowboy. In the UK, when restrictions forced the withdrawal of the cowboy from Marlboro adverts on the grounds that it depicted 'a hero of the 'young', PM continued to run the same copy with pictures of horses roaming the wide open spaces of Marlboro country, but more recently has experimented with surreal images, humour and the colour red. Overall, some of the major techniques used for promoting Marlboro are: Sponsorships Marlboro has gained allies in the art and entertainment world by sponsoring sales promotions on its packs that donate money to local museums and by budgeting money toward cultural recipients from the American Crafts Museum to the Dance Theater of Harlem (Business Week 1988). New York's Lincoln Center for performing Arts, in 1987 allowed a huge banner advertising the Marlboro Country Music Festival featuring Dolly Parton, Alabama, and the Judds; to hang on the front of the public building. The Country Music Festival banner follows the Marlboro Western image, but like the Marlboro Country ads the placement of the banner, hanging in New York, shows the appeal is not limited to a country Western audience. After the ban on tobacco advertising, Marlboro chose sports events for their promotions. During the 1989 Grand Prix, a promotional sign for Marlboro that hung by the track was clearly visible for 46.17 minutes of NBC's 93.62 minute coverage of the event (BATCo 1994). Communications at tiie club/disco/bar environment After the ban on tobacco advertising and endorsements; bars and night-clubs have become ground zero for tobacco companies to promote their products (Jarvis 2000). The companies sponsor 'adult - only' events and giveaways in bars and nightclubs as a politically correct way to offset lost billboard ad opportunities. Representatives of PM are regularly seen handing out samples to smokers-but only after carefully checking IDs and even digitally photographing the recipient. These bar giveaways are conducted nationally in the US in metropolitan areas. The representatives touring the bars are trained only to approach patrons who already are smoking (source: npr.org). However, free samples are just one aspect of the nightclub efforts. Philip Morris has used the metro bar scene to promoteMts "Party at the Ranch" and "Racing School" sweepstakes, which send winners on adventure vacations. According to Mike Pfeil, vice president of communications and public affairs at PM; the prizes are designed to drive

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home Marlboro's brand message ("Adult smokers can experience the freedom and adventure that has been the hallmark of Marlboro for years") (Jarvis 2000). Beiow the iine promotions Below the line promotions such as direct mailings are major contributors in the promotion program. These have the benefits of creating a smoker database thereby ensuring effective targeting, building up customer loyalty by offering gifts in return for proof of purchase and ultimately making the smoker a walking advert for Marlboro (eg. wearing Marlboro clothing). One of the most successful direct mailing campaigns that PM undertook in 2003 was sending out a red box to each smoker in its database, which ironically resembled a US Government dispatch box. This contained a professionally designed brochure, filled with beautiful photographs of mystical Marlboro country. Each page also contained little campfire stories. Daren Kay, one of the consumers contributing to a review column to the newspapers swore that when he read the brochure whilst caught up in a traffic jam, he "was riding the Oregon trail, with only cacti and blue skies for company for miles around". This box also contained a metal ashtray (Kay 2003).

Speciai pubiications

Due to increasing allegations that PM was promoting smoking to the youth, Philip Morris, in 2000 decided to stop placing ads in magazines that had more than two million readers under 18 or whose teen readership is more than 15%, as measured by independent market-research firms (Fairclough 2000). Subsequently, three of the largest tobacco giants-Philip Morris, Brown and Williamson and R.J. Reynolds Tobacco - in alliances with major consumer magazine publishers, have been offering five different custom published magazines. These periodicals are distributed free or for low subscription rates. Hence, the tobacco companies, restricted in the amount of advertising they are allowed in traditional consumer magazines are free to run as much promotional material as they choose. The magazines are sent to nearly five million people whose names are obtained from tobacco company databases (Masters 2000). Commentary After a detailed insight into the Marlboro brand and an analysis of the various techniques that Philip Morris uses to keep its' flagship brand in the forefront, the author of this report has been able to draw a list of factors that have been instrumental to the success of the brand. After that, the strategic direction of Marlboro has been mapped, and finally in conclusion, certain issues/potential threats that PM needs to address have been pointed out.

