Selection of Heatexchanger Types

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Process Engineering Guide:
GBHE-PEG-HEA-506

Selection of Heat Exchanger Types

Information contained in this publication or as otherwise supplied to Users is
believed to be accurate and correct at time of going to press, and is given in
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for its own particular purpose. GBHE gives no warranty as to the fitness of this
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information. Freedom under Patent, Copyright and Designs cannot be assumed.


Process Engineering Guide: Selection of Heat Exchanger
Types

CONTENTS SECTION

0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE 3

1 SCOPE 3

2 FIELD OF APPLICATION 3

3 DEFINITIONS 3

4 BACKGROUND 4

5 FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION 4

5.1 Type of Duty 4
5.2 Temperatures and Pressures 4
5.3 Materials of Construction 5
5.4 Fouling 5
5.5 Safety and Reliability 5
5.6 Repairs 5
5.7 Design Methods 6
5.8 Dimensions and Weight 6
5.9 Cost 6
5.10 GBHE Experience 7


6 TYPES OF EXCHANGER 9

6.1 Shell and Tube Exchangers 9
6.2 Cylindrical Graphite Block Heat Exchangers 17
6.3 Cubic Graphite Block Heat Exchangers 19
6.4 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers 20
6.5 Gasketed Plate and Frame 22
6.6 Spiral Plate 24
6.7 Tube in Duct 25
6.8 Plate-fin 27
6.9 Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE) 29
6.10 Scraped Surface/Wiped Film Exchangers 31
6.11 Welded or Brazed Plate 32
6.12 Double Pipe 35
6.13 Electric Heaters 37
6.14 Fired Process Heaters 38

TABLE

(1) ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT
SHELL AND TUBE DESIGNS 14

FIGURES

1 ESTIMATED MAIN PLANT ITEM COSTS 7

2 ESTIMATED INSTALLED COSTS 8

3 TEMA HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE 11

4 F CORRECTION FACTORS' : TEMA E SHELL WITH EVEN
NUMBER OF PASSE 13

5 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER HEAD TYPES 15


6 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF A CYLINDRICAL GRAPHITE
BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER 17

7 EXPLODED VIEW OF A CUBIC GRAPHITE BLOCK
HEAT EXCHANGER 19

8 TYPICAL AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER 21

9 GENERAL VIEW OF ONE END OF A 3-STREAM
PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER 27

10 TYPICAL PCHE PLATE 29

11 VICARB COMPABLOC' EXCHANGER 33

12 BROWN FINTUBE' MULTITUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 36

13 FIRED HEATER : SCHEMATICS AND NOMENCLATURE 39

DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS
ENGINEERING GUIDE 42


0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE

This Guide is one of a series on heat transfer produced for GBH Enterprises.

Although the majority of heat exchangers used on chemical plant are shell and
tube units, there are many other types available. The engineer may have little
knowledge of the attributes of these other types so is not able to make a
reasonable selection. This Guide aims to assist in this task.

1 SCOPE

This Guide describes the factors which influence the choice of heat exchanger
and introduces the various types, giving their advantages and disadvantages.

It does not give hard and fast rules which will automatically lead to the selection
of the 'best' exchanger for a given duty; often there is no one correct solution.
Rather it seeks to give the engineer the information on which a rational decision
can be made.

2 FIELD OF APPLICATION

This Guide applies to process engineers in GBH Enterprises worldwide, who
may be involved in the specification or design of heat exchangers.

3 DEFINITIONS

For the purposes of this Guide, the following definitions apply:

HTFS Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service. A cooperative research
organization, based in the U.K., involved in research into the
fundamentals of heat transfer and two phase flow and the
production of design guides and computer programs for the design
of industrial heat exchange equipment.

HTRI Heat Transfer Research Incorporated. A cooperative research
organization, based in the USA, involved in research into heat
transfer in industrial sized equipment, and the production of design
guides and computer programs for the design of such equipment.


PCHE Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger. A design of compact exchanger
manufactured from chemically etched plates which are joined by
diffusion bonding.

TEMA The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association. An association
of US manufacturers of shell and tube exchangers whose purpose
is to draw up standards for their manufacture. See Ref. [2].

With the exception of terms used as proper nouns or titles, those terms with initial
capital letters which appear in this document and are not defined above are
defined in the Glossary of Engineering Terms.

4 BACKGROUND

Increased profits are more likely to come through the development of new
products or processes than from the selection of better heat exchangers.
Because of this, the order of emphasis in selection is:

(a) Safety and reliability.
(b) Performance.
(c) Cost.

Attempts have been made in the past to develop selection methods for heat
exchangers, either in the form of flowcharts or scoring techniques. These
approaches often implicitly assume that there is a single 'correct' solution for
each problem. This is rarely the case. An initial screening can be done to reject
designs which are unsuitable for reasons of materials, operating conditions or
safety, for example, but the engineer will often be left with a range of designs to
consider. The final decision will be based on engineering judgment.

Probably 90% or more of heat exchangers in the industry are of the shell and
tube type. Although not necessarily the best design, shell and tube exchangers
can give satisfactory performance on most duties and their design, operation and
maintenance are well understood. As a result they are likely to be the standard
against which any alternative will be judged. Some of the hurdles which have to
be overcome before a different type of exchanger is installed are given in
Ref. [1].


This Guide assists in the selection process by discussing the various types of
exchanger using a range of factors which should be considered before finalizing
the choice. For some types, more detailed discussions are given to assist in
choosing between options within the general type.

5 FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION

5.1 Type of Duty

Duties can be classified as:

(a) Heating of liquids.
(b) Evaporation and boiling.
(c) Heating of gases and vapors.
(d) Cooling of gases and vapors.
(e) Condensation.
(f) Cooling of liquids.
(g) Heating and cooling of slurries.

Certain types of equipment are less suitable than others for some of these duties.
For example plate and frame exchangers are not particularly suitable for handling
gases.

Often an exchanger is required to perform more than one of these duties for the
hot or cold fluid, or both. An example is the production of superheated vapor from
subcooled liquid. Sometimes it may be possible to do this in one exchanger. At
other times separate exchangers may be required for each stage; different types
of exchanger may be appropriate for the differing duties.

5.2 Temperatures and Pressures

Mechanical and materials constraints may limit the operating pressures and
temperatures that can be handled by the equipment.

5.3 Materials of Construction

Materials of construction are selected for their combination of corrosion
resistance and mechanical strength. For the case of a heat exchanger, there is
the additional requirement of reasonable thermal conductivity, although with the
exception of plastics, this is not usually of great importance.


For most types of exchanger design, the choice of material is not an overriding
process consideration, although it may influence the economics. Even if the
exchanger cannot be fabricated in the cheapest suitable material, there is usually
a more expensive choice which may still give an acceptable overall cost. Thus
plate and frame exchangers, which use thin sheets of material with no corrosion
allowance, are not fabricated in carbon steel, but the item cost of a stainless steel
plate and frame unit is often comparable with that of a carbon steel shell and
tube exchanger designed for the same duty, and the installed cost is usually
lower than that for the shell and tube unit.

However, certain types of exchanger may only be available in a limited range of
materials because of the methods of fabrication. An example of this is the plate-
fin exchanger. Although this is available in stainless steel in small sizes,
developed for the aerospace industries, larger units have until recently only been
fabricated in aluminium, using either salt bath or vacuum brazing. A number of
companies have announced a new range of units in stainless steel and nickel
alloys, but, like the aluminium units, these are of brazed construction, which will
limit their application in corrosive environments.

5.4 Fouling

Many fluids handled on chemical plants have a tendency to foul the heat transfer
surfaces. Fouling is more likely in some types of exchanger than others. For
instance, particulate fouling tends to occur in zones where the velocity is low,
such as round the baffles in shell and tube exchangers.

Fouling may reach an acceptable asymptotic value, but often it is desirable to be
able to clean the heat transfer surfaces. Some designs can readily be cleaned
mechanically. For others this is not possible and chemical cleaning may be
necessary. If the very small passages in a PCHE are blocked, even chemical
cleaning may not be successful.

5.5 Safety and Reliability

Safety and reliability is the most important factor to be considered in selection.
On nonhazardous duties it may be acceptable to have some risk of equipment
failure, which would not be acceptable for hazardous duties. For example, with a
plate and frame heat exchanger, there is always a possibility of gasket failure,
although with correct installation and maintenance this should be low. Such a
failure may be an acceptable inconvenience for an exchanger handling
water; it would be unacceptable if the fluid were liquid chlorine.


