C3 REVISION NOTES EARLY PERIODIC TABLE When scientists arranged elements in rder ! their at mic "eights the# !

! $nd similar %r %erties at reg$lar inter&als' (endelee& %r d$ces a ta)le that )ecame the )asis ! r the m dern %eri dic ta)le' The earl# ta)les ! elements "ere )ased n at mic "eights *relati&e at mic mass+' T,E (ODERN PERIODIC TABLE The m dern %eri dic ta)le is )ased n at mic n$m)ers' Elements "ithin a gr $% ha&e similar chemical %r %erties' The reacti&it# ! metals increases g ing d "n a gr $%' The reacti&it# ! n n metals decreases g ing d "n a gr $%' -RO.P / 0 T,E AL1ALI (ETALS The elements in gr $% / are all metals that ! rm % siti&e i ns "ith a charge ! 2/' The# react "ith "ater t %r d$ce h#dr gen and an al3ali' - ing d "n the gr $%4 reacti&it# increases5 melting and ) iling % ints decrease' The al3ali metals ! rm nl# i nic c m% $nds in "hich their i ns ha&e a single % siti&e charge' -RO.P 6 0 T,E ,ALO-ENS The elements in gr $% 6 are all n n7metals "ith l " melting and ) iling % ints' The# ! rm c m% $nds "ith metals and n n7metals' The reacti&it# ! the hal gens decreases g ing d "n the gr $%' ,al gens ! rm i nic c m% $nds "ith metals and c &alentl# ) nded c m% $nds "ith n n7metals' T,E TRANSITION ELE(ENTS The elements )et"een -r $%s 8 and 3 in the %eri dic ta)le are called the 9transiti n elements:' Transiti n elements are all metals "ith high densities' (an# transiti n metals ! rm se&eral di!!erent i ns and c m% $nds that are c l $red' Transiti n metals ad their c m% $nds are $se!$l as catal#sts' All transiti n elements are metals that ! rm % siti&e i ns "ith &ari $s charges' ; r e<am%le5 c %%er can ! rm C$2 and C$82 i ns' STRON- AND WEA1 ACIDS=AL1ALIS Str ng acids and al3alis i nise c m%letel# in a>$e $s s l$ti ns' Wea3 acids and al3alis nl# %artl# i nise in a>$e $s s l$ti ns' Acids are %r t n d n rs and )ases are %r t n acce%t rs' TITRATIONS Titrati ns can )e $sed t !ind the & l$mes ! acids and al3alis that react c m%letel#' A s$ita)le indicat r is $sed t sh " the end % int ! a titrati n' The end % int ! a titrati n is "hen the acid and al3ali ha&e reacted c m%letel#' Wea3 acid2 str ng al3ali 0 $se %hen l%hthalein Wea3 al3ali 2str ng acid 0 $se meth#l range TITRATION CALC.LATIONS The c ncentrati ns ! s l$ti ns can )e calc$lated !r m titrati n data'

 C ncentrati ns are $s$all# meas$red in m les %er c$)ic decimetre *dm3+ %r in grams %er dm3' WATER AND SOL.BILITY (an# i nic c m% $nds and s me m lec$lar s$)stances diss l&e in "ater' A sat$rated s l$ti n has diss l&ed the ma<im$m am $nt ! s l$te at a gi&en tem%erat$re' Water &a% $r cann t )e seen' SOL.BILITY C.RVES S l$)ilit# c$r&es sh " h " s l$)ilit# changes "ith tem%erat$re' The s l$)ilit# ! m st s lids increases "ith increasing tem%erat$re' The s l$)ilit# ! gases decreases "ith increasing tem%erat$re' ,ARD WATER Diss l&ed salts5 $s$all# ! magnesi$m and calci$m ca$se hard "ater' S a% reacts "ith the diss l&ed salts t ! rm sc$m' When hard "ater is heated it ma# ! rm scale' RE(OVIN- ,ARDNESS Rem &ing diss l&ed calci$m and magnesi$m i ns s !tens hard "ater' T" main meth ds are adding "ashing s da r $sing an i n e<change' WATER TREAT(ENT Water that is sa!e t drin3 c ntains l " le&els ! harm!$l s$)stances' S lids can )e rem &ed !r m "ater )# !iltrati n' Bacteria can )e rem &ed !r m "ater )# adding Chl rine' Drin3ing "ater is n t %$re "ater' CO(PARIN- T,E ENER-Y PROD.CED BY ;.ELS ,eat energ# is %r d$ced "hen !$els )$rn We can $se a sim%le cal rimeter t c m%are the energ# %r d$ced "hen di!!erent s$)stances )$rn ENER-Y C,AN-ES IN REACTIONS Energ# is $sed t )rea3 chemical ) nds and is released "hen ) nds are made' In an e< thermic reacti n5 the energ# released )# ma3ing ) nds in the %r d$cts is greater than the energ# needed t )rea3 the ) nds in the reactants' CALC.LATIONS .SIN- BOND ENER-IES The am $nt ! energ# needed t )rea3 a chemical ) nd is called its 9) nd energ#:' Energ# changes ! r reactants can )e calc$lated $sing ) nd energies' B nd )rea3ing is ENDOT,ER(IC *2+ B nd ma3ing is E?OT,ER(IC *7+