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Effective use of symboiism According to de Chernatony and McDonald (2003), the subject of symbolism deals with the type of behaviour wherein consumers are more interested in what certain brands say about them rather than what they do for them. This symbolic meaning gets attached to brands through advertising and other forms of market communications. Consumers are now increasingly interested in what brands mean. Thus, one can see a trend whereby people are seeking to reflect their attitudes and beliefs through brands. In other words, consumers are looking for brands that will make them feel and appear Yight' Effective use of symbolism

Vigilance ' X "

~^

Commitment

Concentration

Consistency

Philip Morris takes advantage of this concept of branding through its brand icon, the Marlboro man. When Philip Morris decided to reposition Marlboro as a man's filtered cigarette, the creative people at Leo Burnett asked themselves, "What's the best masculine image in America?" Although a cab driver was a close runner-up, a suggestion of the cowboy by a fellow worker received the most agreement (Sharif 1999). So from the start, the Marlboro Man was set up to symbolize ideal masculinity. How exactly is this concept achieved through the use of the cowboy imagery and the inviting country landscape? Many people would argue that the Marlboro Man represents a return to our original heritage; that he is the "last free American." This certainly has some truth to it. The Marlboro Man was generated during a period that heavily emphasized the appeal of the Western Frontier: there was a plethora of Western films, television shows, and articles featuring real rodeo stars and life on the range. The people at Marlboro strive for "candidacy" - for authenticity. They don't use models in their ads, only real cowboys engaged in real cowboy activities (source: leoburnett.com). Keeping the element of glamour away from its promotions gives the messages a sense of credibility. These men are far from perfect; but with all their flaws they come to represent men of substance, strength, and fearlessness. And perhaps most importantly, these real cowboys come to represent real men to all the workers stuck in their suffocating cubicles in the city. When

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a man looks at the inviting landscape of Marlboro Country and the rugged cowboy, he is being exposed to a number of powerful messages. Looking at the open grassy fields, the viewer sees escape from the pressures, stresses, and routine of mundane life. A study conducted by Carl Enomoto in 2000 which undertook a comparative analysis of teenagers who smoked different brands confirms this interpretation. This study states that teen Marlboro smokers felt they had higher amounts of stress in their lives visa-vis those who smoked Newport or Camel. They were also more often depressed or sad. When interpreting the image of the lone cowboy riding his horse, he feels a sense of independence and autonomy. The Marlboro Man also appears to have a purpose and agenda, yet the flexibility to do things his own way. This creates an ideal balance that would be desired by any working individual. Control is another major theme in the ads whether pulling in his horse with the reins, gathering up the stray sheep, or even just standing, looking out into the distance, the Marlboro Man is portrayed as having immense control over things and his life. This idea of controllability has a dual influence, attracting women as well. Heroism and the concept of being "one with nature" also play important roles in enticing women. And, of course, sex appeal is surely at work in the cowboy's physique and symbolism As can be seen, brands as symbols can act as efficient communication devices, enabling people to convey messages about themselves. As such, it becomes easier to join new groups. Therefore, smoking a Marlboro may invoke a certain sense of belonging to others who consume the same brand and who are a part of the 'Marlboro Country'. From the above, one can draw three tips to develop an enduring character that will successfully convey a firm's marketing message. These are: # 1 : Tap Into Myths and Heroes: By tapping into American notions of cowboy life and masculinity, the Marlboro Man represented more than decent tobacco. He was the Western hero that American men aspired to be. "Using archetypes like this is the easiest way to reach the human psyche," says marketing consultant Carol Pearson of Leo Burnett (source: leoburnett.com). Philip Morris told American men it was okay to smoke Marlboros by depicting an idealized figure with a Marlboro cigarette in hand. # 2 : Accentuate the Positive: An icon shouldn't just represent a company by name; it should embody a brand's most important attributes. # 3 : Keep Up With the Times: Most marketers take pride in relating the history of their brand and icon. However, icons may need freshening to keep their image hip.

Commitment

PMI's faith in Marlboro is generated from a corporate pledge to succeed. PM has never wavered in its long term commitment to build Marlboro into a brand leader in every market in the world.