5.6 Repairs

Corrosion or fatigue may put a limit on the acceptable working life of an
exchanger. Unforeseen plant upsets may lead to premature failure. Some
designs of exchanger can be repaired in an acceptable and economic fashion.
For example, in many types of shell and tube exchanger individual tubes which
have failed may be replaced, or if this is not possible, plugged with little
deterioration in overall performance. Other designs of exchanger may not
facilitate repairs, and a replacement unit may be required. The likelihood and
consequences of failure should be assessed at the selection stage.

5.7 Design Methods

See GBHE-PEG-HEA-502 for information on computer programs for the thermal
design of heat exchangers.

Well established and proven methods exist for the thermal and mechanical
design of shell and tube exchangers. This is not so for many of the other types,
particularly those which can be classified as 'proprietary' designs. These often
use correlations for the thermal design which have not been published, and for
some types the mechanical design does not conform to any recognized code.
When purchasing such units, the engineer has to rely to some extent on the
manufacturer. It is true that manufacturers will generally offer a thermal and
mechanical guarantee, but their liabilities only cover replacing the unit if it fails to
perform. The consequential loss to a company may far outweigh the value of the
item. Where the mechanical design does not conform to an established code, the
GBH Enterprises mechanical engineer may insist on the unit or parts of a
prototype being pressure tested to a much higher pressure than would be normal
for an established design.

5.8 Dimensions and Weight

The installed cost of an item is significantly greater than the item cost, typically by
a factor of about 3. This covers the need to provide pipework, instruments,
foundations, lagging etc. Many of these are related to either the dimensions or
the weight of the item, or both. Considerable savings can often be made in the
total cost of an exchanger by the use of a compact design, even if the item cost
exceeds that of a more conventional exchanger. An extreme case of this is
equipment to be used offshore; the cost of providing 1 m
2
of platform space was
quoted in 2009 at about $180,000 !


5.9 Cost

As indicated in 5.8, it is the total installed cost which is of ultimate concern. In
addition, there may be extra running costs associated with the exchanger, such
as power requirements for pumping.

Some information on costs, including installation costs, of certain types of
exchanger OGJ Nelson Cost Index. Data are available for:

(a) Shell and tube exchangers with a variety of materials of construction,
including graphite tubes.

(b) Air cooled heat exchangers with a variety of tube materials.

(c) Plate heat exchangers with stainless steel, titanium or Hastelloy plates.

(d) Cubic graphite block exchangers with phenolic resin impregnation.

(e) Cylindrical 'polyblock' graphite exchangers with phenolic resin and PTFE
impregnation.

However, the Nelson Index data has to be used with care, as the cost information
is not always up to date; occasionally some serious discrepancies can occur.
More reliable information, including data on types of exchanger not covered by
Nelson Index, can be obtained by consulting manufacturers.( Ultimately, the only
totally reliable data for main plant item costs are manufacturers' quotations.)

The estimation of installed cost can be even more difficult, especially if the object
is to get a reasonable estimate of the difference in total cost between two
different types of exchanger for the same duty.

Figure 1 shows some data for main plant item costs obtained from NELSON
Index and are for illustrative purposes only. Figure 2 shows the estimated
installed costs for the same data.

Estimates of cost are frequently given on the basis of exchanger area. This can
be misleading when comparing different types unless the different heat transfer
coefficients of different designs are taken into account. What really matters is the
cost for the required duty. Some so-called 'Compact' exchangers often score by
giving higher heat transfer coefficients than the equivalent shell and tube units for
the same pressure drop, rather than by packing more surface into a given
volume.


5.10 GBH Enterprises

Where information is available, examples of the use of different types of
exchanger are given.

FIGURE 1 ESTIMATED MAIN PLANT ITEM COSTS
(Data are for illustrative purposes only!)


FIGURE 2 ESTIMATED INSTALLED COSTS
(Data are for illustrative purposes only!)


6 TYPES OF EXCHANGER

6.1 Shell and Tube Exchangers

For additional information on shell and tube exchangers and their applications,
see GBHE-PEG-HEA-507, GBHE-PEG-HEA-508, GBHE-PEG-HEA-515,
GBHE-PEG-HEA-516 and Ref. [2].

(a) Type of duty

Suitable for all types of duty; single phase gas and liquid, boiling,
condensation. Slurries should not be handled on the shell side because of
the risk of deposit build-up in the dead zones. Materials which become
viscous on cooling, if cooled on the shell side, may give problems with
severe bypassing.

(b) Operating limitations

Can be designed for almost any combination of temperature and pressure.

(c) Materials of construction

Can be fabricated in most materials. The tubes are generally metallic, but
specialist manufacturers offer units with tubes of graphite, plastic or silicon
carbide.

(d) Fouling

Can operate reasonably on moderately fouling duties. Can usually be
cleaned mechanically on the tube side. Prone to sedimentation fouling on
the shell side, especially in the dead zones around baffles, but can be
designed for mechanical cleaning on shell side if a removable bundle is
used.

(e) Safety and reliability

Generally good. Areas to watch are tube-tubesheet joints; corrosion,
especially in the dead zones around baffles; tube vibration. Good design
should avoid these problems.


(f) Inspection and repairs

With a removable bundle, all parts can be inspected visually. With a fixed
tubesheet design, only the tube side can be inspected visually, but
techniques such as ultrasonic thickness measurements can be useful to
give a measure of the condition of the tubes. Except for U-tube designs,
replacement of individual tubes is possible.

(g) Dimensions and weight

Shell and tube exchangers have a low surface/volume ratio. The basic
surface/volume ratio of the bundle is typically 50 to 120 m
2
/m
3
; the overall
figure is reduced further by the volume of the headers, allowance for the
flanges etc., and also, if a removable bundle is used, by the space
required for bundle removal. They are thus relatively large and heavy.
Units have been fabricated with over 5000 m
2
of heat transfer surface,
with diameters of over 4 m and lengths of over 20 m.

(h) Design methods

Well established computer-based methods are available for the thermal
design and rating of shell and tube exchangers (see GBHE-PEG-HEA-
502). The mechanical design is covered by established codes such as BS
5500, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section VIII: Division I,
etc.

(j) Cost

See Figures 1 and 2.

(k) GBH Enterprises

Shell and tubes exchangers are widely recommended for most client
plants, and if properly designed and operated give years of trouble free
performance.

6.1.1 Types of Shell and Tube Exchanger

Shell and tube exchangers are usually classified with reference to the
TEMA designations, with a three letter code describing front end head
type, shell type and rear end head type. See Ref. [2] for more information.


Figure 3, which shows the various types diagrammatically, is taken from
Ref. [2].

Note:
Type P is sometimes referred to as Outside packed stuffing box, type S
as Split ring floating head and type W as Outside packed lantern ring.

6.1.1.1 Shell Types

6.1.1.1.1 Single pass

The simplest form of shell and tube exchanger is the single pass fixed
tubesheet design, or TEMA type -EL, -EM or -EN.

The tube to tubesheet joints on a shell and tube exchanger are subject to
forces due to differential expansion between the shell and tubes. If these
forces would be too high for a simple fixed tubesheet design, some
provision has to be made to reduce them. This is done either by providing
a bellows in the shell or using one of the other rear end head types shown
in Figure 3.

The use of bellows should be avoided where possible. Not only are
bellows expensive, sometimes adding significantly to the cost of the
exchanger, but they represent a weak point in the shell. They are sensitive
to corrosion, overload (including an excessive number of cycles) and poor
welding. They provide a stagnant region where, because solids can settle
out or conditions become modified for other reasons, corrosion is more
likely. Repair is often impossible and replacement can require major
dismantling of the exchanger.

When there is a hazardous fluid on the shell side of an exchanger, bellows
pose a particular hazard, as failure could lead to a major release. If it is
impossible to avoid their use, special care should be taken in design and
fabrication, and regular inspections will be necessary during operation.
Consult a vessels engineer for advice.

The cost of bellows increases rapidly with pressure to an upper practical
limit of about 35 bar.

If bellows are specified for an exchanger which is lagged and out of doors,
there is a possibility of rainwater corrosion unless steps are taken to
prevent water from getting below the lagging.


