Chapter 2 Structures of Solids

Chapter Two
Structures of Solids
Chapter 2
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States of Matter Compared
Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Some Characteristics of Crystalline Solids
Chapter 2
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Network Covalent Solids

These substances contain a network of covalent bonds that extend throughout a crystalline solid, holding it firmly together. In material science, polymorphism is the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure. Diamond, graphite and the Buckyball are examples of polymorphs of carbon. \ -ferrite, austenite, and _-ferrite are polymorphs of iron. When found in elemental solids the condition is also called allotropy. The allotropes of carbon provide a good example 1. 2. 3. Diamond has each carbon bonded to four other carbons in a tetrahedral arrangement using sp3 hybridization. Graphite has each carbon bonded to three other carbons in the same plane using sp2 hybridization. Fullerenes and nanotubes are roughly spherical and cylindrical collections of carbon atoms using sp2 hybridization.
Chapter 2 Slide 5 of 85
Crystal Structure of Diamond

Covalent bond
Chapter 2
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Crystal Structure of Graphite

Covalent bond
van der Waals force
Structure of a Buckyball
sp2 hybrid Carbon
Carbon Nano-tube
A nanotube (also known as a buckytube) is a member of the fullerene structural family, which also includes buckyballs. Whereas buckyballs are spherical in shape, a nanotube is cylindrical, with at least one end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few nanometers , while they can be up to several centimeters in length. There are two main types of nanotubes: singlewalled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs).
sp2 hybrid Carbon
Chapter 2
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Experimental Determination of Crystal Structures
Braggs Law 2 d sin = n

Chapter 2
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X-Ray Diffraction Image & Pattern
Single crystal
Chapter 2
Powder
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Crystal Lattices
To describe crystals, three-dimensional views must be used. The repeating unit of the lattice is called the unit cell. The simple cubic cell (primitive cubic) is the simplest unit cell and has structural particles centered only at its corners. The body-centered cubic (bcc) structure has an additional structural particle at the center of the cube. The face-centered cubic (fcc) structure has an additional structural particle at the center of each face.
Chapter 2
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Unit Cells In Cubic Crystal Structures
simple cubic (primitive cubic)
bcc
Chapter 2
fcc
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Primitive cubic
Body-centered cubic
Face-centered cubic
Chapter 2
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Occupancies per Unit Cells

Primitive cubic: a = 2r 1 atom/unit cell occupancy = [4/3(r3)]/a3 = [4/3(r3)]/(2r)3 = 0.52 = 52% Body-centered cubic: a = 4r/(3)1/2 2 atom/unit cell occupancy = 2 x [4/3(r3)]/a3 = 2 x [4/3(r3)]/[4r/(3)1/2]3 = 0.68 = 68% Face-centered cubic: a = (8)1/2 r 4 atom/unit cell occupancy = 4 x [4/3(r3)]/a3 = 4 x [4/3(r3)]/[(8)1/2 r]3 = 0.74 = 74% Closest packed
Closest packed a
ab
aba
unoccupied holes
Chapter 2
abc
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abab
Hexagonal close-packed structure
polytypes
abcabc
Cubic close-packed structure = Face-centered cubic
Crystal Structures of Metals
Chapter 2
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Interionic Forces of Attraction
E = (Z+Z-e2)/4 r e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

In vacuum, 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 m-1J-1 In water, H2O = 7.25 x 10-10 C2 m-1J-1= 82 0 In liquid ammonia, NH3 = 2.2 x 10-10 C2 m-1J-1= 25 0
Unit Cell of Rock-Salt (Sodium Chloride)
Coord. #: Na+: 6; Cl-: 6 atom/ unit cell Na: Cl= 4: 4 = 1: 1
Cl- at fcc Na+ at Oh holes
NaCl
Unit Cell of Cesium Chloride
Coord. #: Cs+: 8; Cl-: 8 atom/ unit cell CsCl Cs: Cl= 1: 1

Chapter 2
Cl- at primitive cubic Cs+ at Cubic holes
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Unit Cell of Cubic Zinc Sulfide (Sphalerite or Zinc blende)
Coord. #: 4; atom/ unit cell Zn: S = 4: 4 = 1: 1
Zn2+:
S2-:
S2- at fcc Zn2+ at Td holes
ZnS
A Born-Haber Cycle to Calculate Lattice Energy

NaCl(s)
f 0(NaCl) sublimation (Na)
U0
Na+(g) + Cl-(g)
IE(Na) -EA(Cl)
Na(s) + 1/2Cl2(g)
Na(g) + Cl(g)
1/2D(Cl-Cl)
lattice energy U0 = - f 0(NaCl) + sublimation (Na) + 1/2D(Cl-Cl) + IE(Na) - EA(Cl) = (+411 +107 +122 + 496 349) kJ/mol = +787 kJ/mol
Lattice Energy & Madelung Constant