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Concentration Throughout the 1950s 1960s and 1970s, and to a significant degree in the 1980s and 1990s, Philip Morris concentrated only upon Marlboro. No other brand existed as a strategic priority outside the United States. PM devoted almost its entire international marketing budget behind Marlboro in the early days, while even in 1992 it accounted for almost 60% of expenditure (Wall Street Journal 1999). The story of Marlboro Friday confirms the level of concentrated effort that has been put to keep Marlboro successful. When on April 2 1993 Philip Morris decided to lower the prices of Marlboro cigarettes, many marketing gurus felt that it was the end of Marlboro. The reasoning was that if a prestigious brand like Marlboro who had a carefully groomed image, enhanced with a spending of a billion dollars on advertising, was desperate enough to compete with generic brands, then the whole concept of branding was endangered (Klein 2000). However, even though PM's stocks took a beating that year, the company survived the price wars without sustaining too much damage on its balance sheet or to the Marlboro Man. The care with which PM has tended to the cigarette has secured Marlboro the place of the 'world's strongest business line' in Financial Times ratings. Towards the end of 1993, even with a decline of smokers in the USA (Marlboro's primary market), the cigarette was growing faster in worldwide sales than Coca-Cola (Elinor 1993). Consistency and co-ordination of various eiements of tiie marketing mix Timm F. Crull, Chairman and CEO of Nestle (retired) once said "Longterm brand equity and growth depends on our ability to successfully integrate and implement all elements of a comprehensive marketing program." Philip Morris has pursued an enviably consistent marketing strategy over forty years involving every element of the marketing mix; particularly pricing, packaging, the product and communication. As seen in the section about Marlboro's marketing mix, PM has continually adopted a premium pricing strategy. It was in the forefront of innovative packaging and the design of the cigarette packet. Today, this packet which is recognizable from a distance is synonymous with the Marlboro man. Product extensions are always catering to new trends and needs of the market, but are always centered on the theme of rich taste and ruggedness. Again, through a successful survival of almost half a century now, the Marlboro Man and Marlboro Country have become something of marketing legends. So much so, that Marlboro was awarded the icon of the century (Bainbridge 1999). Repetition and clear, compelling imagery through the years became key factors in Marlboro's keen brand identification today. A spokesperson from Leo Burnett offering his view on the campaign said that, "frequent repetition is necessary to impress the sales message so deeply that it will affect buying behavior even when the logical content of the message is forgotten" (source: leoburnett.com). The Leo Burnett Company built a foundation of

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knowledge for the consumer to be reemphasized every time the Marlboro man was seen. A plethora of information regarding various tobaccorelated issues is made available to consumers from pamphlets in the cigarette packs (in some countries), articles in certain publications and from the company website. Other promotional programmes carried out also accentuate the character of the brand (such as Formula 1 sponsorships; promotions in bars, pubs, etc.) Vigiiance It has been mentioned before that PM has continuously introduced a wide spectrum of product line-extensions under the Marlboro brand. This implies that the company is vigilant and has a keen eye on the market trends and consumer preferences. They are also quick to respond to competitor moves. This can be seen from their introduction of 'Marlboro Milds', their line of menthol flavored cigarettes. Strategic Direction of the Marlboro Brand The matrix on strategic direction of brand strength developed by Young and Rubicam (1994) enables one to determine the equity a brand has gathered and plot appropriate strategies for future growth. In Exhibit 4, 'brand vitality' stands for a brand's growth potential which is determined through its relevance and degree of differentiation. The level of esteem and familiarity that a brand enjoys determines its strength or 'brand stature'.