As a rough guide, bellows are likely to be required for a fixed tube sheet
design when the temperature difference exceeds about 50C if the shell is
hotter than the tubes, and 30C if the tubes are hotter than the shell.
These figures are only a guide; the actual stresses will be calculated by
the mechanical designer, who will determine whether bellows are
required.


FIGURE 3 TEMA HEAT EXCHANGER NOMENCLATURE



6.1.1.1.2 Multiple tube side passes

The U-tube exchanger obviously has to have more than a single pass on
the tube side. Multiple pass exchangers are also used with the other types
of rear end head for one of two reasons:

(a) Where a single pass exchanger would be of an excessive length.

(b) Where the tube side flow rate is much less than the shell side. The
use of multiple passes allows the designer to achieve a reasonable
tube side velocity and hence heat transfer coefficient without an
excessive shell side pressure drop.

Unless one or both of the fluids is essentially isothermal, for example a
single component fluid either boiling or condensing, there is a penalty to
pay for multi-pass design. Because some of the tube side passes are in
co-current flow to the shell side fluid, the effectiveness of the exchanger is
less than that of a pure counter-current design with the same area and
heat transfer coefficient. This is often accounted for in single phase flow
by the 'F' correction factor to the log mean temperature difference. Refs.
[3] or [4] show how to calculate this correction.

Some sources recommend the avoidance of designs where the 'F'
correction factor falls below some arbitrary value, often 0.75. This can be
misleading and potentially dangerous, as can be seen from Figure 4,
which shows the value of the 'F' factor for a TEMA E shell with an even
number of passes. The parameters P and R are functions of the terminal
temperatures as shown in the Figure. The regions to avoid are where
small changes in P or R result in large changes in F, because this implies
the exchanger performance is very sensitive to small
changes in temperature. This corresponds to regions where the curves
become steep. It can be seen that although F =0.75 may be acceptable
for R =1.0, for R =10 even temperatures which result in F =0.9 are
unsafe.

In extreme cases, a duty which can be performed in a counter-current
design cannot be achieved in a mixed flow design regardless of length,
and multiple shells in series are required.


The use of the two pass TEMA F shell (see Figure 3) in theory can get
round this problem for an exchanger with two tube side passes, by
maintaining pure counter-current flow. However, the performance of the F
shell design in practice is rarely as good as theory. Leakage of fluid and
thermal leakage across the longitudinal baffle can seriously affect the
performance. Sealing devices to prevent the physical leakage are often
damaged if the exchanger is dismantled. Because of this, the GBH
Enterprises strongly discourage the use of F shells, unless the
longitudinal baffle is welded to the shell. If this is done, it prevents bundle
removal but still does not overcome thermal leakage. For special duties
designs have been produced with a double longitudinal baffle with an
insulating air gap between the baffles, but such solutions require careful
consideration of the mechanical design; Vessels Section should be
consulted. Multiple shells in series may prove more economic.

A 4-pass F shell design can be fabricated with a welded longitudinal baffle
and removable bundle. This is equivalent to two 2-pass E shells in series,
and has a 30 to 40% cost advantage over the separate shells. A check for
the effect of thermal leakage should be performed.

The use of multiple tube passes other than two pass U-tubes for tube side
condensation or boiling can present design problems because of phase
separation in the headers. This results in different flowrates and
compositions in different tubes of the same pass, which cannot be allowed
for with the design programs used. Condensers can be designed in which
the condensate is removed at the end of each pass (inter-pass luting).
This gets round the design problem, in that each tube of a given pass will
have the same composition. However, the flowrate through each pass will
be different, so the normal programs cannot be used directly; each pass
will require to be designed in isolation and the results merged together.
Moreover, there may be problems with flashing in the pipework where the
condensate streams from the various passes are mixed.

The split flow arrangements of types G and H are usually only found in
horizontal thermosyphon reboilers. Here, some leakage around the
longitudinal baffle will have only a minor effect on the performance.

The type J shell, with one shell side inlet and two outlets, is used for cases
where there is a low allowable pressure drop, since half the flow is flowing
through half the length of the shell. It is effectively two E shells back-to-
back.



Note:
With a single pass on the tube side, half the exchanger will be in co-
current flow and half in counter-current, so its performance will not be as
good as a pure counter-current exchanger.

The kettle type K is a special case of the shell and tube exchanger with an
oversized shell to allow for vapor disengagement when used as a boiler.
The bundle can be a fixed tubesheet design, in which case the shell will
taper at both ends rather than just the one as shown in Figure 3. More
usually, the bundle will be a type U or T (see 6.1.1.2). See GBHE-PEG-
HEA-507 for more information on reboilers.

FIGURE 4 F CORRECTION FACTORS' : TEMA E SHELL WITH EVEN
NUMBER OF PASSES



6.1.1.2 Head Types

Rear end head types P, S, T, U and W offer different approaches to the
problem of differential expansion. Table 1 summarizes some of the
advantages and disadvantages of the different types. It is worth noting that
the pull-through floating head type T requires a large clearance around the
bundle to permit withdrawal. This can lead to excessive bypassing of the
shell side fluid, with a resulting poor performance. The split ring floating
head design type S is preferred in this respect, but is more expensive.


TABLE 1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT SHELL
AND TUBE DESIGNS
Increasing cost


The method of sealing of the type P and W rear end heads is prone to
leakage. These designs should be avoided for high pressure or hazardous
duties. Their use is normally restricted to cooling water duties. Single pass
floating head designs of type S or T usually also involve a sealed gland as
in Figure 5 (a). An alternative to this where hazardous materials are
involved is the use of an internal bellows as shown in Figure 5 (b).
Although this bellows may fail, unlike a full shell bellows it is relatively
cheap, can be replaced relatively easily if necessary, and any leakage
arising from failure will be contained within the shell. The last point
assumes that the shell and tube side fluids are compatible. This type of
bellows is especially relevant to high pressure interchangers.

FIGURE 5 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER HEAD TYPES



Head types A, C, L, N and P have removable covers, which enables
access to the tube side without having to disconnect the tube side
pipework. This can be an advantage if frequent mechanical cleaning of the
tube side is required. However, the design does involve extra flanges and
gaskets, with potential for leaks, and will generally be more expensive
than the integral cover of types B and M.

Types C and N are used to reduce the number of main flanges on the
exchanger, particularly when handling hazardous materials and/or subject
to severe mechanical duties (e.g. high temperature cyclic duties). They
have the disadvantage that it is difficult to access the tubesheet face for
repairs, particularly for replacement of the outer tubes; it may be
necessary to specify a larger than normal bundle-to-shell clearance for
this purpose, which may lead to excessive bundle bypassing. As the
clearance is only required on the tube side, this can be avoided by using a
larger diameter for the header than the main shell, as shown in Figure 5
(c).
.
6.1.2 Fluid Allocation

The choice as to which fluid to put on the shell side and which on the tube
side is influenced by several factors. Often these are in conflict, with some
factors suggesting the hot fluid on the shell side and some on the tube
side. In this case some compromise is required and it may be necessary
to perform designs for both alternatives, and select the cheaper.


6.1.2.1 Materials of Construction

If one of the fluids requires the use of a corrosion resistant, and hence
probably expensive, material of construction, whereas the other can be
contained in a cheaper material, it is usually cheaper to put the corrosive
fluid on the tube side. This will require the tubes and headers to be made
of the corrosion resistant material, whereas the shell and baffles can be in
the cheaper material. The tubesheet will either be made of the expensive
material in solid form or from cheaper material such as carbon steel clad
with the more expensive material on the header side, whichever is
cheaper.

If the corrosive material is placed on the shell side, only the headers can
be made of the cheaper material. Cladding the shell side of the tubesheet
is not usually a practical proposition. It may be economic to consider lining
the shell with a corrosion resistant material.

6.1.2.2 Fouling

Fouling is generally less of a problem on the tube side, and cleaning of the
tube side is easier than the shell side. If it is required to clean the shell
side mechanically, it will probably be necessary to use a square tube
pitch, which implies a larger shell for the same surface area.

6.1.2.3 Pressures

It is usually preferable to put the fluid which requires the higher design
pressure on the tube side as the required shell thickness is then less. This
becomes more important at higher pressures.

6.1.2.4 Flowrates

It is usually easier to produce a reasonable design for exchangers where
the fluid with the higher volumetric flowrate is on the shell side. For this
reason, gases are usually handled on the shell side.

6.1.2.5 Pressure Drops

For a given flowrate and film coefficient, the pressure drop of the shell side
fluid is generally less than the tube side.