M + ( g ) + X ( g ) MX (s )
U0: lattice energy Factors contributed to Lattice energy electrostatic energy ~90% repulsion of close shells ~8% dispersion forces ~1% zero-point energy (lattice vibration at 0K) correction for heat capacity
H = - U 0 < 0
~1%
Chapter 2
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Electrostatic energy in a crystal lattice, between a pair of ions

A Z + Z e2 Ec = 4 0 r
A : Madelung Constant
For NaCl crystal, Z+ =Z- =1 r=d
Chapter 2
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The value of Madelung constant is determined only by the geometry of the lattice, and independent of the ionic radius and charge.
Chapter 2
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Born equation
electrostatic energy B: constant n: Born exponent

Ion configuration He Ne Ar, Cu+ Kr, Ag+ Xe, Au+
Chapter 2
repulsion of close shells
n 5 7 9 10 12
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At minimum PE, attractive and repulsive forces are balanced, and d= d0. ( PE ) =0 d
Let U0 = -(PE)0 N N: Avogadros number Born-Lande equation

For NaCl A = 1.74756 Z1 = 1, Z2 = -1 d0 = rNa+ + rCl- = 2.81 x10-10 m n = (nNa+ + nCl-) /2 = (7+9)/2 = 8 U0= 755.2 kJ/mol experimental U0= 770 kJ/mol
Chapter 2
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Modification of Born-Lande equation 1. Born-Mayer equation Improving the repulsion
NAZ + Z e 2 0.345 U0 = (1 ) 4 0 d 0 d0
Unit in ? , 10-10 m 2. Kapustinskii equation A ? crystal lattice ? r+/r- ? r0 A/n ~constant n= ions per formula e.g. n= 2 for NaCl n= 5 for Al2O3
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nZ + Z 0.345 U0 = (1 ) d0 d0
= 1.21 MJ. ? mol-1
Chapter 2
MCO3(s ) MO(s ) + CO 2 (g )
Data at 298K G0 (kJ/mol) H0 (kJ/mol) S0 (J/K mol) T (? C)
Mg
+48.3 +100.6 +175.0 300
Ca
+130.4 +178.3 +160.6 840
Sr
+183.8 +234.6 +171.0 1100
Ba
+218.1 +269.3 +172.1 1300
G 0 = H 0 - TS 0 H 0 decomposition T = S 0
A small cation increases the lattice enthalpy of the oxide more than that of a carbonate.
Solubility of ionic compounds
Enthalpy of solution
Hydration enthalpy
<0 Free energy of solution
>0
G 0 = H 0 - T S 0 = L - T S 0
Chapter 2
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Hydration enthalpy
H hyd
1 U 0 r+ + r H hydration = H M + + H X = 1 1 + r+ r
Z2 1 = 1 2r
In general, difference in ionic size favors solubility in water. Ionic compound MX tends to be most soluble when rX-rM > 0.8?
Correlation between Hsolution and the differences between the hydration enthalpy of the ions
Chapter 2
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Fajan's rules
Fajan's Rule: the degree of covalent character of ionic bond
Polarization effects: (a) idealized ion pair with no polarization; (b) mutually polarized ion pair; (c) polarization sufficient to form covalent bond. Dashed lines represent hypothetical unpolarized ions.
In 1923, Fajan suggested rules to predict the degree of covalent character in ionic compounds: The polarization of an ionic bond and thus the degree of covalency is high if : 1) the charges on the ions are high. eg., Al3+ ; Ti4+ ----- favors covalent character. Na+ ; K+ ----- favors ionic character. 2) the cation is small. e.g., Na+ ion is larger than that of Al3+ Thus, Al3+ favors covalent character. 3) the anion is large. e.g. F- ionic radius : 0.136 nm favors ionic character. I- ionic radius : 0.216 nm favors covalent character.
4) An incomplete valence shell electron configuration Noble gas configuration of the cation better shielding and less polarizing power e.g. Hg2+ (r = 102 pm) is more polarizing than Ca 2+ (r = 100 pm) HgO decomposed at 500 ?C CaO m.p. 2613 ?C
Halides HgF2 HgCl2 HgBr2 HgI2 m.p. (?C) 645 (dec) 276 236 259 Crys str cubic orthorhombic rhombohedral tetragonal Halides CaF2 CaCl2 CaBr2 CaI2 m.p. (?C) 1418 775 742 783 Crys str cubic cubic rhom. hexagonal
Chapter 2
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Examples: For ions with noble gas (ns2 np6 ) structure, the only factor that have to be considered are size and charge factor. a) Charge factor i) Cations Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ Increasing charge : increase in polarizing power ii) Anions N3O2F-
Increase in ionic charge, more ready to be polarized