High

Unrealised Potential >. B

>

Leadership (^^Marlboro) C

c
L. CD

New
Low

Eroding Potential D
High

A
Low

Brand Stature
Source - de Chernatony and McDonald 2003

Exhibit 4 - Strategic Direction of Brand Strength

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Young and Rubicam (1994) posit that when a brand is developed, it begins it's life in quadrant A, where it is low on vitality and stature. Gradually, it moves to quadrant B where brand managers aspire to push their brands into quadrant C. Marlboro belongs to quadrant C, which is home to all market leaders. This is because Marlboro enjoys high brand equity. However, it still has potential for growth whereby it can introduce brand extensions in the form of 'same product in different form'. For example, it can introduce Marlboro tobacco patches, chewing gum or even loose tobacco for the category of Yoll-your-own' cigarettes. It can also resort to 'image or status extensions' by introducing a line of accessories / utilities for smokers such as ash-trays, cigarette lighters, etc. Being the market leader, Marlboro enjoys high esteem and awareness in the market place. De Chernatony and McDonald (2003) opine that if Phillip Morris continues to guard its esteem and differentiation in the market place, it can be assured of a long-term position in quadrant C. However, a word of caution. If PM continues to offer discounts and promotions, it faces a risk of eroding the premium image it has so carefully created for itself. As a result, Marlboro may shift down to quadrant D. Also, continuous price wars might cause PM to loose confidence in the brand and cut down on marketing support. If de Chernatony and McDonald are correct, this will ultimately lead to a fall in the brand's esteem pushing it further down to quadrant A where it will have to start from scratch. However, such a drastic deterioration for a quintessential brand like Marlboro seems unlikely. Finally, some issues or threats that need to be addressed by Philip Morris are: Despite PM's efforts to portray Marlboro as a socially responsible brand (described earlier in the report), there still seems to be excessive criticism from the media and other health organizations. An article by Jennifer Gilbert (2002) very condemningly states that "people have seen a lot more public relations [than] actual changes," and that the stake-holders are looking to Camilleri (the new CEO of PM) to make a break from Philip Morris' history of deceit." The company needs to pay attention to its pricing strategy and avoid extremes (steep rises or deep discounts). In October 2002, the Wall Street Journal reported that in the third quarter of 2001, about 73.4% of cigarettes sold in the U.S. were premium brands such as Marlboro and Camel. That figure dropped to 71.7% in the third quarter of 2002. That represents a big loss since one percent of the U.S. cigarette market is equivalent to about 200 million packs a year. Marlboro's share of the U.S. market fell despite heavy discounts of up to $7.50 a carton as well as buy-two-get-one-free offers and other enticements. On the other hand, certain rival company's premium cigarettes (viz. Newport, Winston and Kool) gained market share (the Wall Street Journal 2002). Further, generic brands such as Rave and Hi-Val

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Pooja Anil Hemdev boasted a share of nearly 10% of the market, compared to just 3% in 1999. Marlboro, unlike its competitors, is falling prey to counterfeiters, who are eating into legitimate sales (Fairciough 2003). These offenders who mainly operate through the internet sell cigarettes to the youth thereby tarnishing the social image that PM is trying so hard to create. Even though PM recently sued several internet vendors, the problem still exists. Despite the fact that the Marlboro box introduced in 1955 was a major break-through, it remains the same almost half a century later. Competitors on the other hand, are coming up with newer and more innovative styles of packaging. Winston, a brand of RJR Nabisco holding (Marlboro's closest competitor) introduced a plastic-case, called the Winston Evo (short for "evolution") in 2002. It is available in a black or gray case with a hologrammed label, accompanied by a splashy counter display. It was promoted at fashion shows in New York where the new packets were handed out to the designer crowd. A spokesperson from Winston said that Winston Evo is aimed at "anyone who is hip and cool" (Hawn 2002). Differentiation is key in a business where imagery is proving to be more difficult to communicate. Hence, PM should be alert and look at ways it can further augment its' offerings through an element of change without harming the associative networks that have been built over the past decades. On a similar note, Fairciough (2003) pointed out his concerns that Philip Morris "hasn't introduced innovation to its image". He opines that since consumers like to try new products, there is a risk to Marlboro. For decades, Marlboro has stuck with the same Western imagery and signature red-and-white box that helped propel the brand to the top of the U.S. market in 1976. Along the way, it has become one of the world's most recognized brands, synonymous with America, freedom and rugged individualism. However, that may not be striking the same chord with younger smokers anymore. "I can't ride a horse at all. That's not my thing. That's why I smoke Camels." says 25-yearold Adam Shephard in an article in the Wall Street Journal. Since the youth segment is clearly an important one for Marlboro (indicated by two specific studies mentioned earlier in the report); PM should deal with this issue without wasting any time. Even though PM conducts promotions that are very relevant to the theme of its brand (i.e. 'Party on the Ranch', etc.), its' competitors seem to be offering promotions that might seem more interesting to the most lucrative segment of the industry - youngsters and young professionals. For example, to promote its Rooster brand, UST teamed up with Playboy magazine for a five-month promotion that offered a grand prize trip for four for a weekend party at the Playboy Mansion that included tickets to the Playboy Jazz Festival (Masters 2000). The BATCo Marketing Intelligence Department (March 1994) published the news that PM is working on Marlboro 'Express', a shortened cigar which gives the same impact as a standard length cigarette. PM hopes