6.1.2.6 Enhancement of Heat Transfer

When the shell side heat transfer coefficient is controlling, the effective
coefficient can sometimes be enhanced by the use of low fin tubing with
relatively small pressure drop penalty. Tube side enhancement devices,
such as twisted tapes or looped wire inserts, usually impose a larger
penalty on pressure drop, but can be very useful when dealing with high
viscosity fluids or laminar flow applications.

6.1.2.7 Cooling of Viscous Fluids

If a viscous fluid is cooled on the shell side of an exchanger, the fluid in
the bundle becomes colder than that in the bypass lanes, and
consequently more viscous. This can result in a significant increase in
bypassing, possibly leading to the situation where essentially all the flow is
bypassing the bundle. The computer programs used for design are not at
present capable of modeling this phenomenon.

6.2 Cylindrical Graphite Block Heat Exchangers

These units are sometimes known as 'polyblock' exchangers. See Figure 6. For
general information on graphite heat exchangers.


FIGURE 6 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF A CYLINDRICAL GRAPHITE
BLOCK HEAT EXCHANGER


(a) Type of duty

Suitable for all types of duty; single phase gas and liquid, boiling,
condensation.


The design pressure is normally limited to 5 to 6 bar on the process side
and 8 bar on the service side, although some units can be designed for up
to 16 bar operation. The maximum operating temperature depends on the
type of impregnation used: 165 to 185C for phenolic resin, 230C for
PTFE, 400C for carbon. The use in high temperatures, particularly where
there is a risk of thermal shock, needs careful design; the manufacturers
should be consulted for advice.


Graphite has very good chemical resistance to a wide range of corrosive
chemicals. The corrosion resistance of the graphite used in exchangers is
generally limited by that of the impregnant used. PTFE or carbon
impregnation offer better corrosion resistance, but tend to be mechanically
weaker. If both fluids are corrosive it is possible to line the shell with,
for example, PTFE.

(d) Fouling

Mechanical cleaning is possible, but there is a risk of damage to the
blocks.


Graphite is a brittle material, which can be damaged by mechanical or
thermal shock. Experience has been mixed, some plants having many
years of satisfactory performance, whereas others have had repeated
failures. Some chemicals may leach the impregnants from the graphite,
resulting in the graphite becoming porous over a period of time.

(f) Repairs

The units can be dismantled for inspection. If the graphite is damaged, the
damaged blocks have to be replaced, but undamaged ones can be
reused.



The surface/volume ratio of the blocks is typically 30 to 70 m
2
/m
3
, which
makes this design even bulkier than a shell and tube exchanger. Block
sizes range from 200 to 1800 mm in diameter, and heights from 100 to
700 mm, depending on diameter. Exchangers are built up from multiple
blocks, up to 25 being possible in one shell, depending on block size.
Total heat transfer areas approaching 1000 m
2
can be obtained
with exchangers using the largest blocks. The units are usually mounted
vertically, but some recent designs allow horizontal mounting.

(h) Design methods

The performance of a cylindrical graphite block exchanger can usually be
simulated using methods developed for shell and tube units, with some
adjustment for the 'shell side' coefficient. The mechanical design of the
steel shell, which forms the ultimate pressure envelope, is covered by
established codes such as BS 5500.

(j) Cost


(k) GBH Enterprises experience

Contact Us.

6.3 Cubic Graphite Block Heat Exchangers

For general information on graphite heat exchangers . An exploded view of a
typical cubic graphite block exchanger is shown in Figure 7.


FIGURE 7 EXPLODED VIEW OF A CUBIC GRAPHITE BLOCK
HEAT EXCHANGER

(a) Type of duty

Used on all types of duty. Common in the pharmaceuticals industry, where
the relatively small maximum size is not a problem, and the resistance of
graphite to a wide variety of chemicals is an advantage in multi-purpose
plants.


The design pressure is normally limited to about 6 bar. The maximum
operating temperatures are as for cylindrical graphite units.


As for cylindrical graphite units.


(d) Fouling

As for cylindrical graphite units.


Generally as for cylindrical graphite units. However, unlike the cylindrical
units, there is no outer steel shell to act as a containment in the event of a
major failure of the graphite.

(f) Repairs

Damaged blocks cannot be repaired and have to be replaced.


Units are available with up to 90 m
2
of heat transfer surface. The surface
to volume ratio is relatively low, typically 50 m
2
/m
3
.

(h) Design methods

The thermal performance of cubic graphite block exchangers can be
estimated with methods developed for shell and tube units, but with some
difficulty. The mechanical design is proprietary.

(j) Cost



Contact us.


6.4 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers

A typical air cooled process heat exchanger is shown in Figure 8. For more
detailed information on air cooled heat exchangers and a discussion on the
relative merits of air and water cooling see GBHE-PEG-HEA-513.

(a) Type of duty

Cooling of gases and liquids, condensation.


Air cooled exchangers tend to become uneconomic compared with water
cooled units when the required exit temperature is less than 20 to 30C
above ambient. There is no practical pressure limitation.


Tubes and headers can be fabricated in most materials. Fins are usually
aluminium, although galvanized steel is sometimes used in corrosive
environments, but with a considerable loss in fin efficiency.

(d) Fouling

With the correct choice of header box design, easy access to the tube side
for mechanical cleaning is possible. See GBHE-PEG-HEA-513 for more
information on fouling and cleaning of the air side.


FIGURE 8 TYPICAL AIR COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER

Notes:
(1) The supports for the fan and motor have been omitted for clarity.
(2) One fan and plenum have been omitted to show the tubing.


Serious corrosion of aluminium fins has occurred in the past on sites with
a polluted atmosphere, but current hygiene standards have largely
eliminated this problem. The major problems are around air side cleaning
and fan drives. Noise emitted from the fans and drives can be a problem.

(f) Repairs

Individual tubes can be plugged. Replacement of individual tubes is not
generally possible without major dismantling. Complete re-tubing is
possible.



Typical air cooled heat exchangers using 1" tubes on a 2 to 2.5" pitch
have a low process (inside) surface/volume ratio of about 30 to 35 m
2
/m
3
.
Moreover, as the thickness of the bundle is usually low, the plot area
requirements are large. Large units are built up from individual bundles
with multiple fans. There is thus no limit to the ultimate size of an
installation. However, there may be distribution problems with the manifold
of large installations. See GBHE-PEG-HEA-513 for more details.

(h) Design methods

It is usual to ask a manufacturer to perform thermal design. Commercially
available computer programs exist, for checking designs (see
PEG.HEA.005), which experience suggests are reasonably accurate.

(j) Cost

The capital cost of air cooled heat exchangers is high, principally because
of the high installation costs. In addition, there is a continued running cost
for the fans. However, this has to be compared with the capital and
operating cost of cooling tower installations. An optimization of capital
against running cost should be performed at the design stage. See
Appendix A of PEG.HEA.203 for a preliminary costing method for air
cooled heat exchangers.


Contact us.

6.5 Gasketed Plate and Frame

(a) Type of duty

Where suitable, the plate and frame exchanger is likely to be the most
economic choice. Very good for liquids. Their use for condensing and
boiling duties is low at present, but the manufacturers are moving into
these applications. Not well suited for gases. Not very suitable for liquids
where the flowrates of the two streams differ widely. For an economic
design, a reasonable allowable pressure drop (say >0.25 bar) is generally
desirable, but they should not be ruled out for lower pressure drop cases.



Their use is normally limited by availability of suitable gaskets. Historically,
the normal maximum design pressure was 10 bar, but more recent
designs have raised this to 25 bar. The normal operating temperature
range with elastomeric gaskets is minus 25 to plus 160C; in special
circumstances it can be as high as 250C.


Plates can be made from any material which can be pressed, but are not
available in carbon steel. Alfa-Laval and Vicarb also offer plates in
graphite. Gaskets are normally elastomeric, with Viton as the most
resistant readily available. Selection of a suitable gasket material is often
more of a problem than plate material. Some applications using CAF
(compressed asbestos fibre) gaskets are known, but these frequently
pose problems with achieving and maintaining a seal.

(d) Fouling

Intrinsically less prone to many types of fouling than are shell and tube
units. Typical design fouling resistances should be to of those for
shell and tube units. There are no dead spaces where deposits may
accumulate. However, fibrous solids tend to collect at the contact points
between successive plates, and build up rapidly. Either the tube side
of a shell and tube unit or a spiral plate exchanger is better for fibrous
materials. Can be easily disassembled for cleaning if required.