Chlorides
melting point boiling point /X C /X C 800 715 sublimation -70 1440 1410 183 57
Conductance in molten state 133 29 1.5 x 10-5
ovalency NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4
AlCl3 has covalent character. In fact, AlCl3 exists as dimer Al2Cl6 at room conditions.
Chapter 2
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b) Size factor i) Cations Be2+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Sr2+ Ba2+
The smaller the cation, the higher is its polarizing power Chlorides BeCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 BaCl2 covalency melting point /X C Conductance in molten state 404 715 774 870 955
0.056 29 52 56
ii) Anions FClBrI-
The larger the anion, the more polarizable is the anion. eg., NaF NaCl NaBr NaI melting point /X C 990 800 755 651 covalency
Chapter 2
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MCO3(s ) MO(s ) + CO 2 (g )
Carbonates Decomp. Temp. (?C) BeCO3 MgCO3 CaCO3 SrCO3 BaCO3 250 540 900 1289 1360
NaCl structure wurtzite structure
Some covalent character Oxides BeO MgO CaO SrO BaO m.p. (?C) 2530 2826 2613 2430 1923
ovalency Ionic compounds

Close-packing of Spheres in Three Dimensions
Chapter 2
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Tetrahedral holes
Octahedral holes
Cubic holes
Close packed structure

rh/r = 0.414
rh/r = 0.225
rh/r = 0.156
Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Considering anion-anion repulsion
Chapter 2
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Unit Cell of Rock-Salt (Sodium Chloride)
Coord. #: Na+: 6; Cl-: 6 atom/ unit cell Na: Cl= 4: 4 = 1: 1
Cl- at fcc Na+ at Oh holes
NaCl
Rock-salt structure
Chapter 2
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Unit Cell of NiAS
As3- at hcp Polariable cation & anion

Chapter 2
Ni3+ at Oh holes
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Unit Cell of Cesium Chloride
Coord. #: Cs+: 8; Cl-: 8 atom/ unit cell CsCl Cs: Cl= 1: 1

Chapter 2
Cl- at primitive cubic Cs+ at Cubic holes
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Unit Cell of Cubic Zinc Sulfide (Sphalerite or Zinc blende)
Coord. #: 4; atom/ unit cell Zn: S = 4: 4 = 1: 1
Zn2+:
S2-:
S2- at fcc Zn2+ at Td holes
ZnS
Unit Cell of Hexagonal Zinc Sulfide (Wurtzite)
S2- at hcp Polymorph of ZnS

Chapter 2
Zn2+ at Td holes
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PtS
Pt2+ at fcc S2- at Td holes
PtS4 unit is planar

Chapter 2
Pt-S more covalent

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Unit Cell of Fluorite Structure (Calcium Fluoride)
Coord. #: Ca2+: 8; F-: 4 atom/ unit cell Ca: F= 4: 8 = 1: 2 CaF2

Chapter 2
Ca2+ at fcc F- at Td holes
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Fluorite Structure- MX2

Large M
Antifluorite structure- M2X

Large X, e.g. Na2O
Chapter 2
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Unit Cell of Rutile TiO2
Coord. #: Ti: 6; O: 3 atom/ unit cell Ti: O= 2: 4 = 1: 2

Chapter 2
O2- at hcp Ti4+ at Oh holes
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Increasing covalency
A Structural Map for compounds of MX
Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Increasing covalency
A Structural Map for compounds of MX2
Chapter 2
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Salts of highly polarizing cations and easily polarizable anions have layered structures.
Chapter 2
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Salts of highly polarizing cations and easily polarizable anions have layered structures.
van der Waals force
CdCl2 Cl- at ccp Cd 2+ at Oh sites (alternate O layers)

CdI2 I- at hcp Cd 2+ at Oh sites (alternate O layer)
Chapter 2
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298pm
366pm
MoS2 Mo4+ at hcp S2- at Td sites
Chapter 2
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Unit Cell of Perovskite CaTiO3

AIIBIVO3 AIIIB IIIO3 A and O together at ccp B at 1/4 Oh holes
Coord. #: A: 12; B: 6 atom/ unit cell A: B: O= 1: 1: 3
Unit Cell of ReO3
Perovskite structure CaTiO 3 without Ca