TESTIN- ;OR POSITIVE IONS

S me metal i ns %r d$ce c l $rs in a !lame' S di$m h#dr <ide s l$ti n reacts "ith man# % siti&e i ns in s l$ti n' Lithi$m @ )right red S di$m @ g lden #ell " P tassi$m @ lilac Calci$m@ )ric3 red Bari$m @ green (agnesi$m @ n c l $r Al$mini$m5 calci$m and magnesi$m i ns ! rm a "hite %reci%itate "hen mi<ed "ith h#dr <ide' I nic e>$ati n4 Al32*a>+ 2 3O,7*a>+ Al*O,+3*S+ C %%er h#dr <ide is )l$e Ir n *II+ h#dr <ide is green and sl "l# t$rns )r "n' Ir n *III+ h#dr <ide is reddish )r "n Amm ni$m i ns react "ith s di$m h#dr <ide s l$ti n t ! rm amm nia' I! s l$ti n is "armed amm nia gas is gi&en !! and t$rns dam% red litm$s %a%er )l$e'

TESTIN- ;OR NE-ATIVE IONS Car) nates %r d$ce car) n di <ide "hen the# are heated r reacted "ith acids' ,alide and s$l%hate i ns can )e detected )# %reci%itati n reacti ns' Nitrate i ns can )e red$ced t ! rm amm nia' Car) nate i ns4 Add dil$te ,Cl t see i! it !iAAes' I! it d es5 the gas sh $ld t$rn lime "ater mil3#' ,alide i ns4 Add dil$te nitric acid and then sil&er nitrate s l$ti n' 7 Chl ride i ns gi&e a "hite %reci%itate' 7 Br mide i ns gi&e a cream %reci%itate' 7 I dide i ns gi&e a #ell " %reci%itate' S$l!ate i ns4 Add dil$te ,Cl and the Bari$m Chl ride s l$ti n' A "hite %reci%itate sh $ld ! rm' Nitrate i ns4 Add a little al$mini$m % "der and then add s di$m h#dr <ide s l$ti n' -entl# "arm and test the gas gi&en !! "ith dam% red litm$s %a%er' I! it t$rns )l$e amm nia "as %r d$ced and nitrate i ns are %resent' Car) nates als %r d$ce CO8 "hen the# dec m% se n heating )$t are m re di!!ic$lt t detect' 7 C %%er car) nate is green and "hen heated it dec m% ses t )lac3 c %%er <ide' 7 Binc car) nate is "hite and dec m% ses t ! rm Ainc <ide5 "hich is #ell " "hen h t )$t t$rns "hite "hen c l' TESTIN- ;OR OR-ANIC S.BSTANCES Organic s$)stances )$rn r char "hen heated in air' The em%irical ! rm$la ! rganic c m% $nds can )e ! $nd !r m the masses ! reactants and %r d$cts ! c m)$sti n reacti ns' .nsat$rated rganic c m% $nds react "ith )r mine and i dine' All rganic c m% $nds c ntain car) n' INSTR.(ENTAL ANALYSIS Instr$mental meth ds $sed t detect and identi!# elements and c m% $nds are acc$rate5 sensiti&e and ra%id' Elements can )e detected )# at mic a)s r%ti n s%ectr sc %# and mass s%ectr metr#' C m%$ters are $sed t a$t mate instr$ments and t %r cess data ra%idl#'

 (eth ds $sed t identi!# and meas$re c m% $nds incl$de4 7 IR s%ectr sc %# 7 .V s%ectr sc %# 7 N(R s%ectr sc %# 7 (ass s%ectr sc %# 7 Chr mat gra%h# S%ectr sc %ic meth ds de%end n di!!erent s$)stances a)s r)ing di!!erent t#%es ! radiati n'