The plates are very thin, typically under 1 mm, so no significant corrosion
can be tolerated. The weak points are usually the gaskets, although with
proper assembly these should give no problems within their design limit.

Note:
The gasket design prevents cross contamination of the fluids even if the gasket
should leak; all leaks are to atmosphere. Cross contamination can only occur
from corrosion failure of the plates.

It is recommended practice to surround the plate stack with a thin carbon steel
shroud, open at the base, to deflect any leaks to ground and avoid spraying
personnel. Not recommended for toxic or flammable liquefied gases.


(f) Repairs

Units can be readily disassembled for inspection and repair, giving
complete access to all the heat transfer surface. Individual plates can
readily be replaced. Re-gasketing may be required from time to time.
Modern plate designs normally have some form of snap-on gasket
attachment, which makes re-gasketing easy. Older designs require the
gaskets to be glued to the plates; removal of the old gasket and cleaning
of the locating channels for the replacement gaskets can be difficult. Many
manufacturers offer a re-gasketing service. In some cases, a spare plate
stack may be advantageous, allowing rapid turn-round.


Typical surface/volume ratios for plate heat exchangers are 50 to 120 m
2

/m
3
. This at first sight seems low, considering that plate exchangers are
considered to be compact. However, the volume here is the total volume
occupied by the plate exchanger, including the header plates, frame and
allowance for disassembly. The heat transfer coefficients obtainable within
a plate exchanger are generally higher than those for a shell and tube unit
with the same pressure drop, a factor of three not being unreasonable for
a liquid-liquid duty. Thus the plate exchanger is considerably more
compact than the shell and tube for a given duty.

(h) Design methods

Manufacturers have their own thermal design methods, which are specific
to the detailed dimensions of their plate designs. Computer programs are
commercially available to do preliminary estimations (see GBHE-PEG-
HEA-513 05), but should not be relied on for final design. Because of the
ease with which the size of a plate and frame exchanger can be modified,
by the addition or subtraction of plates, reliance on manufacturers
presents no major problem. Mechanical design is proprietary.

(j) Cost

Very competitive, especially in exotic materials of construction. Typically, a
stainless steel plate and frame exchanger is comparable in item cost with
a carbon steel shell and tube unit for the same duty; the installation costs
of the plate and frame will be less. The use of expensive gasket materials,
such as Viton, can have a significant effect on the cost;


In one instance it almost doubled the price of an exchanger with titanium
plates. The costs of spare gaskets should be included in any cost
comparison.

6.6 Spiral Plate

(a) Type of duty

Can be used for any type of duty; condensing, boiling or single phase,
including slurries.


The normal maximum design pressure is 15 bar. There are no particular
limits on design temperature, but avoid excessive temperature cycling.


Can be fabricated in any material.

(d) Fouling

The smooth flow path with absence of dead zones makes the spiral
exchanger particularly suited to handling slurries, including fibrous
materials. Other forms of fouling, such as scaling, may be expected to be
comparable with the tube side of shell and tube exchangers, although the
manufacturers claim that the curved flowpath produces a scrubbing action
that keeps the surfaces clean, enabling lower fouling resistances to be
used.

Normal designs, with spiral flow both sides, give access to both sides for
mechanical cleaning. The spiral flow/cross flow variant can only be
cleaned mechanically on the cross flow side.


Unlike the gasketed plate and frame exchanger, the spiral plate only has
two main gaskets. Moreover, these are arranged between conventional
flanges which can be bolted up to a high degree, and use conventional
gasket materials. The unit should thus be as reliable as a shell and tube
exchanger, and should be suitable for handling toxic or flammable
liquefied gases.


(f) Repairs

If the heat transfer surface fails through local corrosion, unless this occurs
at the edge of the plates, it is almost impossible to repair the exchanger.
The main block of the exchanger will have to be replaced, although it may
be possible to reuse the cover plates.


Spiral exchangers are comparable in volume to shell and tube units with
the same surface. However, they are generally more squat in shape, and
require less space for servicing. The standard design, with spiral flow on
both sides, operates in pure counter-current flow, so will have a higher
effectiveness than a shell and tube unit with mixed flow. Their squat
shape and circular cross section makes them suitable for direct mounting
on distillation columns as condensers or reboilers. See GBHE-PEG-HEA-
516 for more information on the use of spiral exchangers as refluxing
condensers.

(h) Design methods

Spiral plate exchangers are normally considered as proprietary items and
are designed by the manufacturers. Commercially available programs can
be used to rate a spiral plate exchanger used as a thermosyphon reboiler,
but checking calculations for all other duties have to be done by hand. The
recommended approach is to use the 'hydraulic mean diameter' concept
combined with conventional correlations for heat transfer and pressure
drop in pipes. It is debatable whether any enhancement to allow for the
curved flow path should be included. Such enhancement occurs in flow in
curved tubes due to the secondary circulation set up in the flow.
Secondary circulation in the flat rectangular passages of a spiral plate
exchanger is likely to be much less.

(j) Cost

The costs of spiral exchangers are generally between those of shell and
tube and gasketed plate types.


Contact us


6.7 Tube in Duct

These units usually consist of a rectangular duct across which are
arranged several rows of tubes in a direction normal to the flow in the
duct. As the fluid in the duct is normally a gas, the tubes are usually finned
to counter the poor gas-side coefficient. For low to medium temperature
operation spiral wound finned tubing similar to that used for air cooled
heat exchangers is generally used. For high temperature duties stud fins
are often used because of their greater robustness. The number of rows of
tubes is determined by the duty, and can range from a single row to more
than 30 rows. For duties where a gas is heated by steam and more than
one pressure level is available, it is common practice to use low pressure
steam in the first banks and higher pressure in later ones.

(a) Type of duty

Normally used for the heating or cooling of low pressure gases in
the duct. Examples include the preheating of combustion air for
furnaces, heat recovery from furnace combustion gases, e.g.
furnace convection banks, and the heating of air for driers.


Because the ducts are generally of rectangular construction, and
large dimension, it is difficult to design them to withstand any
significant pressure differential with the atmosphere. Typical
pressure limits are 0.1 to 0.2 bar. Temperature limits are governed
by the choice of materials. There are no practical pressure
limitations on the tube side.


Ducts can be made from any suitable material; lining may be used
if the gas is corrosive. Tube material is governed by the nature of
the tube side fluid. Fins will normally be of aluminium for non-
corrosive duties up to medium temperatures, say gas temperatures
up to 150 to 200C. At higher temperatures carbon steel fins are
often used, and for corrosive gases more exotic materials will be
necessary.


Note:
The efficiency of fins made from these materials will be lower than that for
aluminium fins of the same dimension.

(d) Fouling

Finned surfaces are always prone to fouling by dusts. If the gas is
dirty, it will be necessary to clean the outside of the tubes. Some
designs of tube in duct exchanger allow individual banks of one or
two rows of tubes to be withdrawn from the duct for cleaning. In
other cases, access for cleaning lances may be provided. In the
convective sections of boiler plant permanent cleaning nozzles are
sometimes employed (so-called soot blasters). For air heaters,
some form of dust filter is often provided in the duct before the tube
banks.


No information.

(f) Repairs

Maintenance is easier if the exchanger is designed so that
individual banks can readily be removed. If severe corrosion is
expected, the holding of a spare bank could be a worthwhile
investment. Depending on the method of fabrication, replacement
of an individual failed tube within a bank may not be easy without a
major dismantling of the bank.


No data.

(h) Design methods

The calculation of the outside heat transfer coefficient and pressure
drop is a relatively simple procedure. Standard correlations have
been developed for cross flow over rectangular banks of plain and
finned tubes; the recommended methods are as given in the HTFS
Handbook (Ref. [5]). These methods are provided in commercially
available programs.


The tube side coefficient and pressure drop can be calculated by
the appropriate established methods for in-tube flow. There is as
yet no general purpose program which will combine the tube side
and outside calculations. Most commercially available programs
assume constant gas properties through the bundle. If the gas
temperature varies significantly it is necessary to perform several
runs to determine behavior through the bundle, and combine these
results with tube side values by hand.

(j) Cost

No data.


Contact Us

6.8 Plate-fin

For general information on plate-fin exchangers see Refs. [6] and [7]. Figure 9
shows the constructional details of a typical plate-fin exchanger.