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to target smokers affected by smoking bans in the working and public environment. However, history shows that smokers are not generally receptive to new products. Therefore, a carefully planned launch strategy should be planned for its' success. To sum up this report, it seems to be most fitting to state the words of Scott Bedbury (Nike, Starbucks) - "A great brand taps into emotions. Emotions drive most, if not all, of our decisions. A brand reaches out with a powerful connecting experience. It's an emotional connecting point that transcends the product." References Anonymous, (2003), "What doesn't kill you might even make you stronger". Brand Strategy. London: Nov 2003. p.10 Anonymous, (1994), "How Marlboro led the Pack", BATCo Marketing Intelligence Department, March 1994 Anonymous (2002), "Philip Morris sues Internet vendors", NPN, National Petroleum News, Chicago: Nov 2002. Vol.94, Iss. 12; pg. 7 Biumenthal, R. G. (2003), "Smoke gets in your eyes, but not in Philip Morris's name", Barron's. Chicopee: Feb 3 2003. Vol. 83, Iss. 5; pg. 10 Bainbridge, J. (1999), "Coke and Marlboro Man voted 20th century's brand heroes". Marketing. London: Nov 25 1999. pg. 1 De Chernatony, L. and McDonald, M. (2003), Creating Powerful Brands, Third Edition, Oxford: Elsevier Dipasquale, C. B. (2002), "Call it 'Marlboro Thursday"', Advertising Age (Midwest region edition), Chicago: Sep 30 2002 Vol. 73, Iss. 39; pg. 1 Elinor, S. (1993), "Commentary: Unlocking the brand asset vault". The Journal of Product and Brand Management, Santa Barbara: 1993. Vol. 2, Iss. 1; pg. 20, 9 pgs Enomoto, C. E. (2000), "A comparative analysis of teenagers who smoke different cigarette brands". Adolescence^ Roslyn Heights: Summer 2000. Vol.35, Iss. 138; pg. 259, 12 pgs Fairciough, G. (2003) "As Marlboro Loses Ground, Altria Expands the Brand", Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition). New York: Jan 29 2003. pg. B.I Fairciough, G. (2002), "Philip Morris Can't Confirm Earlier Projection", Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition). New York: Nov 13 2002. pg. B.IO Fairciough, G. (2002), "Losing Control: Four Biggest Cigarette Makers Can't Raise Prices as They Did,2 Wall Street Journal - Eastern edition, New York: Oct 25 2002. pg. A.I Fairciough, G. (2001), Decking the Halls With a Brand New Cigarette, Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition). New York, N.Y.: Dec 4 2001. pg. B.I Fairciough, G. (2000), "Young Smokers' Choices Are Key To Brand Success", Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition). New York: Oct 3 2000. pg. B.13

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Fairciough, G. (2000), "Philip Morris to Pull Some Cigarette Ads", Wall Street Journal. (Eastern edition). New York: Jun 6 2000. pg. A.4 Fairciough, G. (2000), "Philip Morris Is Going Low Key To Market New Marlboro Milds", Wall Street Journal. (Eastern edition). New York: Mar 7 2000. pg. 1 Gilbert, J. (2002), "A new Marlboro Man", Chief Executive, New York: Apr 2002. , Iss. 177; pg. 13, 1 pgs Hawn, C. (2002), "Plastic Surgery", Forbes. New York: Apr 15 2002. Vol. 169, Iss. 09; pg. 230 Jarvis, S. (2000), "Big tobacco gets creative-within limits". Marketing News, Chicago: Nov 20 2000. Vol.34, Iss. 24; pg. 1, 2 pgs Kay, D. (2003), "Direct choice / Marlboro", Marketing. London: Apr 17 2003. pg. 10, 1 pgs Klein, N. (2000), Wo Logo, London, Flamingo Masters, G. (2000), "Smoke on the horizon". Discount Merchandiser, Bristol: Feb 2000. Vol. 40, Iss. 2; pg. 63, 2 pgs McEnaily, M. R. and de Chernatony, L. (1999), "The Evolving Nature of Branding: Consumer and Managerial Considerations", Academy of Marketing Science RevieWj. Vancouver: 1999. Vol. 1999 pg. 1 Van Liemt, G. (2002), "The World Tobacco Industry: Trends and Prospects", Sectoral Activities Program, International Labour Office, Geneva. www.people.virginia.edu www.philipmorris.com www.leoburnett.com www.altria.com www.npr.org www.virginia.edu www.rochester.edu www.agencyfaqs.com www.google.com About the Author Pooja Hemdev is a recent graduate of the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, where she completed her masters degree in International Marketing with flying colours. Her undergraduate degree was in business management with a specialisation in marketing. She find her interests in research related mainly to international marketing. Branding and strategising are her areas of expertise.