Unit Cell of Spinel MgAl2O4

Normal Spinel
AII[BIII]2O4, AIV[BII]2O4 , AVI[BI]2O4
e.g. NiCr2O 4, Co3O 4 , Mn3O 4 O 2- at fcc A at 1/8 Td holes B at 1/2 Oh holes Inverse Spinel
B[AB]O4 e.g. Fe3O4
Chapter 2
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YBa2Cu3O7
Quartz SiO2
Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Mineral
Ideal formulab Dioctahedral minerals Al2 (Si4 O10)(OH)2 Nax (Al2-xMgx )(Si4 O10) (OH)2 .zH2 O Mx (Al2 )(AlxSi4-xO10 ) (OH)2 .zH2 O Mx (Fe3+,Al)2 (AlxSi4-xO10 ) (OH)2 .zH2 O
CEC c (meq/100 g) 0 60 - 120 60 - 120 60 - 120
Pyrophyllite Montmorillonite Beidellite Nontronite
Trioctahedral minerals Talc Mg 3(Si4O10 )(OH)2 0 Hectorite (Na2 Ca)x/2 (LixMg3-x) 60 - 120 (Si4 O10)(OH)2.zH2O Saponite Cax/2 Mg 3(AlxSi4-xO10) 60 - 120 .zH2 O Sauconite Mx (Zn,Mg)3(AlxSi4-xO10 ) .zH2 O a: Only major cations are shown. b: x depends on the origin of the mineral; montmorillonites can show a degree of substitution x in the octahedral sheet in the range 0.05- 0.52. Natural samples generally show substitutions in both octahedral and tetrahedral sheets, which renders the real situations more complex. c: Cation-exchange capacity.
Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 2 Structures of Solids

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Chapter 2 Structures of Solids

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Chapter Two

States of Matter Compared

Some Characteristics of Crystalline Solids

Network Covalent Solids

Crystal Structure of Diamond

Crystal Structure of Graphite

van der Waals force

sp2 hybrid Carbon

sp2 hybrid Carbon

Experimental Determination of Crystal Structures

Braggs Law 2 d sin = n

X-Ray Diffraction Image & Pattern

Unit Cells In Cubic Crystal Structures

simple cubic (primitive cubic)

Occupancies per Unit Cells

Crystal Structures of Metals

Interionic Forces of Attraction

E = (Z+Z-e2)/4 r e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Unit Cell of Rock-Salt (Sodium Chloride)

Coord. #: Na+: 6; Cl-: 6 atom/ unit cell Na: Cl= 4: 4 = 1: 1

Cl- at fcc Na+ at Oh holes

Unit Cell of Cesium Chloride

Coord. #: Cs+: 8; Cl-: 8 atom/ unit cell CsCl Cs: Cl= 1: 1

Cl- at primitive cubic Cs+ at Cubic holes

Unit Cell of Cubic Zinc Sulfide (Sphalerite or Zinc blende)

Coord. #: 4; atom/ unit cell Zn: S = 4: 4 = 1: 1

S2- at fcc Zn2+ at Td holes

A Born-Haber Cycle to Calculate Lattice Energy

Lattice Energy & Madelung Constant

Electrostatic energy in a crystal lattice, between a pair of ions

For NaCl crystal, Z+ =Z- =1 r=d

electrostatic energy B: constant n: Born exponent

repulsion of close shells

Let U0 = -(PE)0 N N: Avogadros number Born-Lande equation

Modification of Born-Lande equation 1. Born-Mayer equation Improving the repulsion

Solubility of ionic compounds

<0 Free energy of solution

Increase in ionic charge, more ready to be polarized

Conductance in molten state 133 29 1.5 x 10-5

ovalency NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4

b) Size factor i) Cations Be2+ Mg2+ Ca2+ Sr2+ Ba2+

ii) Anions FClBrI-

ovalency Ionic compounds

Close-packing of Spheres in Three Dimensions

Close packed structure

Considering anion-anion repulsion

Unit Cell of Rock-Salt (Sodium Chloride)

Coord. #: Na+: 6; Cl-: 6 atom/ unit cell Na: Cl= 4: 4 = 1: 1

Cl- at fcc Na+ at Oh holes

Unit Cell of NiAS

As3- at hcp Polariable cation & anion

Unit Cell of Cesium Chloride

Coord. #: Cs+: 8; Cl-: 8 atom/ unit cell CsCl Cs: Cl= 1: 1

Cl- at primitive cubic Cs+ at Cubic holes

Unit Cell of Cubic Zinc Sulfide (Sphalerite or Zinc blende)

Coord. #: 4; atom/ unit cell Zn: S = 4: 4 = 1: 1

S2- at fcc Zn2+ at Td holes

Unit Cell of Hexagonal Zinc Sulfide (Wurtzite)

S2- at hcp Polymorph of ZnS

Pt2+ at fcc S2- at Td holes

PtS4 unit is planar

Pt-S more covalent

Unit Cell of Fluorite Structure (Calcium Fluoride)