FIGURE 9 GENERAL VIEW OF ONE END OF A 3-STREAM PLATE-FIN
HEAT EXCHANGER


(a) Type of duty

Widely used in the cryogenics field. Becoming used in petrochemical
applications. Can handle liquids, gases, condensing and boiling duties.
Multi-stream duties are normal; up to at least 11 separate streams can be
handled in one exchanger. A long thermal length and good counter-
current flow makes close approach temperatures possible; units have
been designed for cryogenic service with temperature differences of less
than 2C.


The use of aluminium limits the upper temperature of such units to about
65 to 90C. There is no lower temperature limit, units being used on liquid
helium production. Typical upper pressure limits are 70 bar.

Some manufacturers have announced units in brazed stainless steel or
nickel alloys which can operate at up to 650C; the pressure limits of these
units are stated to be over 100 bar.


Although large plate-fin exchangers are no longer limited to aluminium,
they are generally fabricated by brazing. This introduces other materials,
which gives rise to the possibility of dissimilar metal (galvanic) corrosion. A
European manufacturer is currently attempting to develop an all stainless
steel plate-fin exchanger, without brazing metal. Rolls-Royce and
Associates, in conjunction with Alfa-Laval have developed an exchanger
of plate-fin type in titanium, using diffusion bonding and super-plastic
deformation techniques.

(d) Fouling

Not suitable for fouling duties; mechanical cleaning is not possible, and
the small passages can readily become blocked.


No information.

(f) Repairs

No information.



Very compact surface/volume ratio typically 1000 m
2
/m
3
. However, much
of that surface is secondary. In aluminium construction, with a high
thermal conductivity, the fin efficiency will be high. In materials such as
stainless steel, lower fin efficiencies can be expected. The dimensions of
exchangers are limited by the brazing furnaces used in their
manufacture. Maximum dimensions are typically 1200 x 1200 x 7000 mm,
allowing up to 10,000 m
2
of heat transfer surface.

(h) Design methods

Plate fin exchangers are generally designed by the manufacturer to a
user's specification. The HTFS programs MUSE, MULE and MUSC can
be used to rate units. See PEG.HEA.005 for information on computer
programs. Mechanical design is proprietary.
General codes are being developed by the Plate-fin Manufacturers'
Association, a grouping of the major manufacturers worldwide.

(j) Cost

No information.


Contact Us


6.9 Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE)

For general information on PCHEs see GBHE-PEG-HEA-516.

A PCHE is fabricated by diffusion bonding a stack of plates into which a complex
pattern of channels has been chemically etched. Plates are typically 1 to 2 mm
thick and the channels, which are semi-circular in cross section, are typically 0.5
to 1 mm deep. Headers are welded to the outside of the stack after bonding.

A typical plate for a PCHE, before bonding, is shown in Figure 10. Note the zig-
zag channels. The small channel size of a PCHE results in low Reynolds
numbers, producing laminar flow in some cases. In straight tubes, the growth of
the boundary layer results in a fall-off in heat transfer coefficient with distance,
although with the small channels typical of a PCHE the limiting coefficient may
still be quite high. By repeatedly tripping the flow, this effect of this fall-off is
minimized, giving a beneficial trade-off between pressure drop and coefficient.

FIGURE 10 TYPICAL PCHE PLATE (shown reduced size).

(a) Type of duty

In principle, PCHEs should be applicable to all types of (clean) duty except
for slurries. GBH Enterprises experience to date is limited to single phase
liquids and gases, condensing steam (in one case with some wet-wall
desuperheating) and boiling CO2. The manufacturer has built many units
for boiling refrigerants, and has supplied units for duties such as molten
caustic soda. Multi-stream designs present no problems in fabrication,
using approaches similar to plate-fin units, although to date no examples
with more than three streams in one unit are known.


Note:
The PCHE cannot be conveniently configured to cope with moderate pressure
gas-gas duties unless the NTU is large.


The diffusion bonding process, which results effectively in a solid block of
metal with holes through it, coupled with the very small channel sizes,
makes the PCHE an extremely robust form of exchanger. They can be
designed for almost any combination of temperature and pressure.


In principle, they can be fabricated from any metal which is available in
sheet form, for which a suitable chemical etching fluid and mask material
can be found, and which can be diffusion bonded. In practice, the majority
of units fabricated to date have been in stainless steel. Excellent corrosion
resistance for the duty is required.

(d) Fouling

Not suitable for most fouling duties, although the absence of dead spots
implies that if fouling can be surface shear controlled, a PCHE might still
be feasible. The units cannot be mechanically cleaned, and if passages
become blocked, the chances of chemical cleaning are remote. Work
within ICI suggests that particles of up to at least of the channel
dimensions will find their way through the exchanger, but in practice
filtration of the process stream to a much smaller size is recommended,
even if particulate fouling is not expected.


A large unit installed on the Nitric Acid Plant in Europe, suffered from
corrosion failure, which was originally ascribed to a minor fault in the
diffusion bonding process. The manufacturer's quality control procedures
have since been tightened. However, the replacement unit has since also
suffered a minor failure. After investigation, it has been concluded, that
this was due to incorrect estimation of the acid dew-point of the process
gases, leading to condensation in some passages. Stainless steel is an
inappropriate material of construction if condensation occurs. This failure
is not a valid reason to reject PCHEs for the right duties. Experience of the
use of PCHEs in the USA, particularly in the refrigeration industry, is
extensive, and shows the PCHE to be very reliable.



PCHEs are finding applications in the demanding conditions of the
offshore oil industry, where their extremely compact form makes them
particularly attractive for space and weight saving.

(f) Repairs

Leakage can only be dealt with by welding up the ends of passages. The
reliability of units after welding is still under debate.


Very compact, surface/volume ratio typically 500 to 1000 m
2
/m
3
. Unlike
the plate-fin exchanger, all the surface is primary, so there are no fin
efficiency considerations. Individual block sizes are relatively small,
because of the limits of brazing furnaces; larger units are made by welding
several blocks together.

The highly compact nature of the PCHE makes innovative space saving
designs more possible.

Note:
The approach area remains close to that of more conventional units; the
savings are all in the length of the exchanger.

(h) Design methods

The design of PCHEs is proprietary. Part of the expertise lies in
determining the layout of the channels. The chemical etching process
allows far more flexibility than in other designs, and designs are limited by
the imagination of the designer. Some information on heat transfer in
small channels can be found in Ref. [8].

(j) Cost

Can be very competitive for the right duty. The units are particularly
suitable for high pressure duties. They are unlikely to be competitive for
duties for which a plate and frame exchanger is suitable.



Contact Us

6.10 Scraped Surface/Wiped Film Exchangers

(a) Type of duty

Limited to specialized applications. The two major areas of use are as
crystallizers and evaporators. Can handle highly viscous or heat sensitive
fluids (successfully used to concentrate egg white). Can evaporate fluids
to a solid product.


No significant limitations. The manufacturers claim evaporation rates of
between 150 and 250 kg/m
2
per hour can be achieved.


Can be fabricated from most materials.

(d) Fouling

The scrapped surface operation should reduce or prevent fouling in many
instances.


Because they involve moving parts, glands, bearings etc., they can be
expected to require more maintenance than conventional exchangers.

(f) Repairs

Scraper blades will wear with time but can be replaced.


Evaporators with at least 13 m
2
of surface have been produced, but units
occupy very large volumes for the heat transfer area.


(h) Design methods

The applications for which scraped surface units are appropriate are those
in which thermal performance is unlikely to be calculable by normal
methods. It is normal practice to base the design on trials conducted either
at the manufacturer's premises or on a pilot unit leased from a
manufacturer. The cost of conducting trials can vary greatly between
manufacturers.

(j) Cost

An expensive way to provide heat transfer surface, but may be the only
practical solution to some problems.

6.11 Welded or Brazed Plate

There are a variety of types of exchanger which come under the generic
heading of welded or brazed plate. They are all of a 'proprietary' nature.

6.11.1 Plate and Frame Type

One of the weaknesses of the conventional gasketed plate and frame
exchanger is the extensive gasket round the edge of each plate, which is
potentially a source of leakage.

Manufacturers have produced designs which reduce the length of
gasketing, whilst retaining some of the good features of the plate
exchanger. In one of these types, conventional plates are welded or
brazed in pairs, and the plate pairs then assembled in a conventional
frame. Hazardous chemicals can be handled between the brazed plates
without risk of leakage. It is true that the hazardous chemicals do pass
through the plates with the conventional gaskets, but only through the
ports which are completely surrounded by a circular gasket, where the risk
of leakage is less.

If all gaskets are to be avoided, the complete plate stack can be brazed.
This gives an exchanger where the risks of leakage are minimized.
However, this is at the expense of the flexibility and ease of cleaning of
the conventional plate and frame unit.


(a) Type of duty

All-brazed units are generally used on clean duties, such as the
evaporators for refrigeration plant. They may not be suitable for
gas-gas duties.


The brazed plate exchanger has a maximum working pressure of
30 bar and a temperature range from minus 195 to plus 185C.


Alfa-Laval offer the brazed exchanger in copper brazed stainless
steel.

(d) Dimensions and weight

These exchangers are normally only available in small sizes, a
maximum surface of about 2.5 m
2
being typical. The surface to total
volume ratio is about 125 m
2
/m
3
, which, coupled with the high
thermal efficiency of the plate, gives a compact unit. The weight of
a 2.5 m
2
unit is about 11 kg.

(e) Design methods

As the plate designs are basically the same as for the gasketed
units, the thermal methods for the above should apply. Mechanical
design is proprietary.

6.11.2 Vicarb Compabloc'

The 'Compabloc' exchanger consists of a stack of square plates
with diagonal corrugations running across them. One pair of
opposite edges of each plate are bent down and welded to
the plate below, whilst the other pair are bent up and welded to the
plate above. Thick plates at the top and bottom of the stack are
held together with stout bars at each corner. Rectangular
covers which also carry the nozzles are bolted to each of the
vertical faces. An exploded view of a typical unit is shown in Figure
11.


FIGURE 11 VICARB COMPABLOC' EXCHANGER (exploded view)

(a) Type of duty

Can be used for all types of duty, but, like the plate and frame unit, may
not be suitable for gas-gas duties.


The maximum design pressure is 32 bar. The working temperature range
is sub-ambient to 300C.


All wetted parts can be fabricated from stainless steel or higher alloys.
Vicarb have considerable experience in working with exotic materials,
including titanium, zirconium, tantalum and Hastelloy.

(d) Fouling

The fouling tendency is expected to be comparable to that of a gasketed
plate and frame unit. Unlike other designs of welded plate exchanger,
removal of the covers gives access to the heat exchanger surface for
mechanical cleaning.



All welded joints should be accessible for inspection. The normal design
relies on conventional gaskets between the cover plates and the plate
stack. For ultrasecure duties, Vicarb can offer a modified design where the
cover linings are welded to the corners of the plate stack, to give an all-
welded construction, but in this case, the ability to perform mechanical
cleaning is sacrificed.

(f) Repairs

No experience, but see (e) above.


Vicarb claim these units give the smallest floor space requirements of any
exchanger, only 1 m
2
being required for a 300 m
2
unit, the largest they
make. The surface/volume ratio is typically 65 m
2
/m
3
.

(h) Design methods

Proprietary. The mechanical design has been verified by testing to five
times the quoted design pressure.

(j) Cost

Not available


6.11.3 Other Types

There are a variety of other proprietary designs of exchanger in which the basic
elements are plates with a range of different shapes pressed into them, joined by
edge welding.

Manufacturers include:

(a) Bavex

J ohnson-Hunt in the UK and also the German company Balcke-Drr.

(b) Platular (Barriquand)

The design consists of plates welded together round the edge to form
essentially rectangular channels. Alternate channels have their opposite
sides spot welded together at intervals either by embossing the plates or
using studs. These channels are self resistant to pressures up to 40 bar.
The other channels, without the cross welding, may not take such high
pressures. The maximum operating temperature is quoted as 700C.

The units can be fabricated as all-welded without access for cleaning, or
with one or both sides cleanable. Multi-fluid designs, with several duties
being conducted in the same stack, are possible.

(c) Packinox

A typical Packinox exchanger consists of a bundle inserted into a
cylindrical shell. The heat exchange takes place in the bundle; there is no
fluid circulation within the shell, which merely serves to contain the
pressure, and as such is pressurized to the higher of the two fluid
operating pressures. Units can be designed without a shell for pressures
below 20 bar and temperatures below 200C. The bundle is made from
explosion formed plates, stacked and welded together. Because of the
method of forming, very large plates can be made, up to 20 m long by 1.5
m wide. Bundles can be produced containing several thousand square
meters of heat transfer surface. They are particularly suited to long
thermal duties (duties where the temperature change of the fluids is large
compared with the temperature difference between them, giving a large
temperature overlap); gas-gas exchangers with over 20 transfer units
have been made.


Temperatures in excess of 500C can be handled, while the pressure is
limited by the design of the containing vessel. Packinox exchangers are
likely to be uncompetitive at low pressures and short thermal lengths.
Many have been installed in refineries, particularly in France, where the
design was developed. Both Shell and UOP have used them to replace
the 'Texas Tower' design of vertical feed-effluent exchanger; UOP quote
weight savings of 55% and installed cost savings of 30%.

6.12 Double Pipe

The simplest form of double pipe exchanger can be fabricated by welding a
jacket to a length of pipe. The name is normally applied, however, to exchangers
of the 'Brown-Fintube' type. Earlier designs consisted of a single central tube,
either plain or with longitudinal fins welded to it; more recently, designs with
multiple tubes in the shell have been available, sometimes with cross-baffling,
making the distinction between this type and a conventional shell and tube
somewhat blurred. Some of the features which make 'double pipes' distinct from
shell and tube units are:

(a) The inner tube or tubes are hairpins, passing through two shells which are
themselves connected at the far end.

(b) Special flange systems enable the tube or bundle to be withdrawn from
the shells.

(c) The design is modular in concept; large exchangers can be built up from
standard units in a suitable series-parallel arrangement.

Figure 12 shows some of the features of the Brown Fintube' multitube heat
exchanger.

(1) Type of duty

Can be used for any duty, but the long flow length and pure counter-
current flow make the design particularly suited to duties with a large
temperature cross-over.


(2) Operating limitations

No significant limitations. Units can be designed for at least 125 bar.

(3) Materials of construction

Standard units are available in carbon and stainless steels, nickel alloys
and aluminium. Units for specialized duties can be fabricated in other
materials.

(4) Fouling

The propensity to foul is expected to be comparable to shell and tube
units. The units can be readily dismantled for cleaning; the modular
construction makes this possible with limited labor and lifting gear.

(5) Safety and reliability

In general good, but there is evidence on some units of the fins becoming
detached over a period of time.


FIGURE 12 BROWN FINTUBE' MULTITUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

(6) Repairs

As part of the modular design concept, the manufacturers hold stocks of
standard parts, and claim to have spares available to suit units built in the
1990s.

(7) Dimensions and weight

The standard nominal length for the exchangers is 20 feet. Shorter units
can be provided, but as much of the cost is in the flange systems, are
likely to be less economic. Single tube units come with shell inside
diameters from 2 to 6" and tube diameters from 1 to 4.5". Multi-tube units
have shells up to 16" nominal diameter, and surface areas up to 175 m2
based on the use of " tubes.

(8) Design methods

Units are normally designed by the manufacturers. Checks on the design
can be made by hand; the pure counter-current flow and simple geometry
makes this task fairly easy. A hydraulic mean diameter approach is
suitable for the calculation of heat transfer and pressure drop on the
outside of the central tube.


Commercially available programs include a double pipe option,
subroutine. This is unlikely to be available before 1994.

(9) Cost

The complex closure arrangement that is necessary to allow disassembly
of the units makes the design inherently expensive, especially if exotic
materials are used, as there is a lot of metal in the flanges relative to the
exchanger area. However, for a duty with a large temperature overlap,
where a shell and tube design might require several shells in series, they
can be competitive.

6.13 Electric Heaters

Electric heaters come in several types. The major types are:

(a) Pipeline immersion heaters

Outwardly, these look similar to a shell and tube exchanger, with the tubes
replaced by heater elements.

(b) Tank heaters

These are used to maintain the temperature of storage vessels, and
consist of a bundle of heating elements projecting into the tank at the
base. The principle is similar to that of the domestic water heater.

(c) Radiant furnaces

These consist of a coil to contain the process fluid, surrounded by radiant
electric heating elements, inside an insulated carbon steel shell.

(d) Induction heaters

These usually consist of a helical coil through which the fluid flows and
which is used as the secondary winding for a transformer. By connecting
the ends of the coil electrically, a short circuit is created resulting in a large
current flowing through the coil at low voltage, which heats the coil, and
hence the fluid, by resistance heating. More information on the use of
electric process heaters can be found in GBHE-PEG-HEA-509 and Ref.
[9].


(1) Type of duty

Electric heaters can in principle be used for any heating duty. Their main
areas of application are high temperature duties, as alternatives to fired
heaters, heating in locations where other heating fluids are not readily
available, cryogenic duties, where there is a risk of freezing condensate,
and in areas where power is cheap. Units can be supplied for duties from
a few kilowatts up to 20 MW. The attraction at these small loads over a
fired heater is that they are more compact than a fired unit, require less
infrastructure (fuel supplies etc.) and less instrumentation. They are thus
cheaper at the small scale.

(2) Operating limitations

Pipeline immersion type heaters can be used to heat liquids at up to
350C and gases at up to 600C at pressures up to 700 bar. Radiant
electric furnaces can heat fluids up to 1300C at pressures up to 700 bar.

(3) Materials of construction

Heating elements can be made from most materials, determined by the
process conditions.

(4) Fouling

If properly designed and operated, fouling should be no worse than any
other type of exchanger. However, if mal-operated, potentially very high
surface temperatures can be attained, which may cause cracking of
hydrocarbons. As electric heaters are constant flux devices, any fouling
and consequent reduction in heat transfer coefficient will result in an
increase in the heating element temperature, which may lead to premature
burnout.


(5) Safety and reliability

When used properly, electric heaters will last for many years without
problems. However, if the user attempts to operate an electric heater
using the same methods as used on conventional exchangers, the
equipment can well be damaged; maloperation can result not only in
burnout of the elements, but also failure of the shell due to radiation from
very hot elements, with consequent loss of containment.

(6) Inspection and repairs

Equipment can be designed for dismantling for inspection and repair.

(7) Dimensions and weight

Compared with a fired process heater, electric heaters are very compact.
General dimensions will be comparable with a shell and tube exchanger
operating with the same temperature difference. Significant space and
weight savings can be made because there is no service pipework.

(8) Design methods

Electric heaters are designed by the manufacturers. The calculation of the
process side heat transfer coefficients can be done by the usual methods.
On the electrical side, the main concerns are to limit the element and
sheath temperatures, to avoid premature burnout. Mechanical design is to
established codes.

(9) Cost

The economics of the use of an electric heater will depend very much on
the duty. Electricity would normally be considered an expensive form of
energy for process heating. However, the local thermal efficiency of an
electric heater is almost 100%; there are no stack losses such as occur
with a fired heater, for example. This can be particularly important for high
temperature applications.

(10) GBH Enterprises experience

In general problems in operation can be traced back either to incorrect choice of
equipment initially (for example, the use of segmental baffles) or maloperation.


6.14 Fired Process Heaters

More information on fired process heaters can be found in Ref. [10. Fired
process heaters usually consist of a refractory lined firebox, either rectangular or
cylindrical, with one or more burners fired with either gas or liquid fuel. Tubes
containing the process fluids may be located in the radiant zone of the firebox
and also in banks in the exhaust ductwork where convection is the dominant heat
transfer mechanism. Several different process streams may be handled in the
same unit, although it is rare to have different fluids in the same firebox. In
addition, the thermal economy of the unit may be increased by the addition of a
waste heat boiler, which may include an economizer and/or superheater for
steam raising, and an air preheater. Units can operate in natural draft, but in
more recent units normally the air flow is assisted by fans, using either forced
draft, induced draft or balanced draft arrangements.
An arrangement with many of these features is shown in Figure 13.

FIGURE 13 FIRED HEATER : SCHEMATICS AND NOMENCLATURE


(a) Type of duty

Heating of liquids and gases, boiling of liquids. Also used as chemical
reactors, for example cracking furnaces. Primarily used where higher
temperatures are required than can readily be achieved using steam or
other heat transfer fluids. Alternatives to fired process heaters are electric
heaters (see 6.13) or high temperature heat transfer fluids, which will
themselves require some form of high temperature heat source, either
electrical or fired. Typical duties range from 300 kW to 400 MW absorbed
energy, with fluid outlet temperatures from 200 to 1000C.


With suitable materials of construction, units can be designed for
temperatures in excess of 1000C and pressures above 100 bar.


The materials for tubes in the radiant zone have to be capable of
withstanding very high temperatures. In the convection zone, the
conditions are usually less demanding.

(d) Fouling

Fouling on the hot side of the exchanger depends on the fuel being used
for heating. Gas fired units generally have low levels of fouling, whereas
oil fired units are more prone to foul. Even greater levels of fouling can be
expected with solid fuel firing, but such units are not common for process
duties.

Tube side fouling will depend on the process duty. With the potential for
very high temperatures, cracking fouling and coking may occur. Moreover,
like electric heaters, the radiant tubes operate at essentially constant heat
flux. Internal fouling will lead to overheating of the tube metal, with
premature failure and loss of containment.


Because of the presence of both air and fuel in the combustion chamber,
there is always the possibility of the formation of explosive mixtures.
Considerable attention is paid to the design of safety features such as
flame failure devices to reduce the risks to an acceptable level. The
process materials in the tubes are often themselves flammable, and


the tube metal may in upset conditions reach temperatures where failure
may occur, releasing additional fuel into the firebox. Serious fires have
resulted from such events. It is important that due attention is paid to the
state of the flames in the firebox. Poorly trimmed flames can result in
impingement on the tubes, with consequent overheating and
failure. Nonetheless, with proper design, fired heaters can be built and
operated in a safe manner.

(f) Inspection and repairs

Contact Us
.

Fired heaters are generally large and heavy items

(h) Design methods

Fired heaters are generally proprietary items, designed by the
manufacturer. GBH Enterprises involvement will be limited to checking
the designs. This requires more expertise in this specialized area than the
local process engineer is likely to have, and the advice of a specialist is
strongly recommended.

(j) Cost

Varies widely, dependent on the duty of the fired heater (from small
standard heaters to customized crackers and steam reformers).

(k) . GBH Enterprises experience

For more information contact us.


7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] 'Exchanger design - the user's viewpoint'. P D Hills. Chapter 2 of 'Heat
Exchange Engineering Vol 1 - Design of heat exchangers. E A Foumeny,
P J Heggs (editors). Ellis Horwood 1991.

[2] Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.

[3] HTFS Handbook sheet SM6 'LMTD correction factors for heat
exchangers.' J uly 1985.

[4] HTRI Design Manual Section.

[5] HTFS Handbook sheets AM1, AM3, AM5, AM7, SM3, SM4.

[6] 'Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers. Guide to their specification and use.' M A
Taylor (Ed). HTFS. 1987.

[7] HTFS Handbook Section on Cryogenics.

[8] Kays & London 'Compact Heat Exchangers'. McGraw Hill. 1984.

[9] HTFS Handbook sheets RE7 and RE8.

[10] HTFS Handbook sheet RE3. 'Fired process heaters.' D J Bate. 1985.


DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDE

This Process Engineering Guide makes reference to the following documents:

BRITISH STANDARDS

BS 5500 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels (referred to in
6.1 and 6.2).

AMERICAN STANDARDS

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code : Section VIII : Division I : Pressure
Vessels (referred to in 6.1).

GBH Enterprises PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDES

Glossary of Engineering Terms (referred to in Clause 3)

GBHE-PEG-HEA-502 Vulcan Series Computer Programs for the Thermal Design
of Heat Exchangers (referred to in 5.7, 6.1, 6.4, 6.5 and 6.8).

GBHE-PEG-HEA-507 Selection of Reboilers for Distillation Columns (referred to
in 6.1 and 6.1.1.1.2).

GBHE-PEG-HEA-508 Selection and Design of Condensers (referred to in 6.1).

GBHE-PEG-HEA-509 Electric Process Heaters (referred to in 6.13).

GBHE-PEG-HEA-510 Selection and Use of Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers
(referred to in 6.9).

GBHE-PEG-HEA-513 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers (referred to in 6.4).

GBHE-PEG-HEA-515 The Design and Layout of Vertical Thermosyphon
Reboilers (referred to in 6.1).

GBHE-PEG-HEA-516 Refluxing Condensation Systems (Dephlegmators)
(referred to in 6.1 and 6.6